Historical Background of the Reformation 500
The year 1517 has been regarded as a pivotal moment in history. In April of that year Martin
Luther penned 95 theses to protest the sale of indulgences in Saxony. Within months, contrary
to Luther’s intentions, these theses had been printed and widely distributed, provoking a storm
of controversy that started in Germany and spread throughout Europe. The Reformation had
begun.
“Few periods in the long history of Europe have had such a momentous impact upon the
western world as the four decades lying between the years 1517 and 1559. It began when a very
personal matter, Luther’s struggle for a right relationship to God, became a popular cause. Its
end was marked by an auspicious public event, for Europe entered one of its rare interludes of
peace.”1 The Reformation, then, was a significant event in the history of Christianity, in the
history of Europe, and the history of Western Civilization.
In its simplest terms, the Reformation was an attempt to correct beliefs and practices that the
reformers argued had been added by the works of men over the course of centuries, leading
people away from the Scriptures and salvation bought by the blood of Christ. According to the
reformers, traditions, pronouncements of popes, and good works had supplanted God’s saving
mercy through Christ; reason dominated faith and caused men to trust in their own efforts to
earn salvation and to explain the workings of God; and works of theology and philosophy were
more highly regarded than the saving message of Gospel. These practices, and criticisms of
them, had been evident long before the 16th century. Attempts at reform had occurred
repeatedly but had never succeeded in gaining any traction. Reforming an institution as large
and as established as the Church was a very difficult task indeed.
A combination of factors at the beginning of the 16th century paved the way for a reform
movement. Social, political and economic changes, as well as cultural and intellectual trends,
led to the development of a more literate laity who had increasing expectations of the clergy,
expectations that neither individual priests nor the institution of the Church were equipped to
meet. The Renaissance had brought a rebirth of classical culture that had promoted a renewed
emphasis upon sources, a new kind of education, an emphasis upon the individual and the
development of moral character, and a shift in worldview. All of this laid the foundation for the
Reformation.
The word “Reformation” is somewhat of a misnomer. Martin Luther initially set out to reform
the Church and to bring it back to its Scriptural roots, but the end result of his movement for
reform was the fracturing of the Catholic Church. The Reformation Era, the period between
1517 and 1648, witnessed multiple reformations, the foremost among which were the ones led
by Luther, John Calvin, and the Catholic Church that was spearheaded by the newly formed
1
Lewis W. Spitz, The Protestant Reformation, 1517-1559 (Harper & Row, 1985), p. 1.
Society of Jesus. Currents of Protestant reform were felt all over Europe, but principally in the
Holy Roman Empire, Switzerland, England, France, Eastern Europe and Scandinavia. Catholic
reform centered on Italy, Spain, France and parts of the Holy Roman Empire.
Despite the multiplicity of religious movements during this era, Martin Luther nevertheless
remains the face of the Reformation. It is for this reason that we mark the start of the
Reformation with the posting of Luther’s 95 Theses in 1517. One could argue, though, that the
decisive moment came at the Diet of Worms in 1521. Asked to recant the things he had written
that both the Church hierarchy and the universal authority of the Holy Roman emperor deemed
errors (one step away from heresy), Martin Luther responded thus:
“Since your most serene majesty and your high mightinesses require of me a simple, clear and
direct answer, I will give one, and it is this: I can not submit my faith either to the pope or to the
council, because it is as clear as noonday that they have fallen into error and even into glaring
inconsistency with themselves. If, then, I am not convinced by proof from Holy Scripture, or by
cogent reasons, if I am not satisfied by the very text I have cited, and if my judgment is not in
this way brought into subjection to God’s word, I neither can nor will retract anything; for it can
not be right for a Christian to speak against his [conscience]. I stand here and can say no more.
God help me. Amen.”2
These words were important enough to be included in Bartleby’s book of most famous orations
of the world, and rightly so. This moment arguably “augured one of the most momentous
changes in the history of Europe, and one of the most significant in the history of the church.”3
It was more than simply a “new theological system” or a “new way of thinking theologically.”
Luther’s theology was shaped by the “doctrine of salvation by God’s grace alone, received as a
gift through faith and without dependence upon human merit.”4 This became the standard
against which the theology, practices and structures of the Catholic Church would be measured.
Against this standard, the Church, the reformers argued, had erred and had deviated from the
faith of the early Church.
William Jennings Bryan, ed. The World’s Famous Orations. (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1906; New
York: Bartleby.com, 2003). www.bartleby.com/268/ at http://www.bartleby.com/268/7/8.html.
Accessed 29 January 2016.
Spitz gives Luther’s answer in a slight different translation: “Since then your serene majesty and your
lordships seek a simple answer, I will give it in this manner, neither horned nor toothed: Unless I am
convinced by the testimony of the Scriptures or by clear reason (for I do not trust either rin the pope or in
councils alone, since it is well known that they have often erred and contradicted themselves), I am
bound by the Scriptures I have quoted and my conscience is captive to the Word of God. I cannot and I
will not retract anything, since it is neither safe nor right to go against conscience. I cannot do otherwise,
here I stand, may God help me, amen.” (Spitz, Protestant Reformation, p. 75).
3 Mark A. Noll, Turning Points: Decisive Moments in the History of Christianity, 3rd ed. (Grand Rapids, MI:
Baker Academic, 2012), p. 146.
4 Lewis W. Spitz, The Renaissance and Reformation Movements, rev. ed., Vol. II: The Reformation (St. Louis,
MO: Concordia Publishing House, 1987), pp. 332, 333.
2
This was the decisive point. At Worms Luther had declared that his conscience was captive to
the Word of God, which was the “living, active voice of Scripture.” Luther felt that Scripture
taught clearly “truths about human nature, the way of salvation, and the Christian life,” truths
that had been forgotten, neglected, or rejected by the Church.5 In stressing the authority of
Scripture over and above all earthly authorities (popes, councils, rulers), Luther was not only
stressing an individual’s faith but the individuality of each person, a key tenet of the modern
world view.
In another sense, however, Luther was echoing the words of Augustine nearly a thousand years
before: “Since we were too weak to find the truth by pure reason, and for that cause we needed
the authority of Holy Writ, I now began to believe that in no wise would you have given such
surpassing authority throughout the whole world to that Scripture, unless you wished that both
through it you be believed in and through it you be sought.” The authority of and in Scripture
to Augustine seemed “all the more venerable and worthy of inviolable faith, because they were
easy for everyone to read and yet safeguarded the dignity of their hidden truth within a deeper
meaning.”6 Truth was found in Scripture, and the Truth that was to be found there was God’s
grace and mercy expressed through the love of Jesus Christ and the continual working of the
Holy Spirit.
Aside from the political, social, economic, intellectual, and cultural importance of the
Reformation, the real significance of the Reformation was to turn the focus from human actions
and intentions to Jesus Christ, who won salvation for humanity through God’s grace and
mercy. The essential meaning of the Reformation—the saving message of the Gospel—did not
end with Luther. The Reformation started nearly 500 years ago, but the work of the
Reformation carries on to the present day. It can be found in churches, schools, and
communities. It is expressed in a variety of ways by individuals here and around the world.
Our commemoration of the 500th anniversary of the Reformation is intended not only as an
opportunity to remember the work of Luther, but also to marvel that the legacy of the
Reformation still endures.
5
6
Noll, Turning Points, p. 146.
Augustine, The Confessions, trans. John K. Ryan (New York: Doubleday, 1960), pp. 139, 140.
The Reformation & Political Events to 1555
1517
1518
1519
1520
1521
1521-1525
1522/23
1523
1523-34
1524-25
1525
1526
1526-1529
1527
1529
1530
1531
1535-1538
1538
1542-1544
1544
1545
1546
1546-48
1547
1548
1552
1555
1556
1558
1559
Jubilee Indulgence: Leo X & Johann Tetzel
Luther’s 95 Theses
Heidelberg Disputation
Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor & King of Spain
Leipzig Debate: Luther & Carlstadt vs. Eck
Exsurge Domine (Pope Leo X)
Diet of Worms; Edict of Worms
Luther takes refuge at the Wartburg
1st Hapbsburg-Valois War; Peace of Pavia
Knights’ War. Luther’s return to Wittenberg
Break with Erasmus
Pope Clement VII (Medici)
German Peasants’ Revolt
Luther m. Katarina von Bora
Diet of Speyer
2nd Hapsburg-Valois War; Peace of Cambrai
Sack of Rome
Diet of Speyer
Turks besiege Vienna
Charles crowned Holy Roman Emperor by pope
Diet of Augsburg; Augsburg Confession; Melanchthon’s Apology for the Augsburg
Confession
Schmalkaldic League formed
3rd Hapsburg-Valois War
Catholic League formed
4th Hapsburg-Valois War
Charles V makes peace with Francis I (again)
Diet of Speyer
Schmalkaldic Articles
Charles V makes peace with the Turks (again)
Council of Trent opens
Death of Luther
Schmalkaldic Wars
Diet of Augsburg
Augsburg Interim
Peace of Passau
Peace of Augsburg
Abdication of Charles V
Death of Charles V
Peace of Cateau-Cambresis
The 16th-century Catholic Church
1480
1512-1517
1513-1521
1516
1522-1523
1523-1534
1524
1528
1532
1533
1534-1549
1540
1542
1545-1563
1550-1555
1555
1555-1559
1556
1559-1565
1564
1566-1572
1572-1585
1582
1585-1590
1591
1592-1605
Spanish Inquisition established as national institution
5th Lateran Council
Leo X
Oratory of Divine Love (Italy)
Adrian VI
Clement VII (Medici)
Theatines
Capuchins
Somatians
Barnabites
Paul III (Farnese)
Appointed papal reform commission in 1537 (9 cardinals) that presented him
with Counsel . . . Concerning the Reform of the Church
Society of Jesus (Jesuits) recognized by the pope
Inquisition expanded to all of Christendom
Council of Trent
Julius III
Marcellus II
Paul IV (Caraffa)
Embodied spirit of the Counter-Reformation
Began repressive part of Counter-Reformation
Death of Ignatius Loyola
Pius IV
Professio fidei tridentinae
Pius V
Gregory XIII
Death of St. Theresa of Avila (Spanish mystic)
Sixtus V
Death of St. John of the Cross (Spanish mystic)
Clement VIII
REFORMATION EVENTS: FRANCE, ENGLAND AND SPAIN
1558
1559
1560s
1562
1563
1567
1568
1570
1571
1572
1573
1579
1580
1583
1584
1584-1585
1585
1586
1587
1588
1589
1589-1598
1593
1594
1595
1596
1598
1603
1609
1610
1611
Elizabeth inherited Ireland
John Knox published “First Blast of the Trumpet against the Monstrous Regiment of
Women”
Death of Henri II of France
Revolts in the Netherlands against Spain
Religious Wars in France
Catherine de’Medici issued Edict of Toleration in France
Parliament reaffirmed Act of Uniformity; Vestiarian controversy in England;
John Foxe published his Acts and Monuments
Duke of Alba began reign of terror in Netherlands
Mary Queen of Scots fled to England
Papal bull excommunicated Queen Elizabeth of England
Catherine de’Medici isued Edict of St.-Germain
Battle of Lepanto (first European victory against Ottomans fleet)
Treaty of Blois
Francis Drake unleashed on the seas
Presbyterianism pressed for in England; Ridolfi Plot discovered in England
St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre in France
Francois Hotman published Francogallia
Vindiciae contra tyrannos published
Philip II claims Portugal
Six Articles passed in England
William of Orange assassinated
War of the Three Henris in France
Parliament passes law banishing Jesuits from England
Spanish ambassador expelled from England
Mary Queen of Scots executed in England
Sir Francis Drake attacks Lisbon and Cadiz
Philip sends Spanish Armada against England
Henri III of France assassinated
Wars of the Catholic League in France
Richard Hooker publishes Laws of the Ecclesiastical Polity
Irish revolts against England begin
Lambeth Articles promulgated in England
Spanish seize Calais
Henri IV of France issues the Edict of Nantes
Death of Elizabeth I; Accession of James I
Truce between Spain and Dutch
Henri IV of France assassinated
King James Bible published