Psychology Notes
Chapter One: Psychology: The Science of Behaviour
*The Nature of Psychology:
-psychology is the study of behaviours and the factors that influence it
-behaviours are both observable actions and inner processes (thoughts, feelings, images, and
physiological reactions)
-factors: biological, psychological, & environmental
-psychology explores the nature and causes of our behaviour, feelings, motives, & thoughts
Psychology as a basic and applied science:
-basic research = a quest for knowledge (knowledge = intrinsic value)
-applied research = knowledge to solve practical problems (instrumental value)
-goal of basic psych is to help describe how people behave and to identify factors that influence or cause
certain types of behaviour
-applied psych uses principles from basic psych to solve practical problems
From Robbers Cave to the Jigsaw Classroom
-robber’s cave – boys in summer camp – when pitted vs. each other lots of hostility, etc, problem solved
by making them work together for a common goal
-jigsaw program – multi-ethnic kids in group – had to work together because each had a different piece of
info for the upcoming test
-above examples are examples of cooperative learning
-in CL, liking, self-esteem, and marks increase & prejudice decreases
Goals of Psychology
1) to describe how people and other animals behave
2) to understand (explain) the causes of these behaviours
3) to predict how people and animals will behave under certain conditions
4) to control, or influence, behaviour through knowledge and control of its causes
-1 usually leads to another, but sometimes all four aren’t needed
*Perspectives on Behaviour: Guides to Understanding and Discovery
-3 different levels of analysis: biological, psychological, and environmental
The Importance of Perspectives
-6 major perspectives: biological, cognitive, psychodynamic, behavioural, humanistic, & socio-cultural
-the contrasting viewpoints meld into one
The Biological Perspective
-the mind-body problem: mind = spiritual entity separate from body vs. part of body’s activities
-mind-body dualism = mind separate, monism = not separate
-biological perspective focuses on physical side of human nature
-emphasizes role of brain
-biochemical processes of every thought, emotion, & action, and the manner that genetic factors influence
the development & behaviour of humans
Discovery of Brain-Behaviour Relations
-late 1700s – Luigi Galvani – frog leg + electrical current
-1870 – Berlin – “mapped” areas of brain to the body
-20th century – Karl Lashley (US) created lesions & studied effects on learning and memory abilities of
maze rats; inspired many scientists to map the brain
-1929 – invention of electroencephalogram (EEG) – it let researchers measure electrical activity of large
areas of the brain through electrodes attached to the scalp
-role of neurotransmitters in normal and abnormal behaviour is one of the most important concepts in
current research
Evolution of Behaviour: from Darwin to Evolutionary Psychology
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-Darwin’s natural selection: survivors reproduce
-some mutations are only useful in selective situations – re: sickle cell & malaria
-inheritance – re: Mendel and peas
Modern Evolutionary Psychology
-evolutionary psychology = emerging discipline that focuses on the role of evolution in human
behaviour development
-stresses that an organism’s biology determines its behavioural capabilities & and that behaviour
determines its survival
-dwindling vegetation forced hunting & that forced bipedal locomotion
-hunting forced group work and tools  social organization  social roles and language
-Australopithecus  Neanderthal, brain size increased by 3
-sociobiology (one evolutionary theory) is more controversial
-says complex social behaviours are built into the humans as products of evolution
-says evolution favours behaviours that increase the ability to pass on one’s genes to the next generation
-in men: aggression, competition, and dominance
-in women: cooperative and nurturing tendencies
-main point of it: one’s genetic survival is more important that one’s physical survival
Behaviour Genetics
-the study of how behavioural tendencies are influenced by genetic factors
-can be bred for behavioural traits (i.e. aggression & intelligence) not just physical
-identical twins are much more similar than fraternal, even when separated at birth and grown up in
opposite environments
-are genetic factors also in certain brain dysfunctions that produced disturbed behaviour
The Cognitive Perspective: the Thinking Human
-homo sapiens = wise man – thinking sets people apart from other species
-views humans as info processors & problem solvers whose actions are governed by thought and
planning
Origins of the Cognitive Perspective
-it developed from several schools of psychological thought, including structuralism, functionalism, and
Gestalt psychology
Structuralism
-Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) – German scientist that wanted to model the study of the mind after
physical and biological science
-Titchener (student at Queen’s) believed the mind could be studied by breaking it down into its basic
components and structures
-so, Wundt & Titchener’s approach called structuralism is the analysis of the mind in terms of its basic
elements
-believed sensations are the basic elements of consciousness and set out to study them through
introspection (looking within)
-exposed to sensory stimuli and trained to describe their inner experiences
-it died out in a couple of decades
Functionalism
-psychology should study the functions (the whys) not the structures (the whats)
-influenced by Darwin and much of the early work in learning and problem solving done by them
-William James (USA) – a teacher – was a big picture guy (taught physiology, psychology, and philosophy)
Gestalt Psychology
-gestalt = whole is bigger than the sum of its parts
-1920s in Germany, about the whole/organization
-concerned withhow elements of experience are organized into wholes
-opposite approach of the structuralists
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-argued that our perceptions & other mental processes are organized in a way that the whole is both
greater than and different from the sum of its parts
-believed the tendency to perceive wholes is (like other forms of perceptual organization) built into our
nervous system
-Wolfgang Köhler (1887-1967) – gestalt researcher withapes and other animals in the Canary islands
during WWI
-he concluded that the ability to perceive relationships is the essence of “intelligence”
-he also believed that insight is the sudden perception of a useful relationship or solution to a problem =
“aha!”
-its demonstrations of insight and learning in both animals and humans stimulated new interest in
cognitive topics like perception, problem solving, and intelligence
Piaget: Cognitive development in children
-understanding of cognitive development in children
Cognitive approaches to psychological disorders
-important contributions to analysis and treatment of self-defeating thought patterns that contribute to
psychological disorders
-social constructivists maintain that much of what we call reality is a creation of our mental processes
The Psychodynamic Perspective
-focuses on personality processes, stresses influence of internal needs, conflicts, and defence mechanisms
of behaviour
-Freud’s psychoanalytical theory – the earliest and most influential of the psychodynamic theories
-it emphasized the role of unconscious impulses and defences, and the importance of early childhood
experiences
-played an important role in the development of psychology by stimulating research designed to test his
theory and alternative theories
-many of his ideas haven’t been supported by research
-today, bio & cognitive scientists are exploring concepts that relate to Freudian concepts
The Behavioural Perspective
-roots in British empiricism (re: philosophy)
-emphasizes the role of external environment and learning in behaviour
-denies that humans freely choose how to behave
-behaviourists (Watson & Skinner) believed psych should be restricted to study observable stimuli &
responses
-felt control of environment was key to bringing positive social and personal change
-cognitive behaviourists – (Bandura) have combined behavioural and cognitive processes in a more
comprehensive social cognitive theory of behaviour that takes into account both mental and
environmental factors
The Humanistic Perspective
-theories rejected many of Freud’s theories and emphasized instead of the role of self-actualization,
freedom, and choice
-focused scientifically on the self, motivation, and process of psychotherapy
-current research – terror management theory is concerned withhow people defend themselves against
death anxiety
The Socio-Cultural Perspective
-culture refers to enduring values, beliefs, and traditions that are shared by a large group and passed on
from one generation to the next
-cultural factors have a strong influence on how people think and behave
-individualism and collectivism reflect different orientations to the self in relation to the larger social
group
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-cultures may be different in terms of their emphasis on individualism and collectivism and these
differences seem to be the product of cultural learning
-today’s perspective on nature vs. nurture – holds it’s a complex combination of biological and social
factors and that these factors influence each other
*Integrating the Perspectives: 3 Levels of Analysis
-perspectives provide us with3 classes of causal factors: bio, psych, and environmental
-manner of the 3 levels of analysis can be used to understand the causes of behaviour – illustrated by
relating them to depression
-bio, psych, and environ. Factors can interact withone another in complex ways to influence a given
behaviour
*Fields Within Psychology
-psychologists specialize in numerous sub fields and work in many settings
-professional activities include teaching, research, clinical work, and application of psychological
principles to solve personal and social problems
Chapter 2: Studying Behaviour Scientifically
*Scientific Principles in Psychology
-science is about discovery
-science is set apart from other fields by “a general process guided by certain principles”
Scientific Attitudes
-driving forces behind scientific inquiry: curiosity, skepticism, & open-mindedness
-Kitty Genovese murder & reasoned “diffusion of responsibility” theory
Gathering Evidence: Steps in the Scientific Process
-science = continuous interplay between observing and explaining events
-1st step: observing something noteworthy and asking a question
-2nd: formulate testable hypothesis (tentative explanation)
-to develop one, have to gather clues and logically analyze them
-since the hypothesis is tentative, must make the statement an “If…then…” statement
-3rd: test hypothesis: gathering evidence – conduct research
-4th: analyze data and draw tentative conclusions
-5th: further research and theory building
-theory = set of formal statements that explain how & why certain events are related (broader than
hypotheses, and in psych typically specify lawful relations between certain behaviours and their causes)
-6th: new hypothesis derived from theory – scientific process becomes self-correcting
Two Approaches to Understanding Behaviour
-scientists prefer step-by-step approach to hindsight learning
Hindsight Understanding
-explaining something after it happened
-major drawback: past events can be explained in many ways and there is no sure way to determine
which, if any, alternative is correct
Understanding through Prediction, Control, and Theory Building
-good theories generate an integrated network of predictions
-good theory = organizes info in a meaningful way, is testable and generates new hypotheses, its
predictions supported by new research, & conforms to laws of parsimony
-laws of parsimony = if 2 theories can explain and predict the same phenomena equally well, the simpler
theory is preferred
Defining and Measuring Variables
-psychologists study variables and the relations among them
-variable = any characteristic that can vary
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-an operational definition defines a variable in terms of the specific procedures used to produce or
measure it – translate and abstract into something measurable and observable
-many types of measurement techniques
Self-Report Measures
-ask people to report on their own knowledge, beliefs, feelings, experience, or behaviour
-can be distorted by social desirability bias (giving “right” answer instead of honest one)
-accuracy of self-reports can also be influenced by interviewer’s behaviour (in interviews)
Reports By Others
-obtain info from people that know them well – same drawbacks as above
Physiological Measures
-scientists can measure many things inside people (i.e. heart rate) but no definitive causal sequences
understood yet – but is becoming increasingly important
Behavioural Observations
-observe overt (directly visible) behaviour in real-life or lab setting
-archival measures: sometimes to gather info – are already existing records/documents
-use unobtrusive measures so people/animals are unaware that they’re being watched
*Methods of Research
-research method chosen depends on problem being studied, the investigator’s objectives, and ethical
principles
Descriptive Research
-seeks to identify how humans and other animals behave (usually in natural settings)
-provides valuable info about the diversity of behaviour, can be used to test hypotheses, and may yield
clues about potential cause-effect relationships that are tested later
-case studies, naturalistic observation, and surveys are common types of it
Case Studies
-is an in-depth analysis of an individual, group, or event
-advantages: can be source of new ideas and hypotheses may be examined using more controlled
research methods
-when a rare phenomenon occurs, allows scientists to study it & collect a lot of data
-can challenge validity of widely held belief
-can illustrate effective intervention programs developed by clinical psychologists to treat special
populations
-limitations:
-poor method to determine cause-effect relations
-concerned withgeneralization of statements – will principle hold true for other people or in other
situations?
-possible lack of objectivity in the way the researcher gathers and interprets the data
Naturalistic Observations
-researcher observes behaviour as it occurs in a natural setting
-i.e. Jane Goodall and chimps in Africa – takes a long time to become “invisible”
-used frequently to study human behaviour
-doesn’t permit causal conclusions on relations between variables (many variables influence)
-also possibility of bias in the way the researcher interprets the behaviour
-must also try to be unnoticeable (at first), eventually habituation occurs
Survey Research
-info about a topic is obtained by questionnaires or interviews (LOTS of people)
-2 key concepts: population and sample
-population = all the individuals about whom we are interested in drawing a conclusion
-sample = subset of individuals drawn from larger population
-valid conclusions need: representative sample=reflects important characteristics of pop
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-random sampling usually used to find representative samples
-advantages: findings closely portray population as a whole, large sample, etc
-drawbacks: unrepresentative samples lead to faulty conclusions, surveys rely on participants’ selfreports, and cannot be used to draw cause-effect conclusions
Correlational Research: Measuring Associations Between Events
-has three components: measures one variable, measures another, and determines statistically if they are
related
-requires measuring variables, not manipulating them
-major disadvantage = does not demonstrate causation
The Correlation Coefficient
-is a statistic that indicates the direction and strength of the relation between 2 variables
-can be positive or negative
-positive correlation = varies directly, negative correlation = varies inversely
-ranges from –1.00 to +1.00
-a scatterplot shows the correlation between 2 variables in graph form
Correlation as a Basis for Prediction
-most useful quality is that you can make good predictions
-also, used when experimentation is unethical
Experiments: Examining Cause and Effect
-powerful tool for cause-effect relations
The Logic of Experimentation
-an experiment has 3 general characteristics: researched manipulates one variable, measures whether
this manipulation changes in a second, and attempts to control for extraneous factors
-if control and manipulated group(s) respond differently, then the most plausible explanation is that
these differences were caused by the manipulation
Independent and Dependent Variables
-independent variable = factor that is manipulated
-dependent variable = factor that is measured
-independent is the cause and the dependent depends on it
Experimental and Control Groups
-experimental group = group that receives treatment or “active level” of the independent
-control group = receives a zero-level of the independent (used for comparison)
-usually several experimental and one control
Two Basic Ways to Design an Experiment
-1st way: have different participants in each condition–grps must be equal at start of study
-use random assignment to try and avoid errors
-2nd way: each participant is exposed to both conditions – counterbalancing needed here
Experimental versus Descriptive/Correlational Approaches
-3 major ways they differ
-1st: in experiments, researcher manipulates the independent variable and measures it effect on the
dependent variable, in the other approaches, all variables are just measured
-2nd: laboratory vs. natural contexts
3rd: cannot keep extraneous factors constant like they can in experiments
-net result: descriptive/correlation not useful for causal relationships
*Threats to the Validity of Research
-several sources of error possible
-internal validity represents the degree to which an experiment supports clear causal conclusions
-if an experiment contains important flaws, has low internal validity
Confounding of Variables
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-means that 2 variables are intertwined in such a way that we can’t determine which one has influenced
the dependent variable
Demand Characteristics
-cues that participants pick up about the hypothesis of a study or about how they are supposed to behave
Placebo Effects
-placebo refers to an inactive or inert substance
-placebo effect = people receiving a treatment show a change in their behaviour because of their
expectations, not because of the treatment itself
Experimenter Expectancy Effects
-refers to subtle and unintentional ways in which experimenters influence their participants to respond
in a way that corresponds to their hypothesis
-double-blind condition - when both participant & experimenter are kept blind to which experimental
condition the participant is in – minimizes placebo & EE effects
Replicating and Generalizing the Findings
-external validity = degree to which the results of a study can be generalized to other people, settings,
and conditions – interested in underlying principle of behaviour
-need to replicate experiment to have external validity
-replication = process of repeating a study to determine whether the original findings can be duplicated
-when it fails to replicate could be a fluke or could lead to important discoveries
Meta-Analysis: Combining the Results of Many Studies
-meta-analysis = statistical procedure for combining results of different studies that examine the same
topic
-when properly used, many researchers consider meta-analysis to be most objective way t integrate
findings of various studies and reach overall conditions about behaviour
*Ethical Principles in Human and Animal Research
-to safeguard rights of humans and animals, there are scientific communities that review the ethical
issues involved in every research proposal
Ethical Standards in Human Research
-4 basic principles that should be followed: respect for dignity of persons, responsible caring, integrity in
relationships, and responsibility to society
-principle of informed consent very important – deception violates it
Ethical Standards in Animal Research
-must be treated humanely and risks they are exposed to should be justified by the potential importance
of the research
-research containing pain and death is controversial
*Critical Thinking in Science and Everyday Life
-important life skill – can prevent us from developing false impressions about how the world operates
-prevent us from being duped in everyday life by unsubstantiated claims
-should be open to ideas that are supported by solid evidence even when they conflict withour
preconceptions
Appendix A – Statistics in Psychology
*Descriptive Statistics
-allow us to summarize and describe characteristics of a set of scores
-frequency distribution = show how many participants receive each score
-can convert the above into histograms
Measures of Central Tendency
-allow us to describe a distribution in terms of a single stat in some way typical of the sample as a whole
-mode = most frequently occurring score in a distribution
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-mean = average
-median = middle score (same amount above and below it)
Measures of Variability
-provide info about the spread of scores in a distribution
-range = difference between highest and lowest score –simplest, least informative about the spread of
scores
-variance = average of the squared deviation scores about the mean
-standard deviation = most popular measure of variability – square root of variance
*The Normal Curve
-same as bell curve – mean = median = mode
-about 2/3 of scores fall in +/- 1 of standard deviation
*Statistical Methods for Data Analysis
Accounting for Variance in Behaviour
-major goal of psych research is to determine how much behavioural variance can be accounted for by
relations between variables, including experimental manipulations and how much is due to random,
unmeasured, or uncontrolled factors
-random factors that are beyond the experimenter’s control produce error variance
-total variance = variance accounted for + variance not accounted for
Correlational Methods
-two variables are correlated when changes in the score of one reliably correspond withchanges in the
other
The Correlation Coefficient
-relations in variables can differ in direction and strength, coefficient shows both
-Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient = a statistic that provides a precise numerical index
of the direction and strength of the relation between 2 variables
-coefficient = r (can range from +1.00 to –1.00)
-can be positive, negative, or zero, and weak or strong
-squaring it tells us how much of the variance in one can be accounted for by differences in the other
Correlation and Prediction
-the more highly the 2 variables are correlated, the more accurate the predictions
-often the base for prediction, even though they do not allow causality
Factor Analysis
-a statistical technique that reduces the large number of correlations among many measures to a smaller
number of clusters
-the measures within each cluster are highly intercorrelated and presumably reflect the same underlying
psychological dimension
Inferential Statistics and Hypothesis Testing
-inferential statistics = method that tells you how confident you can be in drawing conclusions or
inferences about a population based on findings obtained from a sample
-needed because most research is done withsamples and conclusions must be generalized to the
population from which the sample was drawn
-level of statistical significance = probability that relations shown among variables do not reflect a
corresponding relation in the population
-null hypothesis = assumes that any observed difference between samples are due to chance & that the
difference between 2 population means (averages) is zero
-statistics involves testing the null hypothesis
-inferential statistics yield probability statements not proof
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Chapter 3: Biological Foundations of Behaviour
*The Neural Bases of Behaviour
-brain = grapefruit size, jelly texture, looks like greyish gnarled walnut, & 3 lbs
Neurons:
-are the basic building blocks of the nervous system
-these specialized nerve cells are linked together in circuits
-brain had 100 billion neurons at birth
-approx 10,000 lost everyday naturally because of aging
-a neuron has 3 parts: soma (cell body), dendrites, & axon
-soma = has biochemical info needed to keep the neuron alive & its nucleus has the genetic info that
determines how the cell develops and functions
-dendrites = branchlike fibres that emerge from soma
-are receiving units like antennas that collect messages from neighbouring neurons and send those
messages to the soma
-the incoming info is combined & processed there
-the many braches of the dendrites can receive from 1,000+ neighbouring neurons
-cell body surface also has receptors that can be directly stimulated by other neurons
-axons = extend from one side of the soma – conducts electrical impulses away from the soma to other
neurons, muscles, or glands
-at its end, the axon branches out to form axon terminals (up to several hundred)
-each axon can connect withmany dendritic branches from numerous neurons, so it's possible for one
neuron to pass messages to up to 50,000 other neurons
-neurons vary greatly in shape and size
-they are supported by glial cells, which simply surround neurons and hold them in place
-during prenatal development, glial cells, send out long fibres that guide the just-developed neurons to
their target position in the brain
-glial cells to neurons is 10:1
Nerve Conduction: An Electrochemical Process
-2 functions of neurons: generating electricity and releasing chemicals
-function like batteries because their own chemical substances are a source of energy
-its cell membrane operates as a selective filter
-neurons are in a salty liquid environment
-environment has large positive charge and inside the neuron it’s negatively charged
-therefore, the inside is electrically negative in relation to the outside, which produces a resting
potential of approx. –70 millivolts (mV)
-when the above neuron is in that resting state, it is polarized
The Action Potential
-an action potential, aka nerve impulse, is a sudden reversal of a neuron’s membrane voltage, during
which the membrane moves from –70mV to +40mV
-the above shift from negative to positive is depolarization
-when the dendrites or soma are stimulated, small shifts in the cell membrane’s electrical potential occur
called graded potentials, they’re proportional to the amount of incoming stimulation
-if the graded potential is large enough to reach the action potential threshold, the neuron discharges
with an action potential, if not, then nothing happens
-action potential obeys all-or-none law – either it occurs withmax intensity or nothing
-graded potentials change the membrane potential by acting on tiny protein structures in the cell
membrane called ion channels
-each channel allows specific ions to cross the cell membrane and enter or leave the cell
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-when channels for positively charged ions are opened, positive charge can enter the neuron and make it
less negative that it was, which creates a state of partial depolarization that may reach the action
potential threshold (typically about –55mV)
-when the membrane reaches its threshold, specific ion channels are activated
-Na+ channels are usually closed, but they open then and the Na+ ions flow into the neuron, attracted by
the negative electrical force inside the neuron
-the above makes the inside more positive than the outside, = depolarization
-the Na+ channels only stay open for less than a millisecond
-to restore the resting polarity, K+ channels open and the positively charge ions are pumped out of the
cell
-in a few milliseconds the process is over at any given pt in the membrane, but the action potential
started a chain reaction “wave” that moves along the membrane and as succeeding Na+ channels open
and open and the process is repeated
-immediately after an impulse passes anywhere along the axon, a refractory period occurs, when the
membrane is not excitable and can’t discharge an action potential
-information where the nervous system distinguishes between different stimuli is communicated in
many ways, i.e., a strong stimulus may increase the rate of firing of the individual neuron or increase the
number of neurons that fire
The Myelin Sheath
-many axons that transmit info throughout the brain and spinal cord are covered by it
-it’s a tube-like, fatty, whitish insulation layer derived from glial cells during development
-it’s interrupted in places by nodes of Ranvier, where the myelin is either thin or absent
-in unmyelinated axons, the action potential travels down the axon like a burning fuse
-in myelinated axons, electrical conduction can skip from node to node and these leaps account for high
conduction speeds of more than 300km/h
-most commonly found in nervous system of high animals and it often not completely formed until some
time after birth
-multiple sclerosis is when the person’s immune system attacks the myelin sheath which disrupts the
delicate timing of nerve impulses, resulting in jerky, uncoordinated movements, and in final stages,
paralysis
How Neurons Communicate: Synaptic Transmission
-nervous system operates as a giant communications network
-neurons are individual cells that don’t actually make physical contact, but communicate at a synapse,
which is a functional connection between a neuron and its target
-there is a tiny gap called the synaptic cleft between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrite of
the next
Neurotransmitters
-they are produced by neurons and are chemical substances that carry messages across the synapse to
either excite other neurons or inhibit their firing
-the above process has 5 steps: synthesis, storage, release, binding, and deactivation
-in synthesis the chemical molecules are formed inside the neuron
-then they’re stored in chambers within the axon terminals called synaptic vesicles
-when an action potential comes down the axon, the vesicles move to the surface of the axon and the
molecules are released into the fluid-filled space between the axon of the presynaptic neuron (the one
that sends it) and the postsynaptic neuron
-the molecules cross the synaptic space and bind to receptor sites
Excitation, Inhibition, and Deactivation
- 2 possible effects on the postsynaptic neuron by the binding of a transmitter molecule
-one is depolarization (excitation) of the postsynaptic cell membrane
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-neurotransmitters that excite are called excitatory transmitters – they may exceed the action potential
threshold and cause the postsynaptic neuron to fire an action potential
-the other is hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane by stimulating ion channels that allow K+
to flow out or negatively charged ions to flow in which makes the membrane potential even more
negative, so it makes it harder to depolarize the neuron
-transmitters that hyperpolarize are inhibitory transmitters
-a transmitter can be excitatory with some neurons and inhibitory with others
-a bound neurotransmitter continues to excite or inhibit until it’s deactivated
-deactivation occurs in 2 different ways: by other chemicals located in the synaptic space that break
them down into their chemical components or by reuptake
-reuptake is the mechanism in which the transmitter molecules are reabsorbed into the presynaptic
axon terminal and when the receptor molecule is vacant, the postsynaptic neuron returns to its resting
state, awaiting the next chemical stimulation
-most psychoactive drugs commonly used influence 1 of these steps in neurotransmission
-many target the transmitter’s receptor, binding to the receptor in place of the neurotransmitter where it
either mimics the naturally occurring transmitter or does nothing but deny the transmitter access to its
receptor
-morphine, codeine, valium, and nicotine all mimic
-caffeine and antipsychotic medications just deny
-others alter synaptic transmission by altering synaptic transmission how the transmitter is cleared from
the synaptic cleft after it has been released (i.e., an antidepressant)
-a drug’s psychological effects are determined by which chemical transmitter it targets, not by its actions
at the synapse
Specialized Transmitter Systems
-only one kind of electricity, but many shapes of neurotransmitters
-100-150 known or suspected transmitters in the brain
-acetylcholine (ACh) is the best understood neurotransmitter
-major function: excitatory at synapses involved in muscular movement and memory
-Alzheimer’s results mostly from an undersupply of ACh
-psychoactive drugs operate by either enhancing or inhibiting the actions of transmitters at synapse
-dopamine’s major function is involved in voluntary movement, emotional arousal, learning, motivation,
and experiencing pleasure and it can be inhibitory or excitatory
-Parkinson’s and depression results from an undersupply, schizophrenia = oversupply
-serotonin is mostly an inhibitory neurotransmitter and it’s involved in mood, sleep, eating, and arousal
and may be important with respect to pleasure and pain
-an undersupply causes depression and sleeping and eating disorders
-Prozac blocks reuptake of serotonin from synaptic space, so the serotonin molecules stay active and
keep the people happy
-endorphins are an important family of neurotransmitters
-they reduce pain and increase feelings of well-being
-ability of people to continue to function despite severe injury is due mainly to the release of endorphins
and their ability to act as analgesics (painkillers)
-neuromodulators have a widespread and generalized influence on synaptic transmission
-they circulate through the brain and either increase or decrease the sensitivity of thousands or millions
of neurons to their specific transmitters
-they’re important in things like eating, sleeping, and stress
*The Nervous System
-it’s the body’s master control centre
-sensory neurons carry input messages from the sense organs to the spinal cord & brain
-motor neurons transmit output impulses from the brain & spinal cord to the muscles and organs
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-interneurons perform connective or associative functions within the nervous system
-i.e. allow us to recognize a tune by linking sensory input from the song we’re hearing with the memory of
that song stored elsewhere in the brain
-there are more of them than sensory or motor
-interneuron activity makes the complexity of our higher mental functions, emotions, and behavioural
possibilities possible
-the nervous system can be broken down into 2 parts: central and peripheral
The Peripheral Nervous System
-it’s composed of all the neurons that connect the central nervous system with the muscles, glands, and
sensory receptors
-contains all the all the neural structures that lie outside the brain and spinal cord
-helps carry out input & output functions necessary to sense what’s going on inside & outside our bodies
and respond withmuscles and glands
-2 major divisions: somatic and autonomic
The Somatic Nervous System
-consists of sensory neurons specialized to send messages from eyes, ears, and other sensory receptors
-also motor neurons that send messages from brain and spinal cord to muscles that control voluntary
movement
-axons of each neuron type group together to form sensory nerves and motor nerves
-in brain and spinal cord, nerves = tracts
-system allows people to sense and respond to their environments
The Autonomic Nervous System
-regulates body’s internal environment
-controls glands, smooth muscle of heart, blood vessels, & stomach and intestinal lining
-concerned withinvoluntary functions (respiration, circulation, digestion, etc)
-also involved withmotivation, emotional behaviour, and stress responses
-2 subdivisions: sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systems, which usually affect same organ or
gland in opposite ways
-sympathetic: activation/arousal function & acts as total unit
-parasympathetic: slows body processes to maintain tranquil state & acts specifically
-2 systems work together to maintain equilibrium/homeostasis to internal organs
The Central Nervous System
-distinguishes people from other creatures
-contains spinal cord (connects most of peripheral NS withbrain) and the brain
The Spinal Cord
-human adult: 40-45 cm long & 2.5 cm diameter
-most nerves enter and leave CNS by it
-its neurons are connected by vertebrae
-when cross-sectioned looks like a grey butterfly
-the grey butterfly section consists mostly of grey neuron bodies & their interconnections
-surrounding the grey matter are white myelinated axons that connect various levels of the spinal cord
with each other and higher centres of the brain
-sensory nerves enter the spinal cord at the back side, motors exit at the front
-spinal reflexes are simple stimulus-response sequences where the message is triggered at the spinal
cord level and doesn’t have to go to the brain (think heat)
The Brain
-most active energy consumer of all body organs (consumes about 20%O 2 ; body at rest)
-never rests, energy metabolism rate fairly constant day & night (slightly higher: dream)
Unlocking the Secrets of the Brain
-variety of methods used to study brain structure and activity
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Neuropsychological tests
-to measure verbal and non-verbal behaviours that are known to be affected by types of brain damage
-used in clinical evaluations of people who acquired brain damage (accidents or disease)
-indicate type & severity of damage person may have (info on brain/behaviour relations)
Destruction and Stimulation techniques
-experimental studies usually done on animals (destruction) by producing lesions or removing parts and
then study effects
-also stimulate areas of brain (sometimes even single neurons) and study effects
Electrical Recording
-electrodes record brain activity here (as opposed to stimulating it)
-neurons’ elec activity measured by inserting small electrodes into certain areas/neurons
-electroencephalogram (EEG) measures activity of large groups of neurons
Brain Imaging
-newest ones that permit neuroscientists to peer into living brain
-CT (computer axial tomography) scans have a highly focused beam of x-rays take pictures of narrow
slices of the brain
-a computer analyzes the slices and creates pictures from many different angles
-positron emission topography (PET) scans measure brain activity (including metabolism, blood flow,
and neurotransmitter activity)
-based on glucose (when active, neurons consume it), so you inject a harmless radioactive glucose into
bloodstream and travels to the brain and circulates in blood supply
-energy emitted by that sugar is measure by the PET scan and that’s fed into a computer where the
readings produce a colour image on the screen about activity in the brain
-brain activity & cognitive processes, behaviour, and forms of mental illness studied
-magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) combines both; can study both structure & activity
-creates an image based on how atoms in living tissue respond to a magnetic pulse delivered by the
device
-part of the body is placed in the hollow core of a long magnetic cylinder and the atoms in the body are
exposed to a uniform magnetic field
-then the field is altered & when shut off, the magnetic energy absorbed by the atoms in a tissue emits a
small electrical voltage that is picked up by detectors & computer analyzed
-provides colour images of tissues AND tells which chemicals are active in the tissue
-functional MRI can produce pictures of blood flow in brain which are less than a second apart (as
opposed to several minutes: conventional)
The Hierarchical Brain: Structures and Behavioural Functions
-cerebrum makes people unique human beings
-3 major divisions of brain: hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain
The Hindbrain
-most primitive and lowest level
-as spinal cord enters the brain, it enlarges and o form the structures of the brain stem
-attached to the brain stem is he other main part of the hindbrain: the cerebellum
The Brain Stem: life support systems
-medulla: 1st structure after spinal cord, 3.8 cm and well developed at birth
-important in vital body functions like heart rate and respiration (automatic because of it)
-medulla can be suppressed by high levels of alcohol intoxication
-2-way thoroughfare for all sensory and motor nerve tracts coming up from the spinal cord and
descending from the brain
-most of the above tracts cross over partway and so the LS receives sensory input and exerts motor
control over the RS
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-pons: (=bridge, Latin) above the medulla & serves as a bridge carrying nerve impulses between higher &
lower levels of the NS
-also has neuron clusters hat help regulate sleep & are involved in dreaming + motor neurons that control
muscles and glands of neck and face + helps control vital function
-damage to the brain stem usually results in death
The Cerebellum: motor coordination centre
- =little brain
-wrinkled cortex/covering consists mostly of grey matter
-mostly concerned withmuscular movement coordination, but also withcertain types of learning and
memory
-specific motor movements are initiated in higher brain centres, but the timing & coordination depend on
the cerebellum
-regulates complex, rapidly changing movements that need exquisite timing (i.e. ballet)
-motor control of it easily disrupted by alcohol
The Midbrain
-contains clusters of sensory and motor neurons and tracts that connect higher and lower parts of the NS;
located just above the hindbrain
-sensory portion has important relay centres for visual and auditory systems
-contains motor neurons that control eye movements
The reticular formation: the brain’s gatekeeper
-buried within midbrain; finger shaped; extends from hindbrain to lower parts of forebrain
-reticulum = net (looks like a net under a microscope)
-acts as kind of sentry both alerting higher centres that messages are coming and then it either allows
them to move forward or it blocks them
-ascending part of it alerts, descending part blocks or allows sensory input
-central role in consciousness, sleep, and attention
-without reticular stimulation sensory messages don’t register in brain even though nerve impulses may
reach appropriate higher areas…brain isn’t “awake” enough to notice them
-certain anaesthetics use that so the pain sensory impulses don’t register
-late 40s, disc. that electrical stimulation of different parts of it can produce instant sleep or sudden
wakefulness; sever damage can produce a permanent coma
-attention = active process where only important sensory inputs get to consciousness
-others need to be toned down or block, or we’d be overwhelmed
-reticular formation acts a gate, only letting some through
The Forebrain
-only diff between “lower” animals = size & complexity of it (=cerebrum)
-consists of 2 large cerebral hemispheres that wrap around the brain stem
-outer portion of forebrain has thin covering (=cortex)
The thalamus: the brain’s sensory switchboard
-located above midbrain, looks like 2 footballs (1 within each hemisphere)
-is an important sensory relay station, like a switchboard that organizes inputs from sense organs and
routes to appropriate areas of the brain
-visual, auditory, and body senses (balance & equilibrium) have major relay stations there
-nerve tracts from the sensory receptors are sent to it and then they synapse withneurons there that send
messages on their way to higher brain regions that create our perceptions
-key role in routing sensory information to higher brain levels
-disorders of it can produce “confusing worlds”; re: schizophrenia
-basal ganglia = group of at least 5 distinctive structures surrounding & enveloping it
-BG- critical for deliberate and voluntary motor control, esp. initiating it
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-Parkinson’s Disease = neurons that supply dopamine to the BG degenerate and die, so the BG doesn’t
function properly and the ability to initiate voluntary movement is lost
The hypothalamus: biological drives
-consists of tiny groups of neuron cell bodies that lie at the base of the brain, above the roof of the mouth
(=under the thalamus)
-major role in controlling many different biological drives (sexual behaviour, temperature regulation,
eating, drinking, aggression, and expressing emotion)
-damage can disrupt all those behaviours (i.e., orexins and eating)
-has important connections withthe endocrine system (body’s hormone-producing glands)
-withit’s connection to the pituitary gland, directly controls many hormonal secretions that regulate
sexual development & behaviour, metabolism, and reactions to stress
The limbic system: memory and goal-directed behaviour
-set of wishbone-shaped structures deep within the cerebral hemispheres
-important partnership withhypothalamus
-help coordinate behaviours needed to satisfy motivational and emotional urges that arise in the
hypothalamus & also involved in memory
-instinctive activities organized here
-if damaged: unable to carry out organized sequences of actions; distractions  forget
-2 key structures in it: hippocampus and amygdala
-hippocampus: involved in forming and retrieving memories
-damage to it = severe memory impairment for recent events & inability to transfer info from short-term
 long-term
-amygdala: organizes emotional response patterns, esp. linked withaggression & fear
-key part of larger control system for anger & fear (think cat)
-can produce emotional responses without higher parts of the brain knowing
-Olds & Milner – rats & “pleasure centre” = hypothalamus
-reality: nucleus accumbens = limbic structure that’s important for reward & motivation
The Cerebral Cortex: Crown of the Brain
-2/3 cm thick grey unmyelinated sheet of cells form the outermost layer of the brain
-crowing achievement of human evolution
-not essential for survival but for human quality of living
-constitutes fully 80% of brain tissue
-75% of its total surface area lies within its fissures (3 are important)
-one divides the brain into 2 hemispheres, another within each hemisphere divides it into front & rear
halves, & the third runs from front to rear along the side of the brain
-on the basis of those, each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal
-frontal = speech and skeletal motor functions (primary motor cortex) (also, Broca’s area: speech
formation)
-parietal = body sensation (primary sensory cortex)
-occipital = visual area (primary visual cortex)
-temporal = auditory system sent here (primary auditory cortex) (also, Wernicke’s area: speech
understanding/comprehension)
The motor cortex
-controls the muscles involved in voluntary movement lies at rear of the frontal lobe
-each hemisphere controls voluntary movement on the other side of the body (so, damage = paralysis,
think strokes)
-amount of cortex for a body part depends on complexity of movement of said body part
The sensory cortex
-specific areas of the cortex receive input from sensory receptors
-except for taste & smell, at least 1 specific area in it has been identified for each sense
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somatic sensory cortex: receives sensory input about heat, touch, cold, & senses of balance & body
movement (kinesthesis)
-lies in parietal lobe just behind the motor cortex
-hearing and sight are well represented in the sensory cortex
-auditory area lies at the surface of the temporal lobe at the side of each hemisphere
-each ear sends messages to both areas; losing 1 temp lobe has a small effect on hearing
-major sensory area for vision lies at the rear of the occipital lobe
-messages are analyzed, integrated, & translated into sight here
-within each sensory area, neurons respond to particular aspects of the sensory stimulus
Speech Comprehension and Production
-Wernicke’s area in temporal lobe – involved in speech comprehension
-Broca’s area in frontal lobe – involved in speech production through its connection in motor cortex that
control muscles used in speech
-three areas normally work in concert in conversation
Association cortex
-critically involved in highest level of mental functions, including perception, language & thought (“silent”
areas because elec stimulation doesn’t lead to sensory exp or motor resp)
-this helped promote myth that people only use 10% of their brain
-damage to parts of it cause disruption/loss of functions like speech & problem solving
-constitutes about 75% of human cerebral cortex & accounts for people’s superior cognitive abilities
(“the missing link”)
-agnosia = inability to identify familiar objects = damage to associative cortex
The frontal lobes: the human difference
-site of human qualities like self-awareness, planning, initiative, & responsibility
-most mysterious & least understood part of the brain
-involved in emotional experience (damage results in apathy)
-prefrontal cortex: seat of “executive” functions, which are mental abilities involving goal setting,
judgement, strategic planning, & impulse control; allow people to direct their behaviour in an adaptive
fashion
-damage here results in obliviousness to future consequences to action (immediate only)
-Phineas Gage = example of prefrontal damage (the spike)
-prefrontal lobotomies – no longer violent, but also emotionally detached
Hemispheric Lateralization: The Left and Right Brains
-corpus callosum = broad white band of myelinated nerve fibres (neural bridge); connects hemispheres
of brain & allows them to function as a single unit
-lateralization = relatively greater localization of a function in one hemisphere or other
-most people: verbal abilities, speech, math, & logic,=left, right=visual/spatial
-when speech areas damaged = aphasia
-when right damaged – great difficulty performing tasks that demand ability to perceive spatial relations;
difficulty recognizing faces, forget routes, mistake wife for hat
-recognizing faces & melodies = better for right hemisphere
-negative emotions: sadness & anger = right brain, positive: joy & happiness = left (more)
The split brain: two minds in one body
-despite lateralization, normally functions as whole because of corpus callosum communication
-when CC cut, like two separate brains
-Roger Sperry studied split-brain research (re: what did you see?)
-when words flashed to right side of visual field, could describe verbally they’d seen
-if words on left, could not describe what they’d read
-if pictures flashed on left, & left hand allowed to draw, could be done
-right hemisphere is unconscious/non-verbal mind except when communicates with left
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Hemispheric lateralization of language
-primarily left-hemispheric
-not only for spoken & written language, but also for non-verbal like sign language
-though left is dominant for language, right also has ability for it
-both are involved in reading, speaking, & listening
-males and females may differ to which certain language functions are lateralized on one side of the brain
-study: males – restricted to left hemisphere, females – both hemispheres
Plasticity in the Brain: The Role of Experience and the Recovery of Function
-brain changes when you learn/acquire something new and you become a different person
-learning or practicing something may change size or number of brain areas involved & alter neural
pathways used in the skill
-process of brain alteration begins in the womb & continues throughout life
-neural plasticity = ability of neurons to change in structure & function
-2 aspects of it: early experience effects on development & recovery from brain damage
The role of early experience
-brain development programmed by complex commands from genes, but can be powerfully affected by
the environment where we develop in
-some factors: alcohol consumption of mother, stimulating early environment, musical instruments,
cultural factors, etc
-goes through own “evolutionary” pathway
Recovery of function after injury
-when injury destroys brain tissue, other neurons must take over lost function
-neural reorganization can occur and brain damage suffered early in life is less devastating than damage
suffered as an adult
-younger children have a LOT more synapses than adults do
-recent research may disprove the belief that dead neurons cannot be replaced in a mature brain –
development of new cells demonstrated in brains of rodents & primates within the hippocampus
-1998 – evidence for birth of new cells in human adult appeared in hippocampus, then 1st evidence of
neurogenosis in cerebral cortex of a primate
*Nervous System Interactions with the Endocrine and Immune Systems
-these have major influences on behaviour and psychological & physical well being
Interactions with the Endocrine System
-endocrine system consists of many glands distributed throughout the body
-function is to convey info from one area of the body to another
-conveys info through hormones instead of nerves
-their messages can affect the nervous system & mental processes within the brain can affect endocrine
functioning
-“black magic” death is usually because they believed it and that triggered a profound stress response
that included a torrent of stress hormones released by the endocrine system
-adrenal glands – produce and secrete about 50 hormones that regulate metabolic processes both
within the brain and rest of the body
-most important hormone released by it: cortisol (a stress hormone)
-endocrine system id much slower than nervous because depends on blood flow
Interactions Involving the Immune System
-immune system recognize antigens and trigger a biochemical response
-amazing memory, will remember an antigen once it has encountered it once
-problems occur when immune system has an underactive or overactive response
-underactive, i.e. AIDS; overactive, i.e. allergies (like asthma)
-another overactive = autoimmune reaction – mistakenly identifies part of body as enemy
-another underactive (internal, like above over) = cancer
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-has great capacity to receive, interpret, & respond to specific forms of stimulation
-nervous and immune system are connected chemically and communicate witheach other
-immune system can also produce hormones and neurotransmitters, so it’s not just a response system,
but a giant sensory system
-all three systems influence and are influenced by each other
-psychoneuroimmunology (PNI) = new field
-psych factors like stress & depression have significant effects on immune system functioning, and
therefore, on health and illness
*Genetic Influences on Behaviour
-psychologists in behavioural genetics study the ways in which favourable or unfavourable conditions
can affect the genetically inherited potential of an organism
Chromosomes and Genes
-genotype = specific genetic makeup of an individual
-phenotype = the observable characteristics produced by genetic endowment
-chromosome = tightly coiled molecule of DNA that’s partly covered by protein
-genes = the hereditary blueprint carried by the DNA in units
-genetic transmission occurs through meiosis
Dominant, Recessive, and Polygenic Effects
-dominant gene = controls what characteristic will be displayed
-recessive gene = characteristic won’t show up unless the other allele is recessive
-polygenic transmission = combined influences to create a single phenotypic trait
Mapping the Genetic Code
-Human Genome Project is a coordinated effort to map the genes pf humans
Genetic Engineering: The Edge of Creation
-recombinant DNA procedures = researchers use enzymes to cut the long molecules of DNA into pieces,
combine them withDNA from another organism, and insert them into a host organism, like a bacteria
-inside the new host, the new DNA continues to divide and create many copies of itself
-procedure has been used to produce the human growth hormone
-knockout procedure – done withanimals, typically mice
-used to alter a specific gene in a way that prevents it from carrying out its normal function – then effects
on behaviour are observed
-example: insert genetic material that affect neurotransmitters
-engineering gives potential control over processes of heredity and evolution
Behaviour Genetics Techniques
-probability of sharing a particular gene withparents = 0.5 = siblings
-0.25 for grandparents and half-siblings
-heritability coefficient = extent to which the degree of variation in a particular characteristic among a
group of people can be attributed to genetic factors
-applies only to groups, not to individuals
-concordance = the likelihood that two people share a particular characteristic
-higher concordance between ppl who are closely related  possible genetic contribution
-adoption study = a person who was adopted early in life is compared on some characteristic withboth
biological parents, withwhom the person share genetic endowment
-if adopted person more similar to biological parents than adoptive parents, a genetic influence suggested
-if more similar to adoptive – environmental factor suggested
-twin studies = method in which identical and fraternal twins are compared on some characteristic –
esp. effective if twins raised in different environments
-if identical twins more similar than fraternal twins, can conclude that genetics is a factor
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-however, since identical twins looks alike, may get treated more alike so being able to compare twins
that have been separated at birth gets rid of this problem
-results – many characteristics including intelligence, personality traits, and certain psychological
disorders have genetic contributions
-twin and adoption studies support some genetic influence
-adoptive more similar to biological parents & identical more similar than fraternal
Chapter 4: Sensation and Perception
-process of sensory processing: stimulus reception  receptors translate it into nerve impulses
(transduction)  feature detectors analyze stimulus features  features are reconstructed into neural
representation  NR compared withpreviously stored info in the brain  matching process results in
recognition and interpretation of stimuli
-sensation is the stimulus-detection process by which our sense organs respond to and translate
environmental stimuli into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain
-perception is the active process of organizing this stimulus input and giving it meaning
-perception takes context into account (interpretation)
*Sensory Processes
-5 classical senses: vision, audition, touch, gustation (taste), and olfaction (smell)
-also sense that provides info about balance and body position
-touch can be subdivided: pain, pressure, and temperature
-psychophysics = study of relations between physical characteristics of stimuli and sensory capabilities
– concerned with2 kinds of sensitivity: absolute limits and differences (JNDs)
Signal Detection: The Absolute Threshold
-absolute threshold = lowest intensity that a stimulus can be detected 50% of the time
Signal Detection Theory
-people’s apparent sensitivity can fluctuate quite a bit – no single point on an intensity scale that
separates non-detection from detection of a stimulus
-range of uncertainty & people set their own decision criterion (a standard of how certain they must be
that a stimulus is present before they’ll say they detect it)
-signal detection theory = concerned with factors that influence sensory judgements
Subliminal Stimuli: Can they affect Behaviour?
-subliminal stimuli = one that’s so weak or brief that it cannot be perceived by the conscious even though
it is detected by the senses
-it can affect behaviour and attitudes, but to a limited extent
-persuasive stimuli above perceptual threshold is more effective (consumer behaviour)
-memory/self-esteem subliminal message tape – belief more important (re: placebo)
The Difference Threshold
-is the smallest difference between 2 stimuli that people can perceive 50% of the time (JND)
-Weber’s law = JND is directly proportional to the magnitude of stimulus withwhich the comparison is
being made & can be expressed as a Weber fraction (change/original)
-breaks down at extremely high and extremely low intensities
Sensory Adaptation
-sensory systems are finely attuned to changes in stimulation
-sensory adaptation = diminishing sensitivity to an unchanging stimulus
-habituation happens all the time (watch, background noise, etc)
-good because frees senses from the constant and the mundane to pick up informative changes in the
environment
*The Sensory Systems
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Vision
-normal stimulus = electromagnetic energy (light waves)
-can only see 400-700 nm range
The Human Eye
-light waves enter through the cornea = transparent protective structure
-pupil – behind cornea – adjustable opening that can dilate or constrict to control the amount of light that
enters
-pupil’s size controlled by the muscles in the iris
-lens – behind pupil – elastic structure that focuses (thinner for farther) image onto retina
-retina = multi-layered tissue at rear of eyeball – reverses image (but brain fixes it later)
-myopia = lens focuses image in front of the retina and hyperopia: behind
Photoreceptors: The Rods and Cones
-rods function best in dim light – primarily black and white receptors
-cones functions best in bright illumination – colour receptors
-rods found throughout retina except in the fovea – small area in centre of retina that contains only cones
(periphery contains mostly rods)
-bipolar cells have synaptic connections withrods & cones, & bipolar cells synapse witha layer of about 1
million ganglion cells whose axons bundle together to form: optic nerve
-our visual acuity (ability to see in fine detail) is best when visual image projects directly onto fovea
(cones in fovea have own private bipolar cells vs. rods & many to a bipolar)
-blind spot created not far from fovea by optic nerve exiting out the back of the eye – our perceptual
system fills it in
Visual Transduction: From Light to Nerve Impulses
-transduction=process where characteristics of a stimulus are converted to nerve impulses
-rod and cones translate light waves to nerve impulses through action potential of protein molecules
called photopigments
-absorption of light by these produce a chem rxn that changes the rate of neurotransmitter release at the
receptor’s synapse withthe bipolar cells
-if nerve responses are triggered at each of the 3 levels, the message is instantaneously on its way to
visual relay station in thalamus & then to visual cortex in brain
Brightness Vision and Dark Adaptation
-dark adaptation = progressive improvement in brightness sensitivity that occurs of time under
conditions of low illumination
-during it, photopigment molecules are regenerated and sensitivity increases greatly
-after about 5-10 minutes in the dark, max sensitivity is reached
Colour Vision
-2 different theories about colour vision
The trichromatic theory
-additive colour mixture = any colour in visible spectrum can be produced by some combination of
wavelengths that correspond to blue, green, and red
-theory = there are three types of colour receptors in the retina and individual cones are most sensitive to
wavelengths that correspond to red, blue, or green (though all can be stimulated by all wavelengths to
varying degrees)
-all send messages to brain and the visual system combine the signals to recreate the original hue – if all
three equally activated = white
-problems: people withred-green colour blindness can see yellow & colour afterimages
Opponent-process theory
-proposed that each type of cone responds to 2 different wavelengths; one to red or green, another to
blue or yellow, and the other to black or white
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-i.e. a red-green cone responds to green light with one chemical reaction and react with its other chemical
reaction to a red stimulus
-afterimages support this theory
Dual Processes in colour transduction
-combines both theories to account for the colour transduction process
-trichromatic theory right about cones
-opponent-processes partially right as well, but it’s at the level of the ganglion cell not at the level of the
cones
Colour-deficient vision
-people with normal colour vision are trichromats – sensitive to all three systems: red-green, blue-yellow,
and black-white
-dichromat – colour-blind only to one system, monochromat = completely colour-blind
Analysis and Reconstruction of Visual Scenes
Feature detectors
-from the retina, optic nerve sends nerve impulses to a visual relay station in the thalamus
-from there, the input’s routed to various parts of the cortex, esp the primary visual cortex
-grps of neurons within the primary visual cortex organized to receive & integrate sensory nerve
impulses originating in specific regions of the retina; some are feature detectors
-they fire selectively in response to stimuli withspecific characteristics (re: dots and lines)
-can respond to colour, depth, types of lines, movement, etc
-parallel processing = constructing a unified image using separate, but overlapping, modules within the
brain that are simultaneously analyzing different characteristics
Visual association processes
-final stages are when image is analyzed and recombined by the primary visual cortex
-then routed to visual association cortex where more complex features of the visual scene are
combined and interpreted in light of our memories and knowledge (recognition)
Audition
-stimuli = sound waves = form of mechanical energy (pressure waves in air, water, etc)
-2 characteristics of sound waves: frequency and amplitude
-frequency - # of sound waves or cycles per second (1 Hz = 1 cycle/second)
-20  20,000 Hz = human capability for detecting sound (mostly in lower range)
-amplitude – vertical size of sound waves = amount of compression and expansion of the molecules in
conducting medium – key determinant of loudness
-differences in amplitude expressed as decibels (db) = measure of physical pressures that occur at
eardrum – absolute threshold is 0 db
Auditory Transduction: From Pressure Waves to Nerve Impulses
-vibrating activity of the hammer (malleus), anvil (incus), and stirrup (stapes) amplifies the sound waves
more than 30 times  eardrum
-inner ear contains: cochlea which contains the basilar membrane, the organ of Corti which contains
many tiny hairs that are the actual sound receptors
Coding of Pitch and Loudness
-loudness = high-amplitude sound waves cause hair cells to bend more and release more
neurotransmitter substance at the pt where they synapse withauditory nerve cells which results in a
higher rate of firing withthe auditory nerve + certain receptor neurons have higher thresholds than
others so they’ll only fire when there’s a lot of bending
-coding of pitch – two theories
-frequency theory – nerve impulses sent to brain match the frequency of the sound wave (i.e. something
30 Hz should send 30 volleys of nerve impulses to the brain)
-only works at low frequencies, but doesn’t work for higher ones because brain’s not capable of that for
frequencies above 1000 Hz
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-place theory – suggests that a specific point in the cochlea where the fluid wave peaks and most
strongly bends the hair cells serves as a frequency coding cue – auditory cortex has a tonal frequency
map (like visual) that corresponds to specific areas of the cochlea
-brain can code high pitches by analyzing the specific locations where the nerve impulses are being
received
-Bekesy’s experiment withcutting holes in the cochlea’s of guinea pigs and human cadavers
-so, like the colour theories, both work: at low = frequency, high = place
Sound Localization
-sounds arrive first and loudest to the ear closest to the sound
-binaural (2-eared) ability is very sensitive – can tell what direction sound is coming in
Hearing Loss
-2 major types of acquired hearing loss: conduction and nerve deafness
-conduction deafness – caused by problems involving the mechanical system that transmits sound
waves to the cochlea (i.e. a punctured eardrum)
-a hearing aid can often correct conduction deafness
-nerve deafness – caused by damaged receptors within the inner ear or damage to the auditory nerve –
cannot be helped by a hearing aid
-exposure to loud sounds = leading cause, also aging and disease can produce it
-repeated exposure to loud sounds at particular frequency eventually cause people to lose hair cells at
particular points on basilar membrane
Taste and Smell: Chemical Senses
-receptors are sensitive to chemical molecules, not a form a energy
Gustation: The Sense of Taste
-taste buds are receptors concentrated along the sides and back surface of the tongue
-sweet, sour, salty, and bitter – what we feel is a combination of these
-linked with smell – can’t taste food without smell
-toxins usually bitter, sweet substances more likely to appear in nutritious food
Olfaction: The Sense of Smell
-receptors for smell = long cells that project through the lining of the upper part of the nasal cavity and
into the mucous membrane (about 40 million in humans)
-pheromones: chemical signals found in natural body scents – affect human behaviour
-i.e. menstrual synchrony: menstrual cycle begins to coincide withwomen who live together or are very
close
The Skin and Body Senses
The Tactile Senses
-skin = largest organ
-tactile sensations: pressure, pain, warmth and cold
-phantom limb: irritation of nerve impulses  pain in nonexistent limb (amputees)
The Body Senses
-body senses = kinesthesis: provides feedback on our muscles’ and joints’ position and movement; gives
the basis for making coordinated movement – nerve endings
-vestibular sense: body orientation or equilibrium –sense organs in inner ear
Perception: The Creation of Experience
-bottom-up processing: taking the individual elements of the stimulus and combining them into unified
perception
-top-down processing: sensory info is interpreted in light of existing knowledge, memory, ideas,
expectations; psychological influences
Perception Is Selective: The Role of Attention
-attention = focusing on a particular stimulus and filtering out other incoming info
-shadowing: can only pay attention to one stimulus properly (re: earphones)
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Environmental and Personal Factors in Attention
-attention is strongly affected by nature of stimulus and by personal factors
-stimulus characteristics that attract our attention: intensity, novelty, movement, contrast, and repetition
-internal/personal factors: motives and interests = powerful filters to what we notice
Perceptions Have Organization and Structure
Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization
-figure-ground relations: we organize stimuli into a central foreground figure and a background
-Gestalt laws of perceptual organization: similarity, proximity, closure, and continuity
Perception Involves Hypothesis Testing
-recognizing a stimulus means we have a perceptual schema = comparing a stimulus witha memorable
representation of that stimulus; helps classify objects in top-down fashion
-if sensory info fits 2 different internal representations, then it’ll try them both out
Perception is Influenced by Expectations: Perceptual Sets
-perceptual set: a readiness to see something will make us see that; “believing is seeing”
-you perceive what you expect to see
Stimuli are Recognizable under Changing Conditions: Perceptual Constancies
-perceptual constancies: allows us to recognize familiar stimuli in different positions and conditions;
shape, size, or brightness constancies
Perception of Depth, Distance, and Movement
Depth and Distance Perception
-brain receives info in 2 dimensions  brain translates these into 3-D perception
Monocular Depth Cues
-patterns of light and shadow: creates perception of depth
-linear perspective: perception that 2 lines converge or angle toward one another as they recede into the
distance
-interposition: objects closer to us may cut off part of our view of more distant objects
-texture: decreases as distance increases
-clarity, relative size
Binocular Disparity
-each eye sees a slightly different image
-convergence = another binocular cue = produced by feedback from the muscles that turn your eyes
inward to view a near object
Perception of Movement
-primary cue is movement of stimulus across the retina
-relative movement of an object against structured background is another cue
-stroboscopic movement: when light is flashed in one point and then another, it is indistinguishable
from real movement
*Illusions: False Perceptual Hypothesis
-illusions are compelling but incorrect perceptions
*Perception as a Psychobiological Process: Understanding Pain
-more than just sensory, it’s a complex perception that reflects the operation of numerous psychological
processes
Auditory Transduction: From Pressure Waves to Nerve Impulses
-pain receptors found all tissue except brain, non-living part of teeth, nails, bones, & hair
-free nerve endings in the skin & internal organs respond to intense mechanical, thermal, or chemical
stimulation then send nerve impulses into the spinal cord where sensory tracts carry that info to the
brain
-the info about pain intensity & location is relayed by the thalamus to the somatosensory and frontal
areas of the cerebral cortex and other tracts of the thalamus direct nerve impulses to the limbic system
(emotional component of pain)
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-suffering occurs when emotional part is present
Natural Opiates within the Body
-opiates (i.e. opium, morphine, & heroin) produce “pleasure” by locking into receptor sites in the brain
where pain receptors send nerve impulses
-receptor sites actually for body’s own analgesics (painkillers) or opiates: endorphins
-endorphins (=internally produced morphines) work by inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters
involved in synaptic transmission of pain impulses from the spinal cord to the brain – some are very
potent: one is more than 200X more powerful than morphine
Endorphins and Pain Reduction
-study effects of endorphins in 2 major ways: they inject endorphins into participants who are
experiencing pain and than measure analgesic effects or inject naloxone (a drug that blocks the action of
endorphins) and observe the consequences
-stress-induced analgesia = a reduction in perceived pain that occurs under stressful conditions
(attributed to endorphins) (life-threatening situations)
-adaptive mechanism used for survival
-bad effects of endorphins: chronically high levels of its release help block active immune system cells
that recognize and selectively kill tumour cells
-pain perception influenced not only by nature of the stimulation but also by psychological/cultural
factors
-pain perception = biological + psychological + environmental factors
-psychological: cognitive factors like beliefs about meaning of pain and personal control, placebo effect,
cultural beliefs and expectation
-environmental: environmental stressors can decrease pain perception through endorphin release,
cultural learning experiences produce beliefs and expectations about pain and its expression, painful
physical stimuli
*Experience, Critical Periods, and Perceptual Development
-perceptual development involves both physical maturation and learning
Cross-Cultural Research on Perception
-cultural factors can influence certain aspects of perception including picture perception and
susceptibility to illusions
-more aspects of perceptions are constant across cultures
Critical Periods: The Role of Early Experience
-are critical periods for some aspects of perception where certain kinds of experiences must occur if
perceptual abilities and the brain mechanisms that underlie them are to occur normally
-if that critical period passes without the experience occurring, it’s too late to undo it
-i.e. kittens and only vertical/horizontal lines and permanently altered vision
Restored Sensory Capacity
-usually unable to adjust to new visual world, and lose sight again
-no amount of subsequent experience could make up for lack of visual experience during critical period at
childhood
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Chapter Five: States of Consciousness
*The Puzzle of Consciousness
-consciousness = our moment-to-moment awareness of ourselves and our environment
-some characteristics of it are:
 it’s subjective and private – no one but you can directly tell what your reality is
 it’s dynamic (ever-changing) – we drift in & out of various states throughout the day, & although
it’s constantly changing we experience it as continuously flowing
 self-reflective & central to our sense of self – the mind’s aware of its own consciousness and no
matter what you’re attention’s focused on, you can reflect on the fact that you are the one who’s
conscious of it
 intimately connected with the process of selective attention – the mind always has millions of
simultaneous possibilities to choose from and consciousness is selection of some and suppression
of the others, which is done by attention
Measuring States of Consciousness
-scientists who study consciousness need to find tests that define inner states withmeasurable responses
- self-report = most common measure – people describe inner experiences – most direct insight into a
person’s subjective experiences, but not always verifiable
-physiological measures – correspond bodily states withmental functions –i.e. sleep stages
-are objective but don’t tell what a person is experiencing subjectively
-behavioural measure – performance on special tasks like rouge test (re: chimps)
-are objective but still infer subject’s state of mind
-also have practical applications – re: dissociative identity disorder
Levels of Consciousness: Psychodynamic and Cognitive Perspectives
-Freud suggested that human mind has 3 levels of awareness
-conscious has thoughts, perceptions, and other mental activities that we’re aware of
-preconscious mental events are outside current awareness, but under certain conditions can be easily
recalled (i.e. childhood friend and mentioning their name)
-unconscious events can’t be brought into conscious awareness under ordinary circumstances – some is
kept out of conscious because it’d arouse negative feelings (unacceptable desires and repressed
experiences)
-cognitive psychologists view it as an info-processing system
The Cognitive Unconscious
-reject notion that unconscious is driven by instinctive urges and repressed conflicts
-conscious and un are complementary
Controlled vs. Automatic Processing
-controlled = effortful = voluntary use of attention and conscious effort
-automatic = activities that need little or no conscious effort
-learning things is controlled, then once learned, usually become automatic
-major disadvantage of automatic: reduce chances of finding new ways to approach probs
-however, many well-learned behaviours performed best when automatic, & not thinking
Divided Attention
-is the ability to perform more than one activity at once
-without it, everything would require full attention, & overwhelm our mental capacity
-disadvantage: difficult when tasks req similar mental resources & driving withcells
The Emotional Unconscious
-emotional & motivational processes operate unconsciously & influence behaviour
-think amnesia & pinprick- nonconscious memory influenced her behaviour
The Modular Unconscious
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-mind is a collection of largely separate, but interacting modules
-modules are info-processing subsystems/networks within the brain that perform tasks related to
sensation, perception, memory, problem solving, emotion, motor behaviour, etc
-process info in parallel (simultaneously & largely independently)
Circadian Rhythms: Our Daily Biological Clocks
-daily biological cycles = circadian rhythms
Keeping Time: Brain and Environment
-most circadian rhythms regulated by the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)
-SCN is in the hypothalamus
-SCN neurons have a genetically programmed cycle of activity and inactivity that functions like a
“biological clock”
-they link to pineal gland which secretes melatonin (hormone that relaxes body)
-SCN neurons become active during daytime and reduce the pineal gland’s secretion of melatonin,
reducing your body temperature and heightening alertness
-inactive during night, promoting relaxation and sleepiness
-circadian clock is biological, but environmental factors like the day-night cycle help keep SCN neurons on
a 24 hour cycle (eyes have neural connections to the SCN)
-natural cycle = free-running circadian rhythm = 24.2-24.8h
Early Birds and Night Owls
-circadian rhythms influence tendencies to be morning/night people
-morning people’s body temperature, blood pressure, and alertness peak earlier
Environmental Disruptions of Circadian Rhythms
-gradual and sudden environmental changes can disrupt our circadian rhythms
-seasonal affective disorder (SAD) = cyclic tendency to become psychologically depressed at certain
times of the year
-usually begins in the fall or winter and ends in the spring (re: daylight h, light sensitive)
-jet lag = sudden circadian disruption caused by flying across several time zones in a day
-flying east, you lose hours; flying west, day becomes longer than 24
-often causes insomnia, decreased alertness, and poorer performance until body adjusts
-body naturally adjusts ~1h or less/day to time zone changes – west = faster adjustment
-night shiftwork = most problematic circadian disruption for society
-daylight savings time – produces a short-lived increase in likelihood of accidental death
Applications of Psychological Science
Controlling Exposure to Light
Treating SAD
-phototherapy = properly timed exposure to bright artificial light = best treatment
-several hours a day can shift circadian rhythms by as much as 2/3 hours/day
-just 1h/day significantly reduced SAD sufferers’ depression
-dawn stimulation = artificial light gradually intensifies to normal light levels over the course of 1-2 h in
the early morning – helps reset circadian clock to earlier time
Reducing Jet Lag
-flying east – exposure to outdoor light in the morning and avoiding light late in the day move circ clock
forward and helps it catch-up to local time
-flying west – want to delay circ rhythm, so, do opposite of east
Adjusting to Nightwork
-circadian adjustment can be increased by: having bright indoor lighting in the workplace, keeping the
bedroom dark & quiet, & maintaining daytime sleep schedule during days off
Melatonin Treatment: Uses and Cautions
-can be directly manipulated by oral doses – is fairly successful for above disorders
-taking it at the wrong time can backfire and make circadian adjustments more difficult
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-possible side effects of long-term use have not been adequately studied
Regulating Activity Schedules
-studies suggest properly timed physical exercise can help shift circadian clock
-jet lag reduction – can begin resynchronizing bio clock in advance – slightly adjust sleep and eating
schedule 1h/day
-for shift workers – move from day to evening to night shifts, not other way around
*Sleep and Dreaming
-circadian rhythms don’t directly regulate sleep, promote readiness for sleep and help determine optimal
time period when we can sleep most soundly
Stages of Sleep
-cycle through different stages in which our brain activity and other physiological responses change in a
generally predictable way every 90 minutes or so
-beta waves = 15-30 cycles per second (cps) when awake and alert
-alpha waves when close your eyes – relaxed and drowsy – slower: 8-12 cps
Stage 1 through Stage 4
-stage 1 – light sleep – theta waves = 3.5-7.5 cps
-only few minutes there – some people experience images and body jerks in this stage
-stage 2 – sleep becomes deeper – sleep spindles occur
-sleep spindles = periodic 1-2s bursts of rapid brain activity
-stage 3 – marked by regular appearance of delta waves = 0.5-2 cps
-stage 4 – when delta waves dominate – about 20-30 minutes
-slow-wave sleep = stage 3 + 4
-within 60-90 minutes: 1-2-3-4-3-2
REM Sleep
-every ½ minute-ish sleepers eyeballs move vigorously behind their closed eyelids
-when awoken during these periods: had dreams, even ppl who swore they didn’t dream
-physical arousal may increase to daytime levels: heart rate, breathing, brain waves, etc
-brain sends signals that make it hard for voluntary muscles to contract –become relaxed
-muscles may twitch, but you’re unable to move = sleep paralysis
-REM called paradoxical sleep because body highly aroused, but you’re not moving
-REM dreams have story-like quality withvivid sensory & motor elements, and perception of reality
-non-REM dream = often fixed and unmoving, like a tableau
-mental activity not during REM = sleep thoughts
-as hours pass, stage 3 & 4 drop out and REM lengthens
Getting a Night’s Sleep: Brain and Environment
-different aspects of sleep cycle are controlled by different brain mechanisms
-falling asleep = turn off brain systems that regulate wakefulness + turn on systems that promote sleep
-areas if forebrain (basal forebrain) and within brain stem = important in falling asleep
-diff brain stem area plays a role in initiating REM sleep
-seasons affect sleep (ppl sleep 15-60 minutes longer in fall and winter)
-noise affects sleep, even if we sleep through it
How Much Do We Sleep?
-sleep less as we get older
-REM decreases dramatically during infancy and early childhood, but stabilizes after
-time spent in stages 3 & 4 declines (relatively little slow-wave sleep by adulthood)
Short- and Long-Sleepers
-different people need different amounts of sleep
From Genes to Lifestyles
-sleep is mostly genetic (twin studies) but lifestyle also affects it
Sleep Deprivation
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-deprivation affects mood, mental, and physical performance (in order: mostleast)
Why Do We Sleep?
-restoration model = recharges bodies and allows recovery from phys & mental fatigue
-sleep deprivation and night shiftwork studies support this model
-might need sleep to live – re: lab rats
-evolutionary/circadian sleep models = purpose: to increase species’ chance of survival
-sleep pattern based on its predator-prey relationship, food requirement, methods of defence from attack
– sleep also mechanism for saving energy
-REM rebound effect = tendency to increase amount of REM sleep after deprived of it
-memory consolidation – transferring memories from short-term to long-term memory
-REM is vital for memory consolidation and other vital mental functioning
Sleep Disorders
-half to 2/3s of Americans fell they have some type of sleep problem
Insomnia
-refers to chronic difficulty in falling asleep, staying asleep, or experiencing restful sleep
-most common sleep disorder – 10-40% of population in various countries
-has biological, psychological, and environmental causes
-many non-drug treatments including stimulus control = associating the stimuli in your sleep
environment withsleep rather than waking activities
-pseudoinsomniacs – wake up in the morning and claim that they didn’t get any sleep at all, despite a
full night’s sleep
Narcolepsy
-extreme daytime sleepiness and sudden, uncontrollable sleep attacks (under 1 min-1 h)
-1/1000 of people is narcoleptic
-go right into REM when sleep attack occurs
-may experience cataplexy – sudden loss of muscle tone triggered: laughter, excitement, & other strong
emotions – person collapses: conscious & paralysed (few sec- few min)
-genetic predisposition + certain environmental factors (unknown)
-no cure, but treatment = stimulant drugs to stay awake + antidepressants to decrease attacks of
cataplexy
REM-Sleep Behaviour Disorder
-loss of muscle tone that causes normal REM sleep paralysis is absent
-repeatedly talk, sing, move arms and legs
-some may kick or punch violently, get out of bed and move around wildly
-causes unknown, but suspect that brain abnormalities prevent signals that normally inhibit movement
during REM from being sent
Sleep Apnea
-repeatedly stop and restart breathing during sleep
-cause: usually obstruction in upper airways (from sagging tissue because muscles lose tone during
sleep) – chest & abdomen keep moving but no air gets to the lungs
-reflexes then kick in and person wakes up withloud startling snore – is up for several secs
-1-5% have it – and obstructive type common among overweight middle-aged men – that type can be
fixed by surgery removing obstruction
-sometimes treated by mask that continuously pumps air, keeping airways open
-stresses heart and contributes to hypertension , excessive daytime sleepiness, etc
Sleepwalking
-typically occurs in stage 3 or 4 sleep
-are unresponsive to other people, but vaguely conscious of environment around them
-usually wake in morning withno recollection of event
-10-30% of children, less than 5% of adults
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-may be inherited; daytime stress, alcohol, and certain illnesses & medications increase it
-treatments: psychotherapy, hypnosis, drugs, routine awakening before sleepwalking, & most common:
letting people outgrow it withsafe environment (=no injuries)
Nightmares and Night Terrors
-nightmares = frightening dreams – occur in hours before we arise – REM
-night terrors = suddenly sits up & seems to awaken, screams, may thrash or flee, sleeps
-no memory following morning
-most common during stages 3 & 4, and involved huge physiological arousal (HR x2/3)
-children: up to 6%, adults: 1-2%
-treatment – most common: outgrowithdiminish withage
The Nature of Dreams
-psychologists study dreams because dreaming = universal mental activity in people
When Do We Dream?
-hypnagogic state = transitional state from wakefulness through to early stage 2 – as it continues, mental
activity is more dreamlike
-dream when brain is most active (during REM and final hours of sleep)
What Do We Dream About?
-most dreams are normal, only some are bizarre, but they’re the ones we remember most
-most dreams contain some negative content
-women dreamt equally about men & women, men: 2/3 of dreams’ characters = male
-cultural background, life experiences, and current concerns shape dream content
Why Do We Dream?
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
-main purpose = wish fulfillment = gratification of unconscious desires and needs
-include sexual & aggressive urges that are too unacceptable to be fulfilled in real life
-a dream has manifest and latent content
-manifest content = surface story that dream reports
-latent content = real meaning of dream in disguise
-dream work = process that the latent is transformed into manifest content
-unconscious needs are fulfilled & sleeper managers to sleep peacefully – not be anxious
Activation-Synthesis Theory
-brain makes sense of random neural activity
-brain stem and cerebral cortex are involved
-dreaming serves no function – is merely a by-product of REM neural activity
-physiological basis for dreaming
Cognitive Approaches
-problem-solving dream models – dreams help us find creative solutions to problems and conflicts
because they’re not constrained by reality
-cognitive-processes dream theory – focus = on process of how we dream
-proposes that dreaming and waking are produced by the same mental systems
-very great similarity between dreaming and mental activity (stream of consciousness)
-rapid shifting of attention = the process
Toward Integration
-some models now integrate concepts from all three (or at least 2 of the 3)
Daydreams and Waking Fantasies
-daydreams = significant part of waking consciousness
-provide stimulation when bored and allow positive emotions to be experienced
-fantasy-prone personality – live in a vivid fantasy world they control –2-4% of pop
-involve more visual imagery than other waking mental activity, but are less vivid, emotional, and bizarre
than dreams
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*Drugs and Altered Consciousness
-drugs alter consciousness by modifying brain chemistry
-drug effects are influenced by psychological, environmental, and cultural factors
Drugs and the Brain
-drugs work their way into the bloodstream & are carried through the brain by capillaries
-blood-brain barrier – special lining of tightly packed cells that let vital nutrients pass through so
neurons can function – capillary network has it – some drugs make it through
How Drugs Facilitate Synaptic Transmission
-agonists increase neurotransmitter activity – enhance neuron’s ability to synthesize, store, or release
neurotransmitter, bind with & stimulate postsynaptic sites (or make it easier to be stimulated), and
make it more difficult for neurotransmitters to be deactivated
-re: opiates and amphetamine examples
How Drugs Inhibit Synaptic Transmission
-antagonists decrease the action of a neurotransmitter – reduce neuron’s ability to synthesize, store, or
release neurotransmitters or prevent a neurotransmitter from binding withthe postsynaptic neuron by
fitting in and blocking the receptor sites
-re: “antipsychotic” drugs for schizophrenia, etc
Tolerance and Withdrawal
-tolerance = decreased responsivity to a drug after repeated use
-stems from body’s attempt to maintain homeostasis
-compensatory responses = reactions opposite to the drug’s (to maintain homeostasis)
-withdrawal = occurrence of compensatory responses after discontinued drug use
Learning, Drug Tolerance, and Overdose
-tolerance partly depends on familiarity of drug setting (think classical conditioning)
-overdoses mostly occur in a different setting because the conditioned compensatory responses are
weaker and drug has a stronger net physiological effect
Myths about Drug Addiction and Dependence
-substance dependence = drug addiction = a maladaptive pattern of substance use that substantially
impairs that person’s life
-physiological dependence = drug tolerancewithithdrawal occurrence
-drug myths: drug tolerance always leads to significant withdrawal, you cannot become dependant on a
drug if it doesn’t produce tolerance or withdrawal, and the major cause of drug addiction is physiological
dependence
-drug dependence is influenced by many factors including genetic predisposition, personality traits,
religious beliefs, peer influence, and cultural norms
Depressants
-decrease nervous system activity, moderate doses: reduce feelings of tension and anxiety, high doses:
slow down vital life processes to the point of death
Alcohol
-tolerance develops gradually and can lead to physiological dependence
-increases activity of GABA (main inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain) and decreases activity of
glutamate (major excitatory), so dampens/depresses neural firing
-neural slowdown increases depresses action of inhibitory control centres and feels less inhibited and
euphoric
-higher doses – control centres become more disrupted, thinking and physical coordination become
disorganized, and fatigue and psychological depression may occur
-blood alcohol level (BAL) = measure of concentrated alcohol in the body
-alcohol myopia = shortsightedness in thinking caused by the inability to pay attention to as much info
as sober people – do not think of long-term consequences of their actions
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-sober and intoxicated participants both expressed negative general attitudes twds drunk driving, but
when had a facilitating cue, drunks were more favourable twds it
Barbiturates and Tranquilizers
-barbiturates = sleeping pills, tranquilizers = anti-anxiety, i.e. Valium
-used often as sedatives and relaxants
-majority work like alcohol withthe GABA
-mild doses of barbiturates = effective, but highly addictive
-tolerance builds and overdoses can occur
-sudden withdrawal can also cause death, gradual withdrawal needed
Stimulants
-increase neural firing and arouse the nervous system
-increase BP, respiration, HR, & overall alertness
-can also boost mood, produce euphoria, and heighten irritability
Amphetamines
-aka speeds, uppers, etc = powerful stimulants
-prescribed to reduce appetite & fatigue, decrease the need for sleep, & reduce depression
-increase dopamine and norepinephrine activity
-tolerance develops and users crave pleasurable effects
-injecting it greatly increases BP and can lead to heart failure and stroke
-repeated high doses may cause brain damage
-amphetamine psychosis – schizophrenia-like hallucinations and paranoid delusions caused by
continuous heavy amphetamine use
-tax body heavily and users have a short life expectancy
-MDMA = ecstasy = derivative of amphetamine
-produces acute reversible cognitive effects & long-term cognitive impairment esp. on language tasks like
verbal fluency
-acts as a toxin/poison that specifically damages neurons
-can deplete brain of serotonin – effect linked to suicidal depression and sudden death
Cocaine
-derived from coca plant (western South America)
-usually inhaled or injected
-blocks the reuptake of norepinephrine and dopamine
-large doses – fever, vomiting, convulsions, paranoid delusions, and hallucinations
-crack = chem converted form that’s smoked – faster, more dangerous, & intense effects
-tolerance develops but withdrawal symptoms are mild, but develop strong cravings
Opiates
-are opium and opium derived drugs, product of opium poppy
-2 major effects: pain relief and mood changes (can produce euphoria)
-bind to and stimulate endorphin receptor sites which = pain relief
-also increase dopamine activity = euphoria
-withdrawal symptoms are traumatic
Hallucinogens
-powerful mind-altering drugs that produce hallucinations
-are natural and synthetic ones
-powerfully distort sensory experience – blur line between fantasy and reality
-effects are always unpredictable
-LSD = powerful one, tolerance develops & decreases quickly –don’t know how it works
Marijuana
-product of hemp plant (Cannabis sativa)
-categorized in its own category, some categorize it as a hallucinogen or as a sedative
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-most widely used illicit drug in Canada
-major active ingredient = THC – binds to receptor sites throughout the brain
-brain produces own TH-like substance called cannabinoids
-chronic use = increase in GABA and dopamine activity
-myth #1: chronic use causes amotivational syndrome = become unmotivated and apathetic twds
everything
-myth #2: gateway drug
-myth #3: no significant dangers
-repeated use does lead to tolerance, usually mild withdrawal like restlessness
-chronically high doses: nausea, vomiting, sleep disruptions, and irritability
From Genes to Culture: Determiners of Drug Effects
-there is evidence for a genetic/biological basis for alcoholism/drug effects
-environmental – physical and social setting can strongly influence users reactions
-cultural learning also affects how people respond to a drug and drug consumption
-psych level– ppl’s beliefs & expectancies + personality factors influence rxn & usage
*Hypnosis
-mesmerism = state of “nervous sleep” = hypnosis after Hypnos = Greek god of Sleep
The Scientific Study of Hypnosis
-is a state of heightened suggestibility where some ppl are able to experience imagined test suggestions
as if they were real
-often used by many therapists to treat mental disorders
-hypnotic induction = process by which one person leads another person into hypnosis
-people cannot be hypnotized against their will
-hypnotic susceptibility scales contain a standard series of pass/fail suggestions that are read to a
subject after a hypnotic induction – score based on number of passes
Hypnotic Behaviours and Experiences
-widely claimed that hypnotized people experience substantial alteration in psychological functioning
and behaviour
Involuntary Control and Behaving Against One’s Will
-hypnotized ppl subjectively experience their actions to be involuntary
-has no unique power to make ppl behave against their will
Physiological Effects and Physical Feats
-can have striking physiological effects, but people that aren’t hypnotized can have the same effects
(think placebo effect)
-same deal for amazing physical feats
Pain Tolerance
-does increase pain tolerance, not due to placebo effect
-can produce relief for chronic pain – not sure how it works
-mental imagery can also reduce pain though
Hypnosis and Memory
-hypnotic amnesia = not remember something during the hypnotic session
-post-hypnotic amnesia = not remember something after the session
-reversal cue is given – i.e. phrase: you’ll remember everything
-about 25% of university students are susceptible to it
-causes are disputed: result of voluntary attempts to avoid thinking about certain info or it’s caused by an
altered state of consciousnesswitheakening of normal memory systems
Psychological Frontiers
Does Forensic Hypnosis Improve Eyewitness Memory?
-ppl claim it can help ppl recall info they can’t otherwise remember – very controversial
-it does not consistently improve ppl’s ability to recall info
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-increases the danger of remembering false memories in response to leading questions
Theories of Hypnosis
-not sleep – debate over whether it produces a unique pattern of physiological activity
Dissociation Theories: Hypnosis as Divided Consciousness
-hypnosis creates a division of awareness where someone simultaneously experiences two streams of
consciousness that are cut off from one another
-one stream responds to the hypnotist’s suggestions and the other (called the hidden observer) stays in
the background but is fully aware of everything going on
-explains why behaviour under hypnosis seem involuntary or automatic
Social Cognitive Theories
-occurs because ppl have strong beliefs and expectations about hypnosis
-ppl are highly motivated to enter a hypnotized role
-their actions are sincere but not a result of divided consciousness
-divided consciousness theory is more out of date
Chapter Six: Learning and Adaptation: The Role of Experience
-learning = a process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s
behaviour or capabilities
-measured by changes in performance
*Adapting to the Environment
-learning = process of personal adaptation
How Do We Learn? The Search for Mechanisms
-historically, two different perspectives: behaviourism and ethology
-behaviourism: focus on processes by which organisms learn (HOW)
-assumed laws of learning for virtually all organisms
-treated organisms as blank tablet upon which learning experiences were inscribed
-explanation purely on directly observable event
-flourished in America
Why Do We Learn? The Search for Functions
-ethology: focused on functions of behaviour, esp. its adaptive significance
-adaptive significance = behaviour’s influence on chances of survival and reproduction
-arose in Europe
-fixed action pattern = an unlearned response automatically triggered by a particular stimulus
Crossroads of Learning: Biology, Cognition, and Culture
-two above paths converged & tell us that environment shapes behaviour in 2 ways
-personal adaptation = occurs through laws of learning that behaviourists examine and it results from
interactions with immediate environment and by past environment)
-species adaptation = through natural selection, genetically-based features that enhance the ability to
adapt are more likely to be passed on to the next generation
-cognitive perspective = learning does have mental processes (opposes behaviourist)
-cross-cultural psychology = highlights impact of our culture on what we learn – from social norms and
beliefs to our perceptions of ourselves and the world around us
-learning that foster adaptation are the same across humans and many other species Habituation
-is the decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus
-its adaptive significance = energy conservation and attention to important stimuli– if an organism
responded to every stimulus it’d become overwhelmed & exhausted quickly
*Classical Conditioning: Associating One Stimulus With Another
-process where an organism learns to associate 2 stimuli where 1 stimulus ends up producing a response
that was originally produced only by the other stimulus
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Pavlov’s Pioneering Research
-dog salivation to tones = classical/Pavlovian conditioning
Basic Principles
Acquisition
-neutral stimulus = does not elicit the response (i.e. tone)
-unconditioned stimulus (UCS) = no learning required to produce response (food)
-unconditioned response (UCR) = no learning required (salivation to food)
-learning trial = pairing of neutral and unconditioned stimulus (tone + food)
-conditioned stimulus = originally neutral, now produces CR (tone)
-conditioned response = produced by CS (salivation to tone)
-CRs acquired most quickly when unconditioned stimulus is intense and aversive
-learning occurs most quickly withforward short-delay pairing (CS appears first and is still present when
UCS appears)
-forward trace pairing – tone comes on & off then food presented (best when 2-3s before)
-has adaptive value because CS signals impending arrival of UCS
-simultaneous pairing not as good but works, backward pairing = slowest/doesn’t work
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
-extinction = when CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of UCS and the CR weakens and disappears
-key ingredient to extinction is not merely the passage of time but repeated presentation of the CS
without the UCS
-spontaneous recovery = the reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period and
without new learning trials
Generalization and Discrimination
-stimulus generalization = stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR
-its adaptive significance – think rustle in the bushes
-discrimination = when a CR occurs to 1 stimulus, but not to others
-it adaptive significance – not reacting to everything and tiring itself out
Higher-Order Conditioning
-when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired withan already established CS
-usually weaker and more easily extinguished than the original CS
Applications of Classical Conditioning
Acquiring and Overcoming Fear
-classical cond explains fear acquisition because 1 stimulus is paired withsomething traumatic and scary
– from that point, the negative feeling is paired withthe neutral stimulus
-exposure therapies = goal is to expose phobic patient to feared stimulus (CS) without any UCS to allow
extinction to occur
-systematic desensitization = one approach = patient learns muscular relaxation techniques and is
gradually exposed to fear-provoking stimulus
-flooding = another technique = immediately exposes the person to the phobic stimulus
Conditioned Attraction and Aversion
-classical cond is used to increase/decrease arousal/attraction to stimuli
-i.e. a neutral smell with a massage increases ppl’s attraction to the smell and smell increases arousal in
the future
-aversion therapy = conditions an aversion to a stimulus that triggers an unwanted behaviour by pairing
it with a noxious UCS (i.e. pedophiles: CS = picture of child & UCS = electric shock)
Psychological Frontiers
Can Classical Conditioning Make Us Sick – And Healthy Again?
Improving the Well-Being of Cancer Patients
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-anticipatory nausea and vomiting (ANV) = when patients being treated withchemotherapy and
radiation become nauseous and may vomit from minutes to hours before therapy – a classically
conditioned response
-needles or the treatment can get associated withthe sickness
Training the Immune System
-classical conditioning can increase or decrease immune system functioning
-i.e. by pairing a sweet taste (candy) withan injection of epinephrine (increases activity of immune
system cells that attack tumours – eventually candy alone shows stronger immune response
Conditioned Allergic and Asthmatic Reactions
-allergic responses occur when immune sys overreacts & releases too many antibodies to combat
allergens
-when a neutral stimulus is paired witha natural allergen (UCS) it may become a CS that triggers an
allergic CR
-asthma wheezing attacks can also be triggered by CSs
-conditioned allergic reactions can be reduced through extinction trials but the easiest way may
sometimes be to just to avoid the CS
*Operant Conditioning: Learning Through Consequences
-explains emitted (voluntary) responses as opposed to elicited responses that are automatically triggered
by some stimulus (classical conditioning explains those)
Thondlike’s Law of Effect
-law of effect = in a given situation, a response followed by a satisfying consequence will become more
likely to occur and vice versa
-evidence: put a hungry car in a box withfood outside and only way to open it was pull string or push
lever – happened by chance at first and then after repeated trials, cat got quicker and quicker – called
instrumental learning
Skinner’s Analysis of Operant Conditioning
-operant conditioning = type of learning where behaviour is influenced by consequences
-facilitates an organism’s personal adaptation – learn to increase beneficial and decrease
detrimental/harmful behaviours
-Skinner box = his rat box withthe lever for food pellets
-reinforcement = response strengthened by an outcome that follows it
-punishment = response weakened by outcomes that follow it
-antecedent = stimuli present before behaviour occurs
ABCs of Operant Conditioning
-if antecedent stimuli (A) are present and behaviour (B) is emitted, then consequence (C) will occur
-relations between A&B and B&C are called contingencies
-2 key differences between classical and operant
-first, in classical, organism learns an association between 2 stimuli – the CS and UCS – that occurs before
behaviour; in operant, organism learns an association between a behaviour and its consequences
-2nd: classical: focuses on elicited behaviours – conditioned responses triggered involuntarily by stimulus
that precedes; operant: focuses on elicit behaviour – in given situation, organism generates responses
that are under its physical control
-many learning situations have both classical and operant
Antecedent Conditions: Identifying When to Respond
-discriminative stimulus = signal that a response will produce a certain consequence
-important because they set the occasion for operant responses to occur
Consequences: Determining How to Respond
Positive Reinforcement
-when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a positive stimulus
-that stimulus is called a positive reinforcer
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Primary and Secondary Reinforcers
-primary reinforcers = stimuli that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy
biological needs (i.e. foods)
-secondary/conditioned reinforcers = come about by their association withprimary reinforcers (i.e.
money)
-secondary reinforcers good example of combination of classical and operant (think dog)
Negative Reinforcement
-is when a response is strengthened by the removal of an unwanted stimulus
-plays key role in helping us learn to escape and avoid aversive situations
Operant Extinction
-is the weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it’s no longer reinforced
-resistance to extinction = the degree to which non-reinforced responses persist
-good alternative to punishment
Aversive Punishment
-is when a response is weakened by the subsequent presentation of a stimulus
-often produces rapid results
-limitation: represses behaviour, doesn’t make organism forget how to make the response
-also, suppression may not generalize to other relevant situations (think swearing)
-also, arouses negative emotions unlike reinforcement, & often sets bad examples
Response Cost
-is when a response is weakened by the subsequent removal of a stimulus
-2 distinct advantages over aversive punishment:
-less likely to result in fear or hatred of punishing agent
-punishing agent’s not modelling physical aggression, so less chance to learn it
Immediate versus Delayed Consequences
-generally immediate consequences have a stronger effect than delayed ones
-delay of gratification = the ability to forego an immediate but smaller reward for a delayed but more
satisfying outcome
Shaping and Chaining: Taking One Step at a Time
-shaping = process involving reinforcing successive approximations toward a final response – also called
method of successive approximations
-chaining = used to develop a sequence of responses by reinforcing each response withthe opportunity
to perform the next response (rat withlever, bell, light, and ladder)
-usually work backward withchaining (start withfinal then adder earlier steps)
Generalization and Discrimination
-operant generalization = an operant response occurs to a new antecedent stimulus or situation that is
similar to the original one
-operant discrimination = an operant response will occur to one antecedent
Schedules of Reinforcement
-are different patterns and frequencies of reinforcement
-continuous reinforcement = every response of a particular type is reinforced
-partial/intermittent reinforcement = only some responses are reinforced
-ratio schedules – certain percentage of responses is reinforced
-interval schedules – certain amount of time must elapse between reinforcements
-fixed schedules – reinforcement always occurs after a fixed number of responses or after a fixed timed
interval
-variable schedules – required number of responses or time interval varies at random around an average
Fixed-Ratio Schedule
-reinforcement given after a fixed number of responses
-pause after reinforcement because they know the next response won’t be reinforced
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-i.e. being paid by production
Variable-Ratio Schedule
-reinforcement given after variable # of current responses, all centered around an average
-no pause because reinforcement could occur on next response
-i.e. gambling
Fixed-Interval Schedule
-1st correct response that occurs after a fixed time interval reinforced
-i.e. studying for exams – lull after 1st exam and cramming before next
Variable-Interval Schedule
-reinforcement given for 1st response that occurs after variable time interval
-i.e. pop quizzes
Partial Reinforcement, Learning, and Extinction
-continuous reinforcement produces more rapid learning but is extinguished more easily
-variable schedules more resistant to extinction because if reinforcement has been unpredictable in the
past, it takes longer to learn that it’s gone forever
-variable produce steadier rates and ratio produce higher rates of responding
Escape and Avoidance Conditioning
-escape conditioning = negative reinforcement is used to terminate an aversive stimulus
-i.e. putting on a sweater to stop shivering
-avoidance conditioning = organism learns a response to avoid an aversive stimulus
-i.e. learn to dress warmly before going out in the cold
-two-factor theory of avoidance learning = states classical and operant conditioning are involved in
avoidance learning
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Training Animals
-operant animal training has helped ppl in many ways including seeing eye dogs, police dogs, and dogs
that can smell drugs, bombs, and can find missing people
Human Applications: Education, the Workplace, and Beyond
-token economies = desirable behaviours are quickly reinforced with”tokens” that are later turned in for
tangible rewards
-is an incentive system at the workplace, school, and sport and increases productivity
-applied behaviour analysis = combines a behavioural approach withthe scientific method to solve
individual and societal problems – programs developed to change behaviour
-used to reduce array of behaviour problems (i.e. not wearing seatbelts)
Applications of Psychological Science
Using Operant Principles to Modify Your Behaviour
-self-regulation = using learning perspectives to change our behaviour
Step 1: Specify the Problem
-specifically define problem to positively reinforce desirable behaviours rather than punish undesirable
ones
-define target behaviour
Step 2: Collect Baseline Data
-provides info about how frequently target behaviour currently occurs
-without this, no way of measuring how much you change after starting program
Step 3: Identifying Antecedents and Consequences
-identify antecedent factors (ones that disrupt behaviour) and focus on consequences of your behaviour
Step 4: Develop a Plan to Modify the Antecedents and Consequences
-after antecedents  modify environment so that different stimuli start to control your behaviour
-self-administered positive reinforcement should be the cornerstone of program – find effective
reinforcer that you can control and make it available only if you engage in desired behaviour
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-draw up and sign a contract withyourself
-use shaping
Step 5: Implement the Program and Keep Measuring Behaviour
-change terms of contract if need be; if setbacks occur it’s not because of lack of willpower
*Biology and Learning
-behaviour is influenced by an organism’s evolutionary history
-preparedness = through evolution, animals are biologically prewired to easily learn behaviours related
to their survival as a species
Constraints on Classical Conditioning: Learned Taste Aversions
-conditioned taste aversion = taste of food that makes us sick disgusts and repulses us
-learned taste aversion knowledge has bee applied to help coyotes from killing sheep, helps humans who
suffer from cancer – odd tasting candy given to patients before chemo to protect them from developing
aversions to other normal foods
Are We Biologically Prepared to Fear Certain Things?
-humans most often fear things that seem to have greater evolutionary significance
-fear can be conditioned much more easily to some stimuli than to others
Constraints on Operant Conditioning: Animals That “Won’t Shape Up”
-instinctive drift = a conditioned response “drifts back” toward instinctive behaviour
-evidence leading to this is that raccoons trained to drop tokens in a box would wash the tokens as
though they were real food because this behaviour was so deeply rooted in their evolutionary history
that it overrode the conditioning procedure
-i.e. can’t teach a chicken baseball because thinks the ball is food
-operant learning is constrained by biology – it is easy to train pigeons to disk for food reinforcers
because they’re biologically primed to peck for food but training pigeons to peck to escape electric shock
is hard because they fly away to escape not peck
Learning and the Brain
-biology and learning are deeply intertwined
-organisms biologically predisposed to learn some associations more easily than others
-animals exposed to enriched environments develop more dendrites, synapses, & greater concentrations
of neurotransmitters – enables animals to perform better learning tasks
*Cognition and Learning
Insight and Cognitive Mapping
-insight = the sudden perception of a useful relationship that helps solve a problem
-cognitive map = a mental representation of the spatial layout of the area
-learning based on knowledge and an expectation of “what leads to what”
-insight and cognitive maps challenge the behaviourist view of learning because chimps trying to reach
bananas and rats in a maze that had been altered stopped to view their surroundings (as though
examining a problem) and then quite suddenly knew the answer
-research on insight & cognitive maps indicate cognitive factors play a role in learning
Cognition in Classical Conditioning
-expectancy model = the most important factoring classical conditioning is not how often the CS and
UCS are paired but how well the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS
-UCS is link to CS that results in the response
-evidence of it is that a group of rats were shocked and every time they were it was paired witha tone and
soon the tone alone created fear
-in a 2nd group the same # of tone-shock pairings were made but there were as many shocks without the
tone
-rats didn’t fear the tone alone because it wasn’t a reliable predictor of the shock
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-expectancy model can also explain why forward pairing produces strongest learning followed by
simultaneous pairing and then backward pairing (prediction)
-good evidence that cognition plays a role in classical conditioning
Cognition in Operant Conditioning
-variety of evidence showing that mental processes play a role in operant conditioning
The Role of Awareness
-the concept of awareness implies that the best predictor of behaviour is the perceived contingency, not
the actual one (i.e. superstitious behaviour) – the person misperceives that certain behaviour produces
good consequences or avoids bad ones
-i.e. kids swearing and Cheerios
Latent Learning
-is learning that occurs but isn’t demonstrated until there’s an incentive to perform
-challenges behaviourist view because it states learning could be learned without environment
-behaviourists believe learning is determined by environment
Self-Evaluation as Reinforcers and Punishers
-cognitive self-evaluations represent important internal reinforcers and punishers
-internal self-evaluations can function as reinforcers and punishers
-once we develop self-evaluative standards, our actions can be influenced by external and internal
consequences
*Observational Learning: When Others Pave the Way
-observational learning = learning that occurs by observing the behaviour of a model
-adaptive significance is that by observing others, organism can learn which events are important which
stimuli signal certain events and which responses will produce positive or negative consequences
-many behaviours are learned through mere observations
-may not be displayed immediately but instead may appear later when incentive conditions change
-learning by observation also called modelling
The Modelling Process
-four basic steps: attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation
-1st must pay attention to model’s behaviour
-2nd must retain that info in memory so it can be recalled at a later time
-3rd must be physically capable of reproducing model’s behaviour, or something similar
-4th must be motivated to display the behaviour
-motivation highlights distinction between learning and performance (think latent learning)
-emotional responses, aggression, and pro-social behaviours can be learned through observation
Lassie Experiment
-concerning internal validity, children were randomly assigned to the TV condition and treated as
similarly as possible and researcher who interacted withchildren during point game didn’t know which
child had seen which show
-using 2 control groups was also positive but if neutral Lassie show didn’t have a puppy this would be a
problem because seeing a cute puppy may have increased children’s empathy for the barking puppies
and this could be why they helped
-concerning external validity, this does appear to generalize to other settings
-a survey of 200 studies examining effects of pro-social TV within and outside lab indicates that such
programs positively affect children’s behaviour
*The Role of Language
-language makes learning more efficient because it frees us from trial and error learning and plays a
critical role in teaching us how to perform various actions
-i.e. to get to friends house you don’t need to drive around developing cognitive maps, you get verbal
directions
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-brings a flexibility & efficiency to learning far beyond that reached by other species
-facilitates the cultural transmission of knowledge from one generation to the next
Chapter Seven: Memory
-the processes that allow us to record and later retrieve experiences and information
*Memory as Information Processing
-like an info processing system because it encodes, stores, and retrieves info
-encoding = getting info into the system by translating it into a neural code that the brain processes
-storage = retaining info over time
-retrieval = pulling info out of storage
A Three-Component Model
-proposes memory has 3 major components: sensory memory, short-term/”working” memory, and longterm memory
Sensory Memory
-hold incoming sensory info just long enough for it to be recognized
-composed of different subsystems called sensory registers
-sensory registers = initial info processors
-iconic store = visual sensory register
-Sperling and iconic memory experiment – only lasts a fraction of a second
-echoic store = auditory sensory register – lasts longer than iconic
Short-Termwithorking Memory
-holds the info we are conscious of at any given time
-working because consciously processes cods and “works” on info
Mental Representations
-info represented in our minds – also called memory codes
-visual encoding = form mental image, phonological encoding = code by sound, semantic encoding = code
by meaning, & motor encoding = code patterns of movement (i.e. piano)
-phonological codes are important in short-term memory
Capacity and Duration
-can only hold limited amount of info (5-9 meaningful items) at a time
-chunking = combining individual items into larger units of meaning – greatly aids recall
-duration limited as well – shelf life of info approx 20s
-can be overcome withrehearsal
-maintenance rehearsal = repetition of info
-elaborate rehearsal = focus on meaning of info or relating it to things we already know
Putting Short-Term Memory “to work”
-actively and simultaneously processes different types of info and supports cognitive functions like
problem solving and planning
-three components of working memory: auditory, visual spatial, and central executive
-auditory working memory = first maintain some info in auditory working memory, like when you
repeat a phone number
-visual spatial working memory = allows us to temporarily store and manipulate images and spatial
info, like when forming mental maps
-central executive = control process that directs the action - decides how much attention to allocate to
mental imagery and auditory rehearsal, calls up info from long-term and integrates the input
Long-Term Memory
-is the vast library of moiré durable stored memories
-storage capacity is virtually unlimited and can last for a lifetime
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-serial position effect = U-shaped pattern of recall (easiest to remember words at the beginning and end
of list) – recall influenced by words in series of items
-primacy effect = reflection of the superior recall of early words – occurs because as the 1st few words
enter short term, we quickly rehearse them and transfer them to long-term
-recency effect = reflection of the superior recall of the mist recent words – occurs because last few
words have the benefit of not being bumped out of short term by new info
-primary effect is long-term, recency is short-term
*Encoding: Entering Information
-more effectively we encode material into long-term, greater likelihood of retrieving it
Effortful and Automatic Processing
-effortful = encoding that’s initiated intentionally & requires conscious attention
-examples: rehearsing, making lists, taking class notes
-automatic = encoding that occurs without intention and requires minimal attention
-examples: info about frequency, spatial location, sequence, and timing of events – can easily recall what
you did yesterday even though you didn’t sit down and memorize it
Levels of Processing: When Deeper Is Better
-structural encoding = notice how the word looks
-phonological/phonemic encoding = sounding out word and judging if it matches the sound of another
-semantic encoding = must pay attention to what the word means
-levels of processing = concept that the deeper we process info, the better it’ll be remembered = depth
of processing concept
Exposure and Rehearsal
-shallow exposure to stimulus does not guarantee long-term retention (even thousands X)
-maintenance rehearsal useful for keeping info active in short-term memory, but rather inefficient for
bringing about long-term transfer
-elaborative rehearsal focuses on meaning of info (organizing info & applying it to own lives) & is
therefore deeper processing so it’s effective in transferring info into long-term
Organization and Imagery
-imposing organization on a set of stimuli is an excellent way to enhance memory
Hierarchies and Chunking
-hierarchy = presents info in logically organized structure
-enhances understanding of how diverse items are related – many cues that trigger others\
-chunking = combines individual items into larger meaningful units
-widens info-processing bottleneck caused by limited capacity of short-term memory
Mnemonic Devices
-is any type of memory aid (i.e. hierarchies, chinking, acronyms, etc)
-do not reduce amount of raw info encoded, but reorganize info into more meaningful units and provide
extra retrieval cues
-argued that acronyms only aid memory when you’re familiar withthe material
Visual Imagery
-is remembering what something looks like or the layout of something
-dual coding theory = info stored in long-term in two forms: verbal and visual codes – if encode info
using both, chances improve that at least one of the two codes will be available later to support recall
-method of loci = imagine physical environment witha sequence of distinct landmarks like rooms in a
house and to remember a list of items or concepts take an imaginary stroll through this environment and
form an image linking each place withan item or concept
How Prior Knowledge Shapes Encoding
-form a mental representation that captures the gist of an event in long-term memory
Schemas: Our Mental Organizers
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-schema = a “mental framework” – an organized pattern of though about some aspect of the world, like a
class of people, events situations, or objects
-influence encoding because they allow us to organize ideas & recall a great deal more
-how we perceive a stimulus shapes the way we mentally represent it
-create a perceptual set to organize and interpret info in a certain way
Schemas and Expert Knowledge
-expert knowledge = viewed as a process of developing schemas that help encode info into meaningful
patterns (think reading music & someone that can’t)
-example: meaningful vs. random positions in chess experiment
-your own expert schemas strongly influence what you encode and remember
*Storage: Retaining Information
-how is memory organized and stored in long-term memory
Memory as a Network
-general principle that memory involves association goes to the heart of this approach
Associative Networks
-is a massive network of associated ideas and concepts
-when people think about a concept like a fire engine there is a spreading activation of related concepts
through the network (i.e. think about fire engine, trigger red, truck, fire)
-priming = activation of one concept (or one unit of information) by another
-example: fire engine primes node for red, making it more likely that our memory for this colour will be
assessed
Neural Networks
-is also called parallel distributed processing models
-has nodes linked to one another but nodes are physical in nature & don’t contain an individual units of
info (i.e. no single node for “red”)
-each concept is represented by a particular pattern or set of nodes that becomes activated
simultaneously
Types of Long-Term Memory
-believe we process several long-term memory systems that interact withone another
Declarative and Procedural Memory
-declarative memory = involves factual knowledge and includes two subcategories:
-episodic memory = store of factual knowledge concerning personal experience
-semantic memory = represents general factual knowledge about the world and language, including
memory for words and concepts
-called declarative because we have to tell people what we know – we declare it
-procedural memory = reflected in skills and actions (opposite of declarative)
-are skills expressed by doing things, i.e. biking, typing, etc
-classically conditioned responses are included here
Explicit and Implicit Memory
-explicit memory = involved conscious & intentional memory retrieval
-recognition = requires us to decide whether a stimulus is familiar (think eyewitness)
-recall = involves spontaneous memory retrieval – must retrieve target stimuli or info on your own (think
short answer test)
-cued recall = recall withhints given to stimulate memory (“it rhymes withbat”)
-implicit memory = influences behaviour without conscious awareness (re: driving)
*Retrieval: Accessing Information
-retrieval cue = any stimulus (internal or external) that stimulates the activation of information stored
in long-term memory
The Value of Multiple and Self-Generated Cues
-multiple, self-generated cues = most effective approach to maximize recall
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-encoding side: generating own associations involve deeper processing than being presented
withsomeone else’s & 3 associations have deeper processing than only one
-retrieval side: self-generated cues becomes ones withpersonal meaning and withmultiple cues, if one
fails, another might activate memory
The Value of Distinctiveness
-distinctive stimuli are better remembered than non-distinctive ones (in general)
-can enhance memory by associating non-distinctive stimuli withother ones to make them distinctive
Flashbulb Memory: Fogging up the Picture?
-flashbulb memories = recollections that seem so vivid, so clear, that we can picture them as if they
were a “snapshot” of a moment in time
-aren’t always accurate memories – are as accurate as normal ones, but feel more confident about them
-examples: Challenger disaster and O.J. Simpson trial
Context, State, and Mood Effects on Memory
-encoding specificity principle = memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match
those that were present during encoding
-occurs because stimuli associated withan event may become encoded as part of the memory and later
serve as retrieval cues
Context-Dependent Memory: Returning to the Scene
-context-dependent memory = it is typically easier to remember something in the same environment in
which it was acquired
State-Dependent Memory: Arousal, Drugs, and Mood
-state-dependent memory = our ability to retrieve info is greater when our internal state at the time of
retrieval matches original state during learning
-mood-congruent recall = tend to recall info or events that are congruent without current mood (i.e.
when happy, more likely to recall positive events)
Applications of Psychological Science
Improving Memory and Academic Learning
-memory enhancement strategies fall into 3 broad categories: external aids (lists, calendars), general
memory strategies (organizing and rehearsing info), and formal mnemonic techniques (acronyms, etc)
-principles that best enhance memory:
-make sure you understand what info means (don’t just memorize)
-link new info to examples and items already in memory
-organize info (keeps you actively thinking about material)
-overlearn material: continued learning past the point of initial learning
-distributed practice will retain more info (several short sessions that are spread out)
-minimize interference (1 piece of info encoded in memory impairs ability to remember some other
pieces of info)
-use imagery (i.e. waitress remembering orders by associating orders withthe people)
*Forgetting
The Course of Forgetting
-Ebbinghaus – measured memory using a method called relearning and computing a savings percentage –
used nonsense syllables
-when material is meaningful (unlike nonsense syllables) we are more likely to retain more of it for a
longer time
-savings – i.e. 20 trials to learn list 1st time and 10 trials to relearn next week, then savings percentage is
50%
-his “forgetting curve” = is rapid at 1st& then slows noticeably after
-factors that contributed to his rapid, substantial forgetting are that he was studying many lists at once
and that the syllables had no meaning
Why Do We Forget?
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-several explanations for normal memory loss emphasizing difficulties in encoding, storage, and retrieval
Encoding Failure
-not necessarily that we forget info, but that we fail to encode info into long-term memory in the 1st place
-example: seen thousands of pennies but don’t know design because it’s not meaningful
Decay of the Memory Trace
-decay theory = withtime and disuse, physical memory trace in nervous system fades away
-theory not liked b/d scientists couldn’t identify what physical memory traces were, where they are, or
how physical decay could be measured
-reminiscence – recalling more material during 2nd testing (inconsistent withconcept that memory trace
decays over time)
Interference, Retrieval Failure, and the Tip-of-the-Tongue
-interference theory = forget info because other items in long-term impair ability to retrieve it
-proactive interference = occurs when material learned in past interferes withrecall of newer material
(hard to remember new number b/v you remember your old one)
-retroactive interference = newly acquired info interferes withthe ability to recall info learned at an
earlier time (trying to remember French when doing German)
-believe it’s caused by competition among retrieval cues – diff memories associated withsimilar or
identical cues  confusion, so cue may retrieve wrong memory
-tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon = cannot recall a fact or name, but feel on the verge of recalling it (often
recall wrong word that is similar)
-sometimes retrieval failure, others are illusory (never knew it in the first place)
Motivated Forgetting
-repression = protect us by blocking recall of anxiety arousing memories
-very controversial concept – evidence for and against it
Amnesia
-is the most dramatic instance of forgetting, takes many forms
-retrograde amnesia = memory loss for events that occur prior to the onset of amnesia
-anterograde amnesia = memory loss for events that occur after the initial onset of amnesia – think
memento
-possible causes: damage to hippocampus, Korsakoff’s syndrome (can result from chronic alcoholism)
-Alzheimer’s – produces retrograde and anterograde amnesia due to decline in operation of several
neurotransmitter systems especially acetylcholine
-infantile/childhood amnesia – inability to remember personal events from 1st few years of life
-possible causes: 1) brain regions responsible for encoding long-term memories are still immature in 1st
years or 2)we don’t encode early experiences deeply and fail to form good retrieval cues for them
Forgetting to Do Things: Prospective Memory
-prospective memory = concerns remembering to perform an activity in the future
-frontal lobes centrally involved
*Memory as a Constructive Process
-often construct/reconstruct memory by piecing info together in a way that seems logical
Memory Distortion and Schemas: On Ghosts, “Gargoils,” and Scenes beyond the Edge
-Bartlett – war of the Ghosts test – research illustrates memory construction because he had 20th century
residents of England read 18th century Native American stories and then retell them after a given time
-story changed significantly – residents reconstructed it in a way that made sense to them
-schemas cause us to remember events not as they actually occurred, but in a way that makes sense and
fits in withour pre-existing without pre-existing assumptions of the world
-example: Listerine ad changed to “gargoil” – participants said prevents colds
-boundary extension = remembering a scene as being more expansive than it really is
The Misinformation Effect and Eyewitness Testimony
-misinformation effect = distortion of a memory by misleading post-event info
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-if memories are constructed then info that occurs after an event may shape that construction process
-example: same car accident, 4 different descriptions: range of speeds given accordingly
Confusing the Source
-source confusion – tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar, but to forget where we
encountered it – also called source amnesia or source misattribution
-contributes to misinformation effect in things like eyewitness testimonies
-example: eyewitness looks through mug shots and doesn’t identify any as perpetrator – looks at line-up
where none are guilty a few days later and identifies 1 as the perpetrator because she recognized him,
but failed to remember why (really from mug shot)
Psychological Frontiers
How Accurate Are Young Children’s Memories
-young children are generally more susceptible to misleading suggestions than older ones
-younger ones are less accurate on recalling traumatic events than older (82% vs. 48%)
-children remember a great deal, but misremember like adults, and seem more susceptible to
misinformation effects
Other Factors in Eyewitness Testimony
-many factors other than misinformation involved in eyewitness testimony inaccuracy
-alcohol major problem, marijuana less problematic
-kind of info influential – voice along less accurate than voice and sight or sight alone
-men and women equally inaccurate, but men more confident in decisions
The “Recovered Memory” Controversy: Repression or Reconstruction
-people do forget traumatic personal events
-controversial because repression is difficult for researchers to demonstrate
-also primary problem is inability to forget withtraumatic experiences, not memory loss
-and experiments show that false memories can be created by suggestive questioning or comments or
even by merely imagining it took place
*The Biology of Memory
-engram = physical memory trace that presumably was stored somewhere in the brain when a memory
was formed (Lashley searched)
-considerable progress made in understanding the biological bases of memory
Where in the Brain Are Memories Formed?
-3 approaches to map the geography of memory:
-1) human lesion studies – examine memory loss following naturally occurring brain damage to different
parts of the brain (i.e. from disease or accidents)
-2) non-human animal lesion experiments – researchers damage specific parts of brain observe how
memory is affected
-3) brain imaging studies – examine healthy brain as participants perform various memory tasks
-above research reveals memory involves many interacting brain regions
The Hippocampus and Cerebral Cortex
-hippocampus is the encoding station that converts short-term memories into more permanent ones;
memory consolidation
-memory consolidation – creation and binding together of neural codes that allow info to be transferred
from STM to LTM
-cerebral cortex – vital role in encoding by processing info from sensory registers
-stores semantic memories across wide range of sites
-frontal lobes (esp. prefrontal) = central role in carrying out functions of working memory
The Thalamus and Amygdala
-thalamus – not sure of specific function but damage to it causes permanent anterograde and retrograde
amnesia
-amygdala – encodes emotionally arousing and disturbing aspects of events
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-damage to it impairs ability to form conditioned responses
The Cerebellum
-important role in formation of procedural memories
*Exceptional Memory
-mnemonists = people who display extraordinary remembering
-researchers debate whether mnemonists have unique memory abilities or employ basic memory skills
to an extraordinary degree
-basic memory principles that account for memory are prior knowledge & extensive practice, meaningful
associations, and efficient storage and retrieval structures
*A Final Thought: The “Curse” of Exceptional Memory
-forgetting is adaptive in the sense that it can dull unpleasant experiences of the past
-perfect memory would be a burden because any retrieval cue might unleash a flood of trivial memories
that dominate consciousness and make it difficult to concentrate
-although people sometimes wish for a perfect memory, our memory system strikes a highly adaptive
balance between the benefits of remembering and of forgetting
Chapter Eight: Motivation and Emotion
*Perspectives on Motivation
-motivation = a process that influences the direction, persistence, and vigour of goal-directed behaviour
Instinct Theory and Modern Evolutionary Psychology
-instinct = fixed action pattern = an inherited characteristic, common to all members of a species, that
automatically produces particular response when an organism is exposed to a particular stimulus
-according to evolutionary psychologists, adaptive significance helps us understand human motivation
-example: why are we such social creatures?
-presumably, affiliation produced several advantages – such as shared resources and better protection
against predators
-that gave ancestors greater opportunity to pass their genes on to successive generations
-over ages, social people made up a large part of the gene pool and we became biologically predisposed to
be social rather than reclusive
Homeostasis and Drive Theory
-homeostasis = state of mental physiological equilibrium that body strives to maintain
-drive theory = physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives
-drives = states of tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways to reduce tension
Incentive and Expectancy Theories
-incentives = environmental stimuli that pull an organism towards a goal (i.e. good grades are an
incentive to study)
-expectancy x value theory = proposes that goal directed behaviour determined by 2 factors: 1) the
strength of person’s belief that the particular behaviour will lead to the goal and 2) the value that
individual places on goal (incentive value)
-motivation X expectancy = incentive value
-because of the 2 factors, ppl may respond differently to the same incentive
-extrinsic motivation = performing an activity to obtain an external reward or avoid punishment
-intrinsic motivation = performing an activity for its own sake because it’s enjoyable
-overjustification hypothesis = giving people extrinsic rewards to perform activities that they intrinsically
enjoy may “overjustify” that behaviour and reduce intrinsic motivation
-extrinsic rewards reduce intrinsic motivation
Psychodynamic and Humanistic Theories
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-to Freud, much of our behaviour results from a battle between unconscious impulses struggling for
release and psychological defences used to keep them under control (dual instinct model – little evidence
to support it)
-today’s psychodynamic theories continue to emphasize that unconscious motives and tensions guide
how we act and feel
-Maslow believed that a key motive was ignored – striving for personal growth
-distinguished between deficiency needs (concerned withphysical and social survival) and growth needs
(uniquely human and motivate us to develop our potential)
-need hierarchy = a progression of need containing deficiency needs a the bottom and growth needs at
the top– proposed by Maslow
-self-actualization = the need to fulfill our potential – the ultimate human motive
-pyramid from top to bottom: growth: self-actualization, aesthetic needs, cognitive needs; deficiency
needs: esteem, belongingness & love, safety, & physiological needs
-↑progression if lower needs are satisfied, ↓regression if they’re not met
*Hunger and Weight Regulation
The Physiology of Hunger
-metabolism = body’s rate of energy utilization – about 2/3 of energy goes to basal metabolism, which is
the resting, continuous metabolic work of body cells
-satiety = the state in which we no longer feel hungry as a result of eating
Signals That Start and Terminate a Meal
-physiological signals that initiate hunger: stomach contractions (but can feel hungry without a stomach)
& a temporary drop-rise glucose pattern prior to experiencing hunger
-physio reasons that cause eating to stop:
-stomach and intestinal distension are satiety signals – walls of organs stretch as food fills them up,
sending nerve signals to the brain
-some signals due to food content (nutritionally rich food) produce satiety more quickly
-chemical signals – intestines respond to food by releasing hormones called peptides that help terminate
the meal – i.e. CCK (cholecystokinin) released in blood, goes to brain and stimulates receptors that
decrease eating
Signals that Regulate Appetite and Weight
-leptin = a hormone that decreases appetite
-as we gain fat, more leptin is secreted into the blood and reaches the brain where receptor sites on
certain neurons detect it
-leptin signals influence neural pathways to decrease appetite by increasing potency of other signals
-learned about leptin through research withgenetically obese mice
-ice withmutated ob gene lack leptin, become overweight, but leptin injections cause mice to become
thinner
-mice with ob gene mutation produce leptin but brain receptors can’t detect it so they become obese –
leptin injections don’t help
Brain Mechanisms
-many parts of the brain play a role in regulating hunger and eating
-evidence suggests that the lateral hypothalamus is “hunger on” centre
-example: when rat’s LH electrically stimulated, rat started eating, damaged: refused
-“hunger off” centre = ventromedial hypothalamus
-electrically stimulating rat’s VMH caused hungry rats to stop eating and lesioning it caused rats to eat
frequently
-evidence suggesting otherwise is that rats withLH damage stop eating in part because they have trouble
swallowing and digesting and become unresponsive to stimuli other than food
-also, axons from many brain areas funnel into the hypothalamus and then fan out again upon leaving it –
cutting these nerve tracts anywhere along their path duplicate effects of LH and VMH lesions
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-paraventricular nucleus (PVN) = cluster of neurons packed withreceptor sites for various transmitters
that stimulate or reduce appetite
-neuropeptide Y is a powerful appetite stimulant
-more hungry when trying to lose weight because when leptin reaches hypothalamus it inhibits activity
of neurons that release neuropeptide and appetite’s reduced – but when losing fat, less leptin produced &
therefore neuropeptide neurons more active, increasing appetite
Psychological Aspects of Hunger
-some factors contributing to pressure women to fell thin: media, overestimate how thin they feel men
want them to be, perceive body shape as heavier than ideal whereas men viewed shape as close to it,
perceive themselves as heavy and so have lower self-esteem
-objectification theory = western culture teaches women to view their bodies as objects, this increases
body shame & anxiety, which leads to eating restrictions & even disorders
-thin = attractive = ingrained by adolescence
Environmental and Cultural Factors
-factors influencing eating: food availability, taste and variety, associating smell and sight of food withits
taste (can trigger hunger), eat ,pre dining withpeople than alone (because takes longer), other stimuli
associated witheating (like time of day), and norms that affect what, when, how, and how much we eat
Obesity
-very high obesity rates in Canada and even more so in the US
Genes and Environment
-heredity influences basal metabolic rate and tendency to store energy as fat or lean tissue
-evidence = identical twins reared apart are about as similar in body mass as identical twins reared
together, adopted children resemble biological parents more closely than adoptive parents, and obese ppl
more likely to have obese parents and grandparents
-Pima Indians are genetically predisposed to obesity but rare before 20th century because their native
diet and way of life prevented genetic predisposition from being expressed
-obesity rates after WWII increased dramatically as Westernized diet and sedentary lifestyle was adopted
Dieting and Weight Loss
-hard for obese people to lose weight because obese people have higher levels of insulin which increases
conversion of glucose into fat
-harder to vigorously work our and dieting slows basal metabolism because the body’s response to less
food is withless energy expenditure (think Quinn’s diet lecture)
Psychological Frontiers
Eating Disorders: Anorexia and Bulimia
-anorexia nervosa = an intense fear of being fat and severely restrict their food intake to the point of
self-starvation
-bulimia = overly concerned withbeing fat, binge eat and then purge the food by inducing vomiting or
using laxatives
-occurs because culture portrays beauty through thinness and viewing one’s body as an object
-personality is a factor as well: anorexics tend to be perfectionists/high achievers (disapproving parents
are common) and bulimics tend to be depressed and anxious withlow impulse control and lack stable
sense of personal identity
-biologically eating disorders higher among identical twins than fraternal and among 1st degree relatives
over 2nd or 3rd
-have abnormal levels or serotonin and other chemicals that regulate eating
*Sensation-Seeking
-refers to motivation to seek out stimulation & novelty – its strength varies across people
-evidence suggesting that sensation seeking has biological basis is that EEG recordings indicate that when
high and low sensation seekers are exposed to a constant stimulus, brain activity in the cerebral cortex of
high sensation seekers decreases more quickly
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*Sexual Motivation
Sexual Behaviour: Patterns and Change
-last half century has witnessed changing patterns of sexual activity such as an increase in premarital sex
though also suggested that these are levelling off and may be decreasing
The Physiology of Sex
The Sexual Response Cycle
-is a four phase cycle when sexually aroused:
-1)Excitement Stage – arousal builds rapidly, blood flows to arteries in and around genital organs,
nipples, and breasts increase, and result in swelling (vasocongestion)
-2)Plateau Phase – respiration, heart rate, vasocongestion, and muscle tension continue to build until
enough muscle tension to orgasm
-3)Orgasm Phase – in males, rhythmic contractions of internal organs and muscle tissue surrounding
urethra cause ejaculation; in females, rhythmic contractions of outer third of vagina, surrounding
muscles, and uterus cause orgasm
-4)Resolution Phase – in males, orgasm followed by this phase during which physiological arousal
decreases rapidly and genital organs and tissues return to normal state – males enter refractory period
where they’re incapable of another orgasm; females can have 2 or more successive orgasms before the
onset of the resolution phase
Hormonal Influences
-hypothalamus controls pituitary gland which regulates hormones called gonadotropins in blood stream
which affect rate at which gonads secrete androgens (masculine sex hormones) and estrogens (female
sex hormones)
-organizational effects of sex hormones that direct development of male and female sex characteristics:
-in womb, male and female embryos form primitive gonad that has potential to develop testes or ovaries
–
-if male, testes after 8 weeks from conception, and then as testes release sex hormones during prenatal
development, typically sufficient androgen activity to produce males pattern of genital, reproductive,
brain, and other organ development
-years later as part of pattern, hypothalamus increases release of sex hormones at puberty
-in females, embryo doesn’t form testes and female pattern of development occurs
-at puberty, hypothalamus stimulates release of sex hormones from ovaries on basis that regulates
menstrual cycle
-activating effects that stimulate sexual desire & behaviour begin at puberty:
-males have constant secretion of sex hormones but females sexually receptive only during periods of
high estrogen secretion
-desire doesn’t go up or down as blood level of hormones change; baseline level of certain hormones
necessary to maintain desire
-androgens have primary influence of sexual desire in both men and women
The Psychology of Sex
Sexual Fantasy
-sexual fantasies alone may trigger genital erection and orgasm in some people
Desire, Arousal, and Sexual Dysfunction
-being turned off by actions of partner or lacking interest in sex inhibit sexual functioning
-also, difficulty in becoming/staying aroused – stress, fatigue, anger
-sexual dysfunction = chronic, impaired sexual functioning that distresses person (result from disease,
injury, drugs)
Cultural and Environmental Influences
Cultural Norms
-influence behaviour by laying out beliefs of what is acceptable and what isn’t
-think gross Marquesas or repressive Inis Beag
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Arousing Environmental Stimuli
-things like touching, hearing, or seeing sexual content can trigger sexual desire
Pornography, Sexual Violence, and Sexual Attitudes
-according to social learning principle: people learn through observation – people viewing porn, where
sex is impersonal and women enjoy being dominated, become more likely to treat women as objects and
act aggressively
-according to catharsis principle: inborn aggressive and sexual impulse builds up and actions that
release this tension provide a catharsis that temporarily returns us to a normal state – watching porn
should provide safe outlet for releasing sexual and aggressive tensions and should decrease sexually
aggressive behaviour towards women
-findings: a little unclear, but violent porn increases men’s aggressive behaviour towards women; nonviolent porn? unsure
-in real world, no clear relation between porn and rape levels
Sexual Orientation
-refers to one’s emotional and erotic preference for partners of a particular sex
Prevalence of Different Sexual Orientation
-sexual orientation’s hard to define because it has 3 dimension: self identity, sexual attraction, and actual
sexual behaviour
Determinants of Sexual Orientation
-some theories about determination of sexual orientation that have been rejected:
-biological theory that homo and heterosexual men differ in adult levels of sex hormones
-psychodynamic view that male homosexuality develops when boys grow witha weak father and identify
withdomineering or seductive mother
-being sexually seduced by adult homosexual causes children to divert their sex drive towards member of
own sex
-behaviourists suggested that homosexuality was conditioned response, developed by associating
adolescent sexual urges withpresence of same sex peers
-evidence suggesting sexual orientation has biological roots include adoption/twin studies
-the closer the genetic relatedness, the higher the concordance rates for sexual orientation
-altering animals’ prenatal exposure to sex hormones can influence orientation
-acc to this view, brain develops a neural pattern that predisposes organisms to prefer female or male sex
partners, depending on whether prenatal sex hormone activity follows masculine or feminine path
-limitations: XY females raised as girls, so socialization could account for it
-heredity affects sexual orientation indirectly by influencing basic personality and different personalities
steer children towards different social experiences which play key role in determining sexual orientation
*Achievement Motivation
-need for achievement = desire to accomplish tasks & attain standards of excellence
Motivation for Success: The Thrill of Victory
-strive to succeed for 2 reason: positively oriented motive for success or negatively oriented motivation
to avoid failure
-students withhigh motivation for success focus on mastery goals and performance-approach goals
-mastery goals reflect intrinsic motivation (want to learn)
-performance-approach goals involve social comparison (want to win/be the best)
Fear of Failure: The Agony of Defeat
-performance avoidance goals – fear of performing poorly
-anxiety makes it difficult to process info effectively and attend to the task requirements
Achievement Needs and Situational Factors
-people withhigh performance needs choose moderately difficult tasks as opposed to high or low
difficulty because the outcome is most uncertain
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-people withlow achievement will choose either easy or difficult tasks because in both cases the outcome
is fairly certain
-individual’s perception of task uncertainty matters
Family and Cultural Influences
-high need for achievement develops in homes where parents encourage and reward achievement but
don’t punish failure
-fear of failure develops: achievement = taken for granted by parents, failure = punished
-individualistic cultures stress personal achievement when in collective cultures, achievement motivation
reflects desire to fit into family/social group & work for its goals
*Motivation in the Workplace
-to succeed, organization needs workers motivated to join it and perform their jobs well
Why Do People Work?
-most people are primarily motivated by opportunity for personal accomplishment, not $
Job Satisfaction and Performance
-contrary to what we’d believe, job productivity and job satisfaction are weakly related
-no agreed-upon theory to explain it
Enhancing Work Motivation
-3 programs designed to enhance work motivation
Enriching and Redesigning Jobs
-humanistic perspective
-makes job more intrinsically motivating and satisfying by providing skill variety, task identity, task
significance, autonomy, and job feedback
Modifying External Incentives
-performance will increase when reinforcers made contingent on productivity
-bank paid workers for # of customers served and new accounts opened
Goal Setting and Management by Objectives
-management by objectives = combines goal setting withemployee particip & feedback
-employee participation – 2nd component of MBO – employees meet withmanagement at least once a year
to develop employee goals and plan how to attain them
-objective feedback – 3rd component in MBO – provides opportunities to recognize success and when
goals not met, encourages a search for new methods to reach them
*Motivational Conflict
-approach-approach conflict = involves opposition between 2 attractive alternatives
-avoidance-avoidance conflict = person faces 2 undesirable alternatives
-approach-avoidance conflict = involves being attracted to & repelled by the same goal
-tendency to approach desired goal and desire to avoid it both grow stronger as we get nearer to goal
(avoidance tendency usually increases in strength faster than approach)
-initially attracted but if you get closer you’re more repelled
-method of coping withconflict is defensive avoidance = procrastinating
*The Nature and Functions of Emotion
-emotions play important role in our lives
-emotions = positive or negative feeling (affect) states consisting of a pattern of cognitive, physiological,
and behavioural reactions to events that have relevance to important goals or motives
-events may be external or internal
-motivation and emotion both involve states of arousal and they can both trigger actions
-always link between the two because we react emotionally only when our motives and goals are
gratified, threatened, or frustrated
-motives operate as internal stimuli that energize and direct behaviour toward some goal or incentive
whereas emotions are basically reactions or responses to events that relate to important goals
The Adaptive Value of Emotion
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-negative emotions have been shaped by evolutionary survival pressures to narrow attention and action
tendencies so that the organism can respond to a threatening situation witha focused set of responses
-positive emotions broaden our thinking and behaviour so that we explore new ideas in conditions where
high physiological arousal not needed – helps individuals build resources that are intellectual, physical
and therefore adaptive
-emotions are made of communication by providing observable info about our internal states to others, it
influences how they behave towards us
The Nature of Emotion
-emotions are responses to external and internal eliciting stimulus
-emotional responses result from our interpretation or cognitive appraisal of those stimuli which gives
stimulation its perceived meaning and significance
-our bodies response physiologically to our appraisal – may become stirred up or experience decreased
arousal (contentment or depression)
-emotions include behaviour tendencies – some are expressive (smiling, crying), others instrumental
(ways of doing something about a stimulus that aroused the emotion)
-eliciting stimulus  cognitive appraisal  physiological responses and expressive behaviours 
instrumental behaviour
Eliciting Stimuli
-can be external (getting mad AT something, fearful OF something in love WITH someone) or internal
(mental images or memories)
-biological factors help determine which stimuli have the greatest potential to arouse emotions (newborn
babies come equipped withcapacity to respond emotionally witheither interest or distress to events)
-learning factors influence ability of particular objects or people to arouse emotions
-previous experiences can make certain people or situations eliciting stimuli for emotions
The Cognitive Component
-cognitions involved in virtually every aspect of emotion
Appraisal Processes
-cog appraisals enter into emotion in an almost automatic interpretation of sensory input
-idea that emotional reactions are triggered by cognitive appraisals rather than external situations helps
to account for the fact that different people (or same person at different time) can have different
emotional reactions to same stimulus
Culture and Appraisal
-is evidence for both universal and culturally-determined appraisal
-universal appraisal – evidence – respondents in variety of cultures asked to recall events that evoke
certain emotions and to answer questions about how they interpreted the situations – in 27 cultures
cross cultural similarities in types of appraisals that evoked joy, fear, anger, sadness, disgust, shame, and
guilt
-culturally determined appraisals – evidence – being alone for Tahitians appraised as opportunity for bad
spirits to bother person, causing fear - Eskimo culture: being alone signifies social rejection causing
sadness – western cultures: being alone is nice break from frantic daily life and evokes happiness
The Physiological Component
-certain brain regions, autonomic nervous system, and endocrine system important in emotional arousal
Brain Structures and Neurotransmitters
-subcortical structures like the hypothalamus, amygdala, hippocampus, and other limbic systems
structures play major roles in emotion
-cerebral cortex has many connections withhypothalamus and limbic system, allowing communication
between cortical and subcortical regions
-cognitive appraisal processes involve activities in cortex where mechanisms for language and complex
thought reside
-ability to regulate emotion depends heavily on executive functions pf prefrontal cortex
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-Le Doux’s theory says that the thalamus sends messages along 2 independent neural pathways: 1
travelling to cortex and other directly to the amygdala
-this means that the amygdala can receive input from senses and generate emotional reactions before
cerebral cortex has had time to fully interpret what’s causing the rxn
-this enables organism to react withgreat speed
-shortly after, cerebral cortex responds withmore carefully processed cognitive interpretation of
situation (think scared of rope because thought it was snake)
-this explains why we behave in a way that’s sometimes opposite to how we feel
-amygdala can learn on its own - experimental evidence supporting that amygdala can (also provides
mechanism for “unconscious” emotional memories): Le Doux surgically removed visual cortex of rats so
visual stimuli could not be processed there
-then used classical conditioning, he paired light withan electric shock
-although rats couldn’t see light, they developed a fear response to it, which indicates that the amygdala
learned to fear it
-withhuman studies: participants viewed faces that had been previously paired withaversive noise to
establish negative response
-when faces were presented so that participants couldn’t consciously report their presence, brain
recordings showed amygdala reacted to aversely conditioned faces but not to non-conditioned faces
-pleasurable emotions: dopamine activity and endorphins may play a role
-serotonin and norepinephrine play role in anger
Hemispheric Activation and Emotion
-depressed patients were shocked electrically and the electric current temporarily disrupted activity in
applied hemisphere
-withleft hemisphere knocked out & right taking charge, patients wailed til effects wore off
-when shock applied to right & left in charge, patients seemed unconcerned or happy
-in patients withhemisphere damage, LH damage accentuated negative emotions and right damage linked
to euphoria
-evidence suggests that LH activation underlies positive emotion and RH = negative
-to test this, EEG measures of frontal lobe activity taken and when people felt positive emotions, LH more
active than right and vice versa for negative emotions
Autonomic ad Hormonal Processes
-the bodily responses you see when someone’s afraid shows a state of arousal called the fight-or-flight
response
-the SNS produces arousal in a few seconds by stimulating organs and muscles
-meanwhile endocrine sys pumps epinephrine, cortisol, & other stress hormones in blood
-these endocrine hormones produce physiological effects like those triggered by the SNS but their effects
last longer and keep the body aroused for a considerable length of time
-complex and subtle emotions don’t involve distinct patterns of arousal but autonomic patterns do show
subtle differences in certain basic emotions like fear and anger
-i.e. fear and anger both increase HR, but blood pumped to different areas (hands and feet) when angry
and reduces to these areas when scared (“cold feet”)
“I cannot tell a lie”: the lie detector controversy
-polygraph = a scientific instrument that measures physiological responses like respiration, heart rate,
and skin conductance = lie detector
-withpolygraphs, innocent ppl may appear guilty when doubt, fear, or lack of confidence increase
autonomic activity
-also, guilty ppl can beat the polygraph by biting their tongue, curling toes, or contracting anal sphincter
when control questions asked, so their arousal response to those questions are similar to arousal when
they actually lie
The Behavioural Component
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-the directly observable behaviours that are part of emotional responses
Expressive Behaviours
-are observable behavioural indications of subjectively experienced emotions
-empathy = the capacity for experiencing the same emotional response being exhibited by another
person
Evolution and Emotional Expression
-fundamental emotional patterns = basic emotional response patterns that are believed to be innate
-one finding that suggests this is that certain expression for emotions like rage or terror are similar
across a variety of cultures, suggesting expressive behaviour patterns are wired into nervous system
-secondly, children who are blind from birth express these emotions in same ways that sighted children
do
-fundamental/primary innate emotions: anger, fear, enjoyment, disgust, anticipation, surprise, contempt,
shame, sadness, guilt, distress, acceptance
-emotions can be organized in terms of hierarchy ranging from the most universal expressions to the
more subtle subordinate categories
1) positive and negative affect, expressed as interest and distress are most basic categories, most
universal, and 1st to manifest themselves after birth
2) basic emotions appear at 2nd level of hierarchy; apply across all cultures but show up later in child’s
development
3) 3rd level more subtle emotions derived from basic emotions – more heavily influenced by cultural
learning (diff types of love)
Facial Expression of Emotion
-Facial Action Coding System (FACS) – measure facial expressions in terms of all the muscular actions
that produce it
-eyes provide most important cues for fear and sadness
-mouth major cue for happiness and disgust
-forehead indicates surprise best
-anger is more complex – needs info from all facial areas
Culture Display Rules
-display rules = the norms for emotional expression within a given culture
-innate biological factors & cultural display rules combine to shape emotional expression
Instrumental Behaviours
-instrumental behaviours = emotional coping behaviours that are directed at achieving the goal or
performing the task that is relevant to the emotion
-instrumental actions fall into 5 categories: moving towards others (love), moving away from
others(fear/disgust), moving against others (anger), helplessness, and submission
-high level of arousal can positively affect task performance (i.e. getting psyched up in sport) and it can be
negative as well (i.e. anxiety during exams)
-relation between emotional arousal and task performance takes shape of inverted U
-as task complexity increases, level of arousal for maximum performance decreases
-thus even moderate level of arousal can disrupt performance on highly complex task
*Interactions Among the Components of Emotion
James Lange Somatic Theory
-somatic theory of emotion = modern emotion theory that emphasizes casual role of bodily responses
in the experiencing of emotion
-i.e. we know we are afraid or in love only because our bodily reactions tell us so
The Cannon-Bard Theory
-opposed somatic theory because bodies don’t respond instantaneously to emotional stimulus – may take
several seconds before signs of physiological arousal appear yet people usually experience emotion
immediately
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-proposed that when we encounter an emotion-arousing situation the thalamus simultaneously sends
sensory messages to cerebral cortex and to organs
-the message to cortex produces the experience of the emotion and one sent to organs produces
physiological arousal
The Role of Autonomic Feedback
-in experiments, nerves that provide feedback from internal organs to brain are severed
-these animals still showed emotional responses supporting Cannon-Bard Theory over Lange’s
-also, people withsevered spines experience emotions equally
The Facial Feedback Hypothesis
-facial feedback hypothesis = feedback from facial expressions to brain might play key role in
determining the nature and intensity of emotions we experience
-evidence supporting this is that ppl holding pen withteeth using muscles for smiling felt more pleasant
than when they hold the pen withlips, using muscles associated withfrowning
-same experiment: found cartoons funnier, same results withpeople saying “eee” or “ooo”
-vascular theory of emotional feedback = tensing facial muscles alters the temperature of blood
entering brain by controlling volume of air inhaled through nose
-cooling blood increases positive effect where warming it produces negative effect, perhaps by
influencing release of different neurotransmitters in brain
Cognitive-Affective Theories
-Lazarus’s cognitive appraisal theory: if person appraises relationship withenvironment in certain way,
then a specific emotion that is tied to the appraisal always results
-if 2 ppl makes same appraisal, they experience same emotion regardless of actual circumstances
-eliciting stimulus  appraisal  arousal
-Schachter’s theory = two-factor theory of emotion = arousal and cognitive labelling based on
situational cues are critical ingredients in emotional experience
-intensity of physiological arousal tells us how strongly we feel something but situational cues give us
info we need in order to tell what we are feeling
-eliciting emotion to both, appraisal  arousal
-Lazarus and co-workers showed that appraisals influence level of arousal by monitoring student’s skin
conductivity while watching a film depicting an aboriginal rite where boy’s penises were cut withknives
-accompanying this was 4 soundtracks: trauma (emphasizing pain), denial (emphasizing entering
manhood and bravery), intellectualization (focusing on traditions of tribe), and the other one was silent
-trauma soundtrack showed highest arousal, then silent, then the other two showed much lower arousal
(because they were more benign)
-Schachter and Wheeler showed that arousal level can affect appraisals through an experiment where 1
group was injected withNE (increases arousal) another withtranquilizer, and another witha substance
having no effect at all – all groups were told it was a vitamin
-then they watched comedy film & behaviours like laughing, smiling, etc were recorded
-aroused participants found film funnier than control group and both found it funnier than tranquilizer
group
-these results from 2 experiments show that appraisal influences arousal and arousal can influence
appraisal
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Chapter Nine: Intelligent Thought and Behaviour
-mental representations = cognitive representations of the world, including images, ideas, concepts,
and principles, that are the foundations of thinking and problem solving
-you communicate those mental representations through language
*Language
-human thought and behaviour depend on more than the structure of the brain
-evolutionary theorists believe language evolved as humans gathered in larger social units
The Nature and Structure of Language
-language = a system of symbols and rules for combining these symbols in ways that can produce an
infinite number of possible messages or meanings
-3 properties essential to language: it’s symbolic, has structure, and is generative
-ties essential to language: it’s symbolic, has structure, and is generative
-symbolic = uses sounds, written signs, or gestures to refer to objects, events, ideas, and feelings
-displacement = linguistic feature that refers to the fact that past, present, future, and imaginary events
and objects that aren’t physically present can be symbolically represented and communicated through
the medium of language
-structure = needs rules that govern how symbols can be combined to create meaningful communication
units
-may not be able to verbalize the formal rules of a English, but you know them implicitly
-generative – its symbols can be combined to create an almost infinite number of messages that can have
novel meanings
Surface and Deep Structure
-surface structure = consists of the way symbols are combined within a given language
-syntax = the rules of grammar = rules for said combinations of a language
-deep structure = refers to the underlying meaning of the combined symbols
-semantics = rules for connecting symbols to what they represent
Language from the Bottom Up
-phonemes = smallest units of sound
-morphemes = smallest units of meaning in a languages
-words are formed by morphemes
Acquiring a Language
-many ppl believe that humans are born linguists, inheriting a biological readiness to recognize and
produce the sounds and structure of whatever language they’re exposed to
Biological Foundations
-lots of evidence for a biological basis for language acquisition:
-children begin to master language early in life without any formal instruction
-languages, despite differences at phonemic level, have a common underlying structure (including sign
languages that have been developed independently by the deaf)
-acquisition represents unfolding of a biologically primed process within a learning environment as part
of a general growth of cognitive capacities in the developing human
-infants vocalize entire range of phonemes found in languages, regardless of place of birth
-at 6ish months, make sounds to their native tongue and discard those of other languages
-sensitive period = time when language is most easily learned – sometime from infancy to puberty for
language in people
-evidence supporting the a sensitive period: a child found when 6 after being alone and withlanguage
training she developed normal abilities, but language deprived children found after puberty were unable
to acquire normal abilities
Social Learning Process
-social learning plays central role in acquiring a language
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-skinner believed operant conditioning played a major role, but its role can’t account for rate of learning
by children + parents don’t really correct grammar
-telegraphic speech = children uttering 2 word sentences consisting of a noun and verb (i.e. want
cookie)
Bilingualism: Learning a Second Language
-second language is learned best in the sensitive period – age is an important factor
-effects on thinking from a second language are: bilingual children better understand the symbolic nature
of print before they can read and show enhanced attention
-also more flexible thinking and better performance on intelligence tests have resulted
-also have higher self esteem & grades, drop out of school less, & more fluent in English
Linguistic Influences on Thinking
-Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis = language not only influences, but also determines what we are
capable of thinking (i.e. people reared in language without past tense have difficulty remembering past
events)
-not very valid – proven wrong by the colour experiment
-can influence thought in many ways, sexist language can evoke gender stereotypes
-learning new vocab provides new concepts that will influence future thought
-another example is that English people are less skilled in using numbers than Asians because of the
words and symbols used to represent numbers.
-3 Major modes of thought:
(1) prepositional thought = takes the form of verbal sentences that we “hear” in our minds;
expresses a statement
(2) imaginal thought = consists of images that we can “see”, “hear”, or “feel” in our mind
(3) motoric thought = relates to mental representations of motor movements such as
throwing an object
Concepts and Propositions
-propositions = statements that express facts
-all propositions consist of concepts combined in a particular way; typically one concept is a subject and
another is a predicate. (i.e. university students are intelligent people)
-concepts = basic units of semantic memory – mental categories in which we place objects, activities, and
events that have features in common
-many concepts are defined by prototypes which are the most typical and familiar members of the class
and requires only that we note similarities among objects (i.e. is a sparrow a bird? is a penguin? a bat?)
Psychological Frontiers
Can Animals Acquire Human Language?
Evidence supporting animals can exhibit language:
-have local dialects (difference species of songbird has its own song)
-have a sensitive period
-a chimp taken into a human home and treated like a human learned American sign language
-also a chimp taught to communicate withsymbols on a keyboard
Evidence against animals exhibiting true language:
-in case of chimp named Nim: couldn’t create sentences, and in longer sequences was either imitating
trainer or repeating until he got what he wanted, which was the only time he used symbols
-longer sentences didn’t relay extra info
*Language
-reasoning helps avoid the hazards and time-consuming efforts of trial and error
Reasoning
-deductive reasoning = when we reason from the top down – meaning from general principles to a
conclusion about a specific case
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-inductive reasoning = reason in a bottom up fashion, starting withspecific facts and trying to develop a
general principle
-deductive reasoning is considered to be stronger form of reasoning because the conclusion cannot be
false if the premises (factual statements) are true
-a combination of inductive and deductive reasoning are used in scientific activity because when informal
observations cause scientists to construct an initial explanation, it is inductive reasoning
-thus, they construct experiments to test the explanation (a form of deductive reasoning)
-the process of testing an explanation is called the hypothetico-deductive approach to scientific theory
building
Stumbling Blocks in Reasoning
-the following are factors that interfere withapplication of deductive reasoning:
Distraction by Irrelevant Information
-not being able to distinguish relevant from irrelevant info
Failure to Apply Deductive Rules
-failure to apply general problem solving methods (like formal logic and mathematic formulas) to new
problems; thinking of these methods as only being applicable to certain situations
Belief Bias
-the tendency to abandon logical rules in favour of our own personal beliefs
Problem Solving
-4 stages of problem solving:
(1) Interpret and understand the problem
(2) Generate the hypotheses or possible solutions
(3) Test the solutions, hypotheses, seeking to disconfirm one or more of them
(4) Evaluate results and if necessary, revise first 3 steps
Understanding, or Framing, the Problem
-the crow and trains problems demonstrates the role of framing because if you frame the question as a
distance one, you’ll spend a lot of time making pages of calculations where if you frame it as a time
problem, the answer is much more obvious and quicker to attain
Generating Potential Solutions
-determine which procedures and explanations will be considered
-determine which solution is consistent withthe evidence & rule those out that don’t fit
Testing the Solutions
-consider remaining solutions and make any tests that could rule one out
-mental set = the tendency to stick to solutions that worked in the past even when there’s a more
efficient solution
-in Luchin’s water jars problem, the problem solving pitfall revealed was the development of a mental set
Evaluating Results
-evaluate the solutions: ask “Would there have been an easier or more effective way to accomplish the
same objective?”
Problem-Solving Schemas
-problem-solving schemas = mental blueprints or step by step scripts for selecting info and solving
specialized classes of problems
-relate to expertise because experts have developed a great number of schemas to guide problem solving
in their field and they are better than novices at recognizing when each schema should be applied
-concerning memory, schemas reside in long term, so experts can quickly analyze a problem, select
retrieval cues, and apply it to solve a problem
-novices who don’t have theses schemas use general problem solving methods that force them to solve
problems in working memory – the weakest link in the human mind
Algorithms and Heuristics
-algorithms = formulas or procedures that automatically generate correct solutions
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-heuristics = general problem solving strategies that we apply to certain classes of situations; mental
shortcuts that may or may not provide correct solutions
-2 commonly used problem solving heuristics:
(1) means-end analysis = identify differences between the present situation & one’s desired
state/goal then make changes that’ll reduce those differences
(2) sub-goal analysis = attacking a large problem by formulating subgoals or intermediate
steps towards a solution
Uncertainty, Heuristics, and Decision Making
-certain heuristics underlie much of our inductive decision making and that their misuse results in many
of our thinking errors
The Representativeness Heuristic
-is a rule of thumb in estimating the probability that object or event belongs to a certain category based
on the extent to which it represents a prototype of that category
-used to infer how closely something or someone fits our prototype for a particular concept or class and
therefore how likely it is to be a member of that class
The Availability Heuristic
-it causes us to base judgements and decisions on the availability of information in memory (i.e. Jaws
reducing tourism to that area)
-we remember events that are most important and significant to us
Confirmation Bias
= people tend to look for evidence that will confirm what they currently believe, rather than looking for
evidence that could disconfirm their beliefs
-they can interfere withproblem solving because the most informative piece of evidence is one that rules
out a hypothesis because it proves that hypothesis cannot be true while confirming evidence only
supports an idea, it doesn’t prove anything
Applications of Psychological Science
Guidelines for Creative Problem Solving
-divergent thinking = the generation of novel ideas that depart from the norm
-means being able to apply concepts from one domain to another, unrelated domain in a manner that
provides new insight
-convergent thinking = when the problem is solved by eliminating alternative solutions to converge on
the right one
-incubation = the phenomenon when solutions to problems seemingly appear out of the blue in a flash of
insight after the problem solver has temporarily given up and put the problem behind aside (as if
problem’s being worked on at subconscious level)
-functional fixedness = tendency to be so fixed in their perception of the proper function of an object or
procedure that they’re blinded to new ways of using it
*Intelligence
= a concept, or construct, that refers to the ability to acquire knowledge, to think and reason effectively,
and to deal adaptively withthe environment.
Intelligence in Historical Perspective
Sir Francis Galton: Quantifying Mental Ability
-highly influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution
-conducted 1st scientific studies of mental skills in England in the late 19th century
-his book Hereditary Genius showed that genius occurred across generations within certain families
Alfred Binet’s Mental Tests
-commissioned to create intelligence test to identify children who were unable to benefit from schooling
at early age
-he made 2 assumptions about intelligence: mental abilities develop withage and the rate at which people
gain mental competence is a characteristic of the person and is fairly constant over time
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-he developed standardized interview for teachers to ask children and result was score called mental
age
-Stern’s original intelligence quotient (IQ) ratio was mental age over chronological age times 100
-this ratio was abandoned because increases in mental age begin to slow down dramatically at about 16
so it isn’t very accurate for adults
-another problem was that some intellectual skills show an actual decline at advanced ages rather than
the growth assumed by the concept of mental age
-to replace this, IQ scores are no longer quotients; they are based on a person’s performance relative to
the scores of a large sample of other people his/her own age.
The Sanford-Binet and Wechsler Scales
-Stanford-Binet test for Americas challenged by Wechsler scales that measured a range of intellectual
skills not just verbal items
-Wechsler scales consist of series of subtests that fall into 2 classes: verbal or performance tests
-tests yield 3 scores: verbal IQ based on sum of verbal subscales, performance IQ based on performance
subscales, and full scales is based on all scales
-new version of Stanford-Binet has 15 subtests measuring 4 areas of intellectual functioning: verbal
reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, quantitative reasoning, and short-term memory
Group Tests of Aptitude and Achievement
-group tests like Lorge-Thorndlike Intelligence test and Otis-Lennon School Ability test routinely used by
schools
-Other tests measuring Specific mental skills: SAT, GRE, MCAT, LSAT, ASVAB
-achievement test = designed to find out how much people have learned in high school. -aptitude Test
= contains novel puzzle-like problems that go beyond prior learning and are thought to measure potential
for future learning and performance
-argument for achievement testing is that it’s a good predictor of future performance in a similar
situation
-the argument against it is that it assumes that everyone has had the same opportunity to learn the
material being tested
-argument for aptitude testing that it’s “fairer” since they’re supposed to depend less on prior knowledge
than on a person’s ability to react to the problems presented on the test
-argument against it is it’s difficult to construct a test that’s independent of prior learning
Scientific Standards for Psychological Tests
-psychological test = method for measuring individual differences related to some psychological concept
or construct based on a sample of relevant behaviour in scientifically designed and controlled situation
(i.e. in case of intelligence test, intelligence is construct in question)
Reliability
-refers to the consistency of measurement, and consistency can take several forms (i.e. consistency over
time)
-three different kinds of reliability that apply to psychological tests:
a. Test-retest Reliability = assed by administering the measure to the same group of
participants on two separate occasions and correlating 2 sets of scores – extent to which
scores on presumably stable characteristics are consistent over time
b. Internal Consistency – has to do withconsistency of measurement within the test itself; all
items within test are measuring the same thing
c. Interjudge reliability – consistency of measurement when different people score the same
test; scoring instructors must be very explicit so 2 different professionals will score it the
same way
Validity
-refers to how well a test actually measures what it’s designed to measure
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-construct validity = the extent to which a test measures the psychological construct (i.e. intelligence)
that it is intended to measure
-content validity = whether the items on a test measure all the knowledge or skills that are assumed to
comprise the construct of interest (i.e. math test withmore than just adding)
-predictive validity = how highly test scores correlate with or can predict criterion measures which are
outcome measures
-correlations of IQ withschool grades is in +.60 range for high school students and in the +.3-+.5 range for
university students
-generally, people who score well on tests tend to do well academically
-also university admissions tests (i.e. SAT) predict grades in university withcorrelations slightly below
+.5
-intelligence test scores also predict military and job performance, yielding correlations of +.2-+.5
-better at predicting academic success though.
Standardization and Norms
-standardization has 2 facets: the first has to do withcreating a well controlled or standardized
environment for administering intelligence tests so other factors won’t influence scores; second aspect
involves collection of norms, or test results derived from a large sample that represents particular age
segments of the population
-normal distribution = bell shaped curve withmost scores clustering around centre of curve (this is the
case usually when norms collected fir mental skills and other human characteristics) – on intelligence
tests, centre of distribution is 100
The Nature of Intelligence
Two major approaches to studying intelligence:
-psychometric approach – attempts to map the structure of intellect and to specify the kinds of mental
ability that underlies test performance
-cognitive processes approach – studies the specific thought process that underlie mental
competencies
The Psychometric Approach: The Structure of Intellect
-psychometrics = statistical analysis of psychological tests
-thus standardization, reliability, and validity are all psychometric concepts
-this approach tries to identify and measure the abilities that underlie individual differences in
performance on intelligence tests
-tries to produce a measurement-based map of the mind
-factor analysis – major tool used by psychometric researchers which analyses patterns of correlations
between test scores in order to discover clusters of measures that correlate highly withone another but
not withmeasures in other clusters
The g factor: intelligence as general mental capacity
-evidence giving rise to the g factor is that Charles Spearman observed that school grades in very
different subjects almost always positively correlated but correlations weren’t perfect; he found the same
was true for different types of Binet intelligence test items
-Spearman concluded that intellectual performace determined partly by “general intelligence” (g) and
partly by special abilities that may be required to perform a particular task, but that the g factor (general
intelligence) is the most important aspect of intelligence
Intelligence as Specific Mental Abilities
-concerning the concept of intelligence as specific mental abilities, Thurstone was interested in the fact
that scores on diff mental tasks had correlations far from perfect
-he concluded that human mental performance depends not on a g-factor but instead on several distinct
abilities which he called primary mental abilities
-primary mental abilities: S – space = reasoning about visual scenes, V – verbal comprehension =
understanding verbal statements, W – word fluency = producing verbal statements, N – number facility =
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dealing withnumbers, P – perceptual speed = recognizing visual patterns, M – rote memory =
memorization, and R – reasoning = dealing withnovel problems
Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence
-2 branches of general intelligence:
-crystallized intelligence = the ability to apply previously acquired knowledge to current problems
(vocab and info tests are good measures of this)(depends on LT memory)
-fluid intelligence = the ability to deal withnovel problem-solving situations for which personal
experience doesn’t provide a solution, involves inductive reasoning and creative problem solving skills
(depends on working memory)
-fluid intelligence progresses to crystallized intelligence
Multiple Intelligences: beyond mental competencies
-Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences defines 6 distinct varieties of intelligence: linguistic,
mathematic, visual-spatial, musical (perceiving pitch and rhythm), body kinaesthetic (ability to control
movements and skilfully manipulate objects), and personal (understanding ourselves and others = intra+ interpersonal)
-savants = people who are intellectually disabled but show striking mental ability such as being able to
mentally compute complex math problems
Emotional Intelligence
5 abilities that constitute emotional intelligence are:
(1) being able to read others’ emotions accurately
(2) to respond to them appropriately
(3) to motivate oneself
(4) to be aware of one’s emotions
(5) to regulate and control one’s own emotional responses
Cognitive Process Approaches: Processes Underlying Intelligence Thinking
-Cognitive Process Theories – try to explain why people vary by relating the types of individual
variation described in the psychometric approach whereas psychometric theories of intelligence just
describe how people differ from one another
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
-addresses both the psychological processes involved in intelligent behaviour and the diverse forms that
intelligence can take
-3 Levels of Psychological processes that underlie intellidence in Triarchic Theory are:
(1) Metacomponents = the higher order processes used to plan and regulate task performance.
Includes problem solving: identifying problems, formulating hypotheses and strategies, testing
them logically, and evaluating performance feedback. Fundamental sources of individual
differences in fluid intelligence
(2) Performance Components = actual mental processes used to perform the task. Includes
perceptual processing, retrieving appropriate memories and schemas from LT memory and
making responses
(3) Knowledge-acquisition components = allow us to learn from our experiences, store info in
memory and combine new insight withpreviously acquired info. These abilities underlie
individual differences in crystallized intelligence
-Three different Kinds of Intelligence:
(1) Analytical Intelligence = involves the kinds of academically oriented problem solving skills
assessed by traditional intelligence tests
(2) Practical Intelligence = refers to the skills needed to cope witheveryday demands and to
manage oneself and other people effectively. Emotional intelligence would fall into this
category
(3) Creative Intelligence = the mental skills needed to deal adaptively withnovel problems
Galton Resurrected: Intelligence and Neural Efficiency
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-there’s some evidence that intelligence might involve neural efficiency
-from electrophysiological studies of brain responses to visual and auditory stimuli, modest relations
have been shown between traditionally measured IQ and both the nature and speed of the brain’s
electrical response to stimuli
-these electrical responses may reflect the speed and efficiency of info processing in the brain
-as well, PET scans of people’s brains taken while they engage in problem solving tasks have shown lower
levels of glucose consumption in people of high intelligence, suggesting that their brains are working
more efficiently and expending less energy
Heredity, Environment, and Intelligence
-the relation between genetic similarity and similarity in IQ is that correlations between test scores of
identical twins are substantially higher than any other correlations
-also the correlations for identical twins reared together is nearly as high as when the same person is
tested twice
-for identical twins reared apart, their correlations are higher than those for non-identical twins reared
together and almost as high as identical twins reared together
-heredity accounts for only 50-70% of IQ variation
Biological Reaction Range, Environment , and Intelligence
-reaction range = concept that helps account for interaction between heredity & environment
-reaction range for a genetically influenced trait is the range of possibilities; the upper and lower limits
the genetic code allows
-this means that an individual inherits a range for potential intelligence but environmental effects will
determine where a person falls within these genetically determined boundaries
Cultural and Group Differences in Intelligence
-intelligence is in some respects a cultural construction, based on the adaptive demands that confront a
culture and the behaviours that are required to cope withthose demands
Ethnic Group Differences
-differences found in the average IQ between ethnic groups in the United States are that Asian-Americans
test somewhat above the white norms, especially on tests related to visual-spatial and mathematical
reasoning
-Hispanics score at the same level as white Americans, and African-Americans on average score about 1215 points below white Americans.
-some people are concerned that intelligence tests don’t predict the performance of different ethnic
groups because they’re based on EURO-American white culture
-but defenders point out that racial differences appear throughout intelligence tests, not just on items
that would seem culturally biased
-also intelligence test scores predict the performance of minority group members as well as they predict
white performance
-for example, even though African-Americans score lower as a group than whites, the tests predict
academic and occupational performance equally well for both racial groups, indicating that they are
measuring relevant mental skills.
-due to social changes over the past 25 years that have provided African-Americans withgreater access to
educational opportunities, the IQ difference between African-Americans and white Americans has
decreased
-this implies that cultural assimilation and educational and economic opportunity seem much more
reasonable explanations for IQ gaps than racial reasons
-NB: gene differences tend to be greater within racial groups than they are between
Sex differences in Cognitive Abilities
-major differences between men and women in cognitive skills:
-men tend to outperform women slightly on certain spatial skills like target-directed skills such as
throwing and catching
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-men also perform slightly better on mathematical reasoning tests
-women perform better on tests of perceptual speed, verbal fluency, mathematical calculation, and
precise manual tasks requiring fine motor coordination
-some factors that might be responsible for this are the socialization experiences that males and females
have as they grow up (especially the kinds of sex-typed activities boys and girls are steered toward)
-a biological explanation is that hormones seem to alter brain organization and extend to a variety of
behavioural differences between men and women.
Beliefs, Expectations, and Cognitive Performance
-our beliefs about others can influence their cognitive performance
-i.e. a teacher may think a student has hidden potential which affects the amt of attention & effort
expended on the child which may affect the development of cognitive skills
-what we think about ourselves also plays a role; our beliefs tell us who we are and what we can and
cannot do.
Reseach Close-Up
Gender and Racial Stereotypes, Self-Concept, and Cognitive Performance
-stereotype threat = the anxiety created by the perceived possibility that one’s behaviour or
performance will confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group
-2 experiments have shown that this occurs:
-in the first, men and women were given difficult math tests to do: in one group participants were told
that the test generally showed sex differences and the other group was told that no sex difference
resulted
-the group that was told no sex differences did similar, but in the 1st group, women did much more poorly
than men
-the same types of results occurred when blacks and whites were given intelligence tests, and one group
was told it measured intelligence, and the second group was told that general intelligence wasn’t relevant
-in the stereotype-relevant conditions, the threat of doing poorly and being branded as a math deficient
women or an academically African-American aroused anxiety that lowered performance
Extremes of Intelligence
The Cognitively Disabled
-mildly disabled people (50-70 IQ) are capable of getting married and holding a job
-mildly disabled children can attend school but have difficulty withtasks requiring reading, writing,
memory, and mathematical computation
-also have difficulty withreason, planning, and evaluating feedback from their efforts
-about 25% of cases of cognitive disability have known biological causes and more than 100 different
genetic causes of retardation have been identified
-75-80% of cases have clear biological cause so may be due to undetectable brain damage, extreme
environmental deprivation, or a combination of the two
The Intellectually Gifted
-Terman’s longitudinal study of gifted children revealed that they became happy and successful adults
-he observed 1500 children withaverage IQs of 150
-not only were they above average in intelligence, but also in height, weight, strength, physical health,
emotional adjustment, and social maturity
-by midlife they had authored 92 books, 2200 scientific articles, and 235 patents
-their marriages tended to be happy and successful and they seemed well-adjusted psychologically.
Levels of Analysis for Intellectual Functioning
a. Biological – genetic factors accounting for significant variation in intelligence,
biological reaction range, neurological efficiency that may underlie intellectual
differences, possible role of sex hormones
b. Psychological – contribution of a general mental capacity (g factor), adaptive skills,
beliefs, anxieties, & expectations (i.e. stereotype threat), and motivation to achieve
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c. Environmental – learning environments that interact withbiological reaction rage,
cultural factors, and sex roles
Chapter Ten: Development Over the Life Span
*Major Issues and Methods
-The 4 issues that guide developmental research are:
-nature & nurture - to what extent is our development a product of hereditary vs. product of
environment? How do nature and nurture interact?
-critical & sensitive Periods: critical period = an age range during which certain experiences must occur
for development to proceed normally or along a certain path; sensitive period = optimal range for
certain experiences but if these experiences occur at another time, normal development is still possible
-continuity vs. discontinuity – is development continuous or stages?
-stability vs. change – do our characteristics remain consistent as we age?
-five developmental age functions: (1) abilities present at birth that remain constant over the lifespan, (2)
abilities not present or immature at birth that mature gradually over age, (3) abilities that emerge in
stages, (4) abilities that emerge after birth, peak, and then disappear withage, and (5) abilities present
early in life that disappear temporarily and re-emerge later
-cross-sectional design = a research design that simultaneously compares people at different ages at a
particular point in time
-widely used because data from many age groups can be collected relatively quickly
-key drawback is that different ages grps (cohorts) grew up in different historical periods
-longitudinal design = repeatedly tests the same cohort as it grows older
-now everyone’s exposed to the same historical time frame but time consuming and sample may shrink
over time
-sequential design = combines cross-sectional and longitudinal approaches
-repeatedly tests several age cohorts as they grow older and determine whether they follow a similar
development pattern (most time consuming but most comprehensive)
-Prenatal period = approx 266 days during which we develop from single cell organism into complex
human newborn
*Prenatal Development
-3 stages of prenatal development:
(1) germinal stage = 1st 2 weeks of development beginning at fertilization
-zygote = fertilized egg
(2) embryonic stage = end of 2nd week to 8th week after conception and cell mass now called
embryo. Placenta and umbilical cord are 2 life-support structures. Organs and system start to
form (heart beating, brain forming, and facial features can be recognized)
(3) fetal stage = week 9 until birth. Muscles become stronger and systems continue to develop.
Week 24, eyes open and at 28 attains “age of viability” meaning it’s likely to survive outside of
womb in case of premature birth
Genetics and Sex Determination
-the male’s genetic contribution determines the child’s sex
-if a y chromosome, the TDF (testes-determining factor) gene triggers male development
-once testes formed from TDF gene, androgen, a sex hormone is secreted that continues to direct male
pattern of organ development
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-if TDF not present, testes don’t develop and in absence of androgen activity, female pattern of organ
development occurs
Environmental Influences
-teratogens = environmental agents that cause abnormal prenatal development
-stress hormones can cross placental, increasing risk of premature birth, infant irritability, and attention
deficits
-STD’s can be passed from mother to fetus and can cause brain damage, blindness, and deafness
depending on disease
-among pregnant women withuntreated syphilis, 25% of fetuses are born dead
-also, 25% of fetuses born to mothers withHIV that causes AIDS are infected
-Environmental toxins like mercury, lead, and radiation produce birth defects
-Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) = a severe group of abnormalities that result from prenatal exposure to
alcohol
-FAS children have facial abnormalities, and small malformed brains
-mental retardation, attentional and perceptual deficits, irritability, and impulsivity are other symptoms
-Fetal alcohol effects (FAE) occur when children display milder effects
-nicotine increases risk of miscarriage, premature birth, and low birth weight
-heroin or cocaine used by pregnant mothers cause children to be born addicted and experience
withdrawal symptoms
-cognitive functioning, and ability to regulate arousal and attention can also be impaired
-fetal behaviour = studied by visualizing fetus and recording fetal HR using ultrasound
-fetal learning occurs – i.e. stop responding to repeated presentations of vibroacoustic and auditory
stimuli (shows have a short-term memory)
*Infancy and Childhood
The Amazing Newborn
Newborn Sensory Capabilities and Perceptual Preferences
-newborns’ sensory capabilities and perceptual preferences are measured by scientific observations
-newborns will turn to face off-centered visual targets and will turn towards auditory and tactile targets
-they give facial expressions or disgust when presented withbad odours and smile when nice odours
presented
-preferential looking procedure = it was discovered that they have visual preferences when they were
laid on their backs and showed 2 or more stimuli at the same time
-they look longer at patterns than non-patterns and they prefer complex patterns over simpler patterns
-visual preference procedure of showing infants black and white vertical stripes vs. bright grey field
defined their resolution threshold; look longer at stripes when wide but as stripes made thinner, point
when preference disappears (acuity is 20/800)
-using visual habituation procedure has shown that newborns have memory and that they discriminate
between familiar and novel stimuli (same stimulus present until looking time decreases by 50%, then
novel stimuli shown and infant looks longer at it than at familiar stimuli)
Newborn Learning
-newborns can learn through classical conditioning:
-the CS of touching the infants forehead and then delivering milk (UCS) caused infants to pucker lips
(UCR) during CS and when milk was withheld they cried
-they can also learn through operant conditioning:
-in an experiment, infants learned to suck a plastic nipple withcertain pattern of bursts to activate tape of
their mom’s voice
-infants also learn through modelling which is shown by babies imitating adult facial expressions.
Sensory-Perceptual Development
-visual field expands to almost adult size by 6 months and grating acuity improves continuously from
20/800 to 20/100 by 6 months and progresses more slowly until it reaches adult levels by about 6 years
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-by 3 or 4 months their pattern perception is organized according to Gestalt principles and they
discriminate internal features of schematic faces
-Visual abilities emerge in step-like pattern.
-ability of newborn to turn towards sounds at birth disappears in 2nd month and returns at 4 or 5 months;
another U-shaped pattern is the detection of phonemes that decreases after 12 months but can return
Physical, Motor, and Brain Development
-maturation = genetically programmed biologically process that governs our growth
-cephalocaudal principle – reflects the tendency for development to proceed in a head to foot direction
-proximodistal principle – development begins along the innermost parts of the body & continues
towards the outermost parts if the body and continues twds the outmost parts
-brain develops most rapidly and dramatically
-only 25% of adult weight as newborn but by 6 months, 50% of weight due to cells becoming larger,
axons developing myelin sheaths, and because neural networks develop rapidly 5 yr old brains almost
90% of adult weight & size
-reflexes = automatic “inborn” behaviours elicited by specific stimuli – present at birth (i.e. breathing,
rooting reflex, and sucking)
-previous facts support nature side of “nature/nurture” issue
Environmental and Cultural Influences
-development is also influenced by experience though (i.e. severe malnutrition stunts
general growth and brain development)
-properly nourished rats show stunted development if deprived of physical contact withmothers but
vigorously stroking rats withbrush maintains normal growth
-infants who are regularly massaged gain weight faster and show faster neurological development
-rats raised in enriched environment develop heavier brains, larger neurons, more synaptic connections,
and more acetylcholine (transmitter that enhances learning)
-also, visual deprivation during sensitive period permanently damages visual acuity.
-3 points that apply to human development:
(1)
Biology sets limits on environmental influences – i.e. best nutrition won’t enable you to
grow 7 feet tall
(2)
Environment influences can be powerful – nurturing environments foster growth while
impoverished environments stunt growth
(3)
Biological and environmental factors interact – enriched environments enhance brain
development and in turn brain development facilitated ability to learn and benefit from
environmental experiences
Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Stage Model
-proposed that children’s thinking changes qualitatively with age
-brain builds schemas and thinking reflects schema at certain stage
-2 key processes are involved in cognitive development that occur when new schemas are formed and old
one made more complex:
-assimilation = process by which new experiences are incorporated into existing schemas (i.e. child
saying “big doggy” for horse, trying to make sense of it withfamiliar schema)
-accommodation = process by which new experiences cause existing schemas to change (i.e. infants
“suckability” schema  more complex; some things suckable, some not)
Sensorimotor Stage
-from birth to 2 yrs
-understands world through sensory experience and physical (motor) interactions withobjects
-reflexes are earliest schemas but as sensory and motor capabilities increase, they being to explore
surroundings
-realize they can make things happen (i.e. bang spoons, take things apart)
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-up until about 8 months, if you hide something, they won’t search for it, but after 8 months they will 
object permanence = ability to understand that object continues to exist even when it disappears from
sight
-towards end of this period, use words to represent objects, needs, and actions
Preoperational Stage
-27 yrs
-represent world symbolically through words and images but don’t understand basic mental operations
and words
-become capable of thinking about past and future
-better at anticipating consequences of their actions
-they “pretend play” (make-believe)
-don’t understand concept of conservation, principle that basic properties (volume, mass, quantitiy) stay
the same even though outward appearance may change
-child exhibits centration, focusing on only one aspect of the situation
-display animism, attributing lifelike qualities to physical objects and events (i.e. when raining, sky is
crying)
-egocentrism – difficulty viewing world from another’s perspective (believe everyone perceives things in
same way they do, not selfishness)
Concrete Operational Stage
-age 7-12
-can perform basic mental operations concerning problems that involved concrete objects/situations 
conservation no longer problem
-can order & arrange things (i.e. shortest to tallest)
-can form mental representations (draw map to get to school)
-difficulty withabstract reasoning (i.e. ask where they’d put a 3rd eye and why, they say 3 in a row because
that’s where eyes go)
Formal Operational Stage
-age 12+
-think logically and systematically about concrete and abstract problems, form hypotheses and test them
in a thoughtful way
-formal thinking begins at 11 or 12 and increases through adolescence
-enjoy brain teasers and hypothetical problems (answer 3 eye question creatively)
Assessment of Piaget’s Theory: Stages, Ages, and Culture
-in agreeance withPiaget’s theory, 4 stages appear to occur in same order across cultures
-contrary to his theory, culture influences cognitive development; different cultures value and reward
different skills
-another challenge to his theory is that children acquire many cognitive skills at any earlier age that
Piaget believed
-also, cognitive development within each stage seems to proceed inconsistently (i.e. child may perform at
pre-operational level on some tasks and other at concrete operational)
Vygotsky: The Social Context of Cognitive Development
-emphasized that children live in social world and cognitive development occurs in socio-cultural context
-zone of proximal development = the difference between what a child can do independently and what
the child can do with assistance from adults of advanced peers
-it’s important because it helps us recognize those functions that haven’t yet matured but are the process
of maturation
-it also emphasizes that people can provide experience and feedback that move a child’s cognitive
development forward within limits of child’s biological maturation
Information-Processing Approaches
-information search strategies (i.e. looking at 2 pictures and finding differences) improves over time
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-information processing speed also improves during childhood
-it improves continuously and the rapid rate pf change between 8-12 slows during adolescence
-memory capabilities expand significantly during childhood
-metacognition = an awareness of one’s own cognitive processes and this is greater in older children
-many who adopt an information-processing approach believe that cognitive development is
continous but Neo-Piagetians believe that children acquire new modes of processing info as they age
and that discontinuity and continuity are involved
Theory of Mind: Children’s Understanding of Mental States
-theory of mind refers to a person’s beliefs about how the “mind” works, and what others are thinking
about
-at the age of 3 or 4 children begin to understand other people’s thinking (i.e. story of Susie, red bag, and
green box, pg. 451)
-lying and deception imply an understanding that one can instil a false belief into another’s mind
-in experiments where children were told not to peek at a gift when the experimenter left, most did and
one third of them lied about it – this was at age 3
Moral Development
-all societies have norms of moral conduct and a major goal of socialization is to help children recognize
“right” from “wrong”
Kohlberg’s Stage Model
-drawing upon Piaget’s model
-not interested in whether or not person agreed withbehaviour of character , but the reasons for their
judgement (why they agreed or disagreed)
-preconventional moral reasoning = based on anticipated punishments or rewards
-stage one – obeying rules and avoiding punishment
-stage two – morality judged by anticipated rewards and doing what’s in person’s own interest
-conventional moral reasoning = based on conformity to social expectations, laws, and duties
-stage 3 – gaining approval and maintaining good relations withothers
-stage 4 – doing one’s duty, showing respect for authority, and maintaining social order
-postconventional reasoning = based on well thought out, general moral principles
-stage 5 – importance of societal laws withtaking individual rights into account
-stage 6 – morality based on abstract ethical principles of justice that are viewed as universal
Culture, Gender, and Moral Reasoning
-general, universal findings:
-as one ages from childhood to adolescence, moral reasoning changes from preconventional to
conventional levels
-postconventional reasoning is relatively uncommon even in adulthood
-levels are not skipped: precon  con  postcon
-a person’s moral judgements do not always reflect the same level or stage within levels
-postcon occurs most often among people that’re Westernized, highly educated, etc – possible bias
-Kohlberg ideals: fairness and justice, but other highest moral values in other cultures include
benevolence, non-violence, respect for all animal life, protecting souls of dead ancestors from harm,
respect for the elderly, and collective harmony
-also sexist in that men place higher value on justice and women on caring and others’ welfare
-also, too much emphasis on moral thinking and not on behaviour
Personality and Social Development
-personality = a distinctive yet somewhat consistent pattern of thinking, feeling, and behaving
-Freud believed adult personality is largely established during the first 5 years of life – not supported by
research
Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
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-personality develops through confronting a series of 8 major psychosocial stages, each of which
involved a different crisis over how we view ourselves in relation to other people and the world
-8 major psychological crises (1st 4 occur in infancy and childhood):
(1) Basic Trust vs. Mistrust – how adequately needs are met, love and attention, determine whether
one develops a basic trust or mistrust of the world – age: 0-1
(2) Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt – want to exercise individuality, if restricted, develops shame and
doubt about abilities & lack courage to be independent later in life – age: 1-2
(3) Initiative vs. Guilt – curiosity; if allowed freedom to explore, develop sense of initiative, if held
back/punished, develop guilt about desires and suppress curiosity – age 3-5
(4) Industry vs. Inferiority – school & peer activities; pride and encouragement  industry (a striving
to achieve), repeated failure + lack of praise  sense of inferiority – age: 6-12
(5) Identitiy vs. Role Confusion – age: 12-20
(6) Intimacy vs. Isolation – age: 20-40
(7) Generativity vs. Stagnation – age: 40-65
(8) Integrity vs. Dispair – age: 65+
-proposes personality is not fixed in childhood
Psychological Frontiers
You Were Such a Fussy Baby: Does Early Temperament Predict Adult Functioning?
-temperament = a biologically based general style of reacting emotionally ad behaviourally to the
environment
-difficult infants most likely to have subsequent emotional and behavioural problems
-temperament is only weakly - moderately stable during infancy
-for majority, temperament did not predict how shy or outgoing they’d be as children, but for the infants
who were extremely inhibited or uninhibited it was very predictive
-childhood temperament is somewhat predictive of adult outcomes
-generally strong temperament traits are predictive whereas mild ones aren’t really
-temperament better predicts overall patterns of functioning
Attachment
-imprinting illustrates critical period because it shows that there’s a certain time when attachment is
needed and the attachment will stick
-attachment – he strong emotional bond that develops between children and their primary caregivers
-not a critical period, a sensitive period (when we most easily form a 1st attachment to caregivers, a bond
that enhances our social and personality adjustment later in life
-it is possible to form a strong 1st attachment to caregivers later in life, but it’s more difficult
The Attachment Process
-contact comfort = body contact witha comforting object
-Harlow and monkey experiment – contact comfort more important than providing nourishment
-Bowlby’s proposition that attachment during infancy develops in 3 phases:
(1) Indiscriminate attachment behaviour – newborns emit behaviours to everyone, which evoke caregiving from adults
(2) Discriminate attachment behaviour – 3 months – newborns direct attachment behaviours more
twds familiar, regular caregivers than to strangers
(3) Specific attachment behaviour – 7/8 months – develop 1st meaningful attachment to caregivers,
want to be in their presence, picked up, etc – caregiver becomes a secure base from which the
infant can crawl about and explore the environment
-after attachment becomes more focused, 2 types of anxiety occur
-stranger anxiety = 6/7  18 months, infant becomes afraid when stranger approaches
-separation anxiety = 12/16 months  2/3 yrs, becomes anxious when caregiver is out of sight
-adaptive value of anxiety = helps prevent them from getting out of sight of their caretakers
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-goal-corrected partnership – a stage where children and caregivers can describe heir wishes & feelings
to each other & the relationship can be replaced whether or not they’re together
Variations in attachment
-Mary Ainsworth and the Strange Situation Test (SST) – securely vs. insecurely (anxious-resistant vs.
anxious-avoidant) attached infants
-half to ¾ of infants are securely attached
Attachment and Later Behaviour
-has long-term influence, securely attached infants have higher self-esteem, better adjusted socially, and
better behaved in school
Attachment Deprivation
Isolate monkeys and children
-monkeys not able to copulate normally and when some have artificially inseminated children, were
abusive to 1st borns
-single isolate child emotionally and socially stunted, twin isolates could get over that became happy,
sociable, and firmly attached to foster family
Children raised in orphanages
-late-adoptees displayed more insecure attachment and indiscriminately friendly behaviour
-infancy is a sensitive period for attachment and facilitates subsequent development
The Daycare Controversy
-does not disrupt infants’ attachment to their parents
-but if daycare is poor, child spends a lot of time there, parents aren’t sensitive to the child at home, the
child has multiple daycare arrangements, etc – risk of insecure attachment increases
-daycare kids are slightly less engaged and sociable towards their mothers when tested during a play
situation, and their mothers are slightly less sensitive – no relation to attachment though
-long-term effects – tend to be better adjusted socially and perform better in elementary school than their
peers who either receive poor-quality daycare or do not attend daycare
-for middle- to upper-class, quality of family experience is more important for above statement
Applications of Psychological Science
Understanding How Divorce and Remarriage Affect Children
-often reported by children that divorce is one of the most painful experiences of their lives
-children of divorce have a greater risk for a variety of difficulties (academic, relationships, self-esteem,
depression, etc)
-most of the problems go together as a product of maladjustment
-staying together for the child’s sake depends on the amount of conflict present
-negative effects of divorce can be helped by a cooperative and amicable behaviours during the rocky
period
-when 1 or both spouses bring children from previous marriages, odds of divorce increase 50%
-young adolescents seem to have the most difficulty coping withthe transition into a stepfamily
-for a good relationship, the parent should be warm but firm and the disciplinarian, and the step-parent
should be warm twds the child and supports parent’s authority
Styles of Parenting
-2 key dimensions of parental behaviour: warmth vs. hostility and restrictiveness vs. permissiveness
-authoritative parents = controlling but warm – best relationship & results
-authoritarian parents = control + cold – lower self-esteem, less popular, worse in school
-indulgent parents = warm + permissive – no guidance and discipline, immature + self-centred
-neglectful parents = cold + permissive – insecurely attached, low achievement motivation, disturbed
relationships withpeers and adults, impulsive and aggressive; most negative developmental outcomes
-most of the above is correlational relationships, not necessarily causal
-but parenting styles can influence the path of children
Gender Identity and Socialization
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-gender identity = a sense of “maleness” or “femaleness” that becomes a central aspect of our personal
identity
-gender identity is present at about age 2/3
-gender constancy = the understanding that being a male or female is a permanent part of a person –
develops around age 6 or 7
-sex-role stereotypes = beliefs about the types of characteristics and behaviours that are appropriate for
boys and girls to possess
-socialization = the process by which we acquire the beliefs, values, and behaviours of a group
-it plays a key roles in shaping our gender identity and sex-role stereotypes
-it internalizes the social, cultural, family, etc norms
-sex-typing = treating other differently based on whether they are female or male – is a socialization
process that accounts for gender differences in children’s attitudes and behaviours
-sex-role stereotypes are transmitted through observational learning and operant conditioning
-children generally display more flexible thinking about gender as they enter adolescence
-androgynous – displaying masculine and feminine traits
*Adolescence
-many cultures, period of adolescence is brief, not as lengthy as in Western culture
Physical Development and Its Psychological Consequences
-begins @ puberty = period of rapid maturation – person becomes capable of sexual reproduction
-produces primary sex characteristics (reproductive organs) and secondary (physical features)
-landmark in girls = menarche, boys = first ejaculation
-psychological reactions are influenced by social responses, time of occurrence (early or late)
Cognitive Development
-these changes can be as dramatic as the physical ones – most teens acquire a new maturity
Abstract Reasoning Abilities
-Piaget said the final level of cognitive development is attained during adolescence
-can think and reason more abstractly (more flexible and creative)
-capacity for abstract thinking increases substantially during adolescence
-also depends on formal schooling and exposure to scientific-abstract tasks
Social Thinking
-adolescent egocentrism = overestimate the uniqueness of their feelings and experiences (personal
fable) and oversensitivity to social evaluation (imaginary audience)
Social and Personality Development
-grapple withmany issues, conflict and alienation, but also relatively carefree
The Search for Identity
-pivotal crisis of adolescent personality
-can be resolved positively (stable sense of identity) or negative (state of confusion) (Erikson)
-identity diffusion = not yet gone through identity crisis and remained uncommitted to a coherent set of
values or roles (James Marcia)
-foreclosure = adopting an identity without first going through a crisis
-2 other groups go through a crisis: moratorium = undergoing one right then, identity achievement =
gone through a crisis and successfully resolved it
-most young adolescents are identity diffusion or foreclosure and older adolescents are in identity
achievement
-our sense of identity includes several concepts: attributes by which we define ourselves (gender,
ethnicity, etc), how we view our personality and other characteristics, and our goals and values
pertaining to areas we view as important (family & peer relations, career, religion, etc)
-culture plays in important role in identity formation, beyond simple idea that we view ourselves as
belonging in certain cultural groups (i.e. individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures)
Relationships with Parents
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-parent/teen relationships are generally good, “storm and stress” = exception, not rule
-adolescents agree withparent’ right to make the rules, but more for some issues than others and older
adolescents felt it was less appropriate for the parents to do so
-girls believed parents would grant them autonomy later than boys
-more conflict withmothers, but conflict low with both parents
Peer and Friendship Relationships
-peer relationships increase in importance during the adolescent years
-spend more time withpeers than anyone else (mostly in western societies)
-friendships more intimate now than earlier, more time withindividuals than withgroups
-peer relationships play a part in the process of separating from parents and getting own identity
-parental influence remains high on politics, religion, morality, and career decisions
*Adulthood
-young = 20-40, middle = 40-60, and late = 60+ adulthood
Physical Development
-young adults are at the peak of their physical, sexual, and perceptual functioning
-physical status declines at mid-life (i.e. vision, muscles)
-BMR slows, oxygen efficiency decreases, and women go through menopause
-physical changes become most pronounced in late adulthood (fat %, bones thin, etc)
Cognitive Development
-post-formal thought = can reason logically about opposing points of view & accept contradictions and
irreconcilable differences
-see both sides as having legitimate arguments and acknowledge both sides
Information Processing and Memory
-perceptual speed (reaction time), memory for new factual info, spatial memory, and especially recall
declines during adulthood
-but others decline less quickly (i.e. recognizing familiar stimuli)
Intellectual Changes
-declines noticeably, beginning between 30 and 40
-fluid intelligence began to decline steadily in young adulthood but crystallized intelligence peaked in
middle adulthood and began to decline in late
-however longitudinal data doesn’t support above data – everything fairly steady in adulthood, and
begins to decline in late adulthood; fluid still does decline a little earlier though
Use it or Lose It? Maintaining Cognitive Functioning
-people who have above-average education and cognitively stimulating jobs, are involved in cognitively
stimulating personal activities, etc, maintain a higher level
-for physical fitness – use it or lose it
-remaining intellectually and physically active may help slow the decline of some cog functions
Research Close-Up
Older but Wiser? Mind-Reading in Elderly and Young Adults
-older took longer to read paragraphs and performed less well on jumbled ones, equal on non-social
control stories, and better on theory of mind tasks
-suggests superior social reasoning abilities in healthy, elderly adults, but could’ve just been the people
chosen, not the age of them
Social and Personality Development
-social clock = a set of cultural norms concerning the optimal age range for work, marriage, parenthood,
and other major life experiences to occur
Stage and Critical Events
-intimacy vs. isolation = major developmental challenge of young adulthood – ability to open up oneself
to another person and form close relationships
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-middle adulthood = generativity vs. stagnation – achieve generativity by doing things for others,
exercising leadership and making the world a better place
-late adulthood = integrity vs. despair – review life and evaluate its meaning
-psychological adjustment = ability to love and work – Freud
Marriage and Family
-successful marriages are characterized by emotional closeness and physical intimacy, positive
communication and problem solving, agreement on basic values and expectations, and a willingness to
accept and support changes in the partner
Cohabitation
-some people live together instead of getting married (very common)
-cohabitation before marriage correlates withhigher divorce rate, but that has to do withother factors
What’s love got to do with it? Culture and Marriage
-notion of romantic love is a prerequisite to marriage is a well-ingrained but culture-bound norm
(Western vs. Eastern cultures)
Marital satisfaction, parenthood, and the empty nest
-satisfaction declines generally in the 1st few years after wedding
-birth of 1st baby = major change in way time is spent
-disagreement over division of labour & parenting is a major contributor to drop in satisfaction
-U-shaped relation between marital satisfaction and major life events suggested
most middle-aged couples don’t become depressed or suffer a crisis when children leave
-married people generally happier and live longer than unmarried
Attachment revisited
-insecure maternal attachment correlates withpoor social relationships and parenting and anti-social
behaviour – but not causal relationship
Establishing a Career
-1st enter a growth stage in mid-twenties where we form initial impressions about the types of jobs we
like or dislike
-his is followed by a more earnest exploration stage where we form tentative ideas about a preferred
career and pursue necessary education or training
-most students cannot accurately predict their future in 1st 2 years of university
-from mid-20s to mid-40s, people enter into an establishment phase (where they begin to make their
mark)
-at the end of this stage, careers become more stable and people enter a maintenance stage
-finally during decline stage investment in work decreases, and one retires
-childbirth = one of major causes of work gaps in women
-career gaps also occur when adults leave workforce temporarily to care for elderly parents
-married women in workforce have greater interrole conflict than men (juggle career & family)
-middle adulthood women who work outside home have better self-esteem, physical health, and less
psychological distress than housewives
Mid-Life Crisis: Fact or Fiction?
-Levinson’s studies says it’s fact, but not a very valid study
-more evidence that it is a myth
-everyone experiences conflict, disappointment, frustration, etc, not just mid-life adults
Retirement and the Golden Years
-most don’t become anxious etc, but those who have strong work values = most apt to miss jobs
-choosing whether or not you’re working plays a big part in physical and mental health
Death and Dying
-5 stages to cope withimpending death: denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
-these stages not a proper or correct way to deal withdeath, just most common way
-beliefs & customs concerning death vary across cultures and individuals (end, reincarnation, etc)
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Chapter 11: Behaviour in a Social Context
-social influence = how other people influence our behaviour
-social thinking and social perception = how we think about and perceive our social world
-social relations = how we behave toward other people
*Social Influence
The Mere Presence of Others
-the presence of others energizes performance (Norman Triplett)
-other experiments showed that performance worsened when others present
-mere presence of another person increases arousal & as arousal increases, become more likely to
perform whatever behaviour happens to be dominant response to that situation (Robert Zajonc)
-social facilitation = an increased tendency to perform one’s dominant response in the mere presence of
others – unless it’s s simple or well-learned, should impair performance
-practical application: minimize presence of others when learning complex tasks
Social Norms: The Rules of the Game
-social norms = shared expectations about how people should think, feel, and behave, and they are the
cement that bind social systems together
-social role = a set of norms that characterize how ppl in a given social position ought to behave
-role conflict = when norms accompanying different roles clash
-norms and roles can influence behaviour so strongly that they compel a person to act
uncharacteristically (i.e. Stanford Prison Study)
Culture and Norm Formation
-social norms are noticed when violated and comparing cross-culturally
-even randomly created groups develop norms (Muzafer Sherif)
-humans placed together seem to develop common standards for behaviour and judgement
Conformity and Obedience
-conformity = adjustment of individual behaviours, attitudes, and beliefs to a group standard
-all social systems exert overt & subtle pressures on their members to conform (to avoid chaos)
Why Do People Conform?
-desire to understand the world & respond to it effectively provides one basic motive to conform
-informational social influence = following the opinions or behaviour of other people because of the
belief that they have accurate knowledge and what they’re doing is right
-normative social influence = conform to obtain rewards that come from being accepted by other
people, while avoiding rejection at the same time
Factors That Affect Conformity
-group size – big increase from 1  4/5, but not big difference when bigger than that
-presence of a dissenter – when one disagrees, conformity greatly decreases (serves as a model)
-when task is more important, if the correct answer is obvious conformity decreases, but if it’s a difficult
judgement conformity increases
-overall, records of conformity have decreased slightly in the U.S. over recent decades, but conformity has
increased in collectivistic cultures where group harmony is valued more
Minority Influence
-to maximize influence, a minority must be committed to its point of view, remain independent in the face
of majority pressure, and be consistent over time, yet appear to keep an open mind
-however if the minority appears to unreasonable, deviant, or negative it may cause majority to lead
farther away from the minority view
Obedience to Authority
-neither inherently good nor bad, like conformity
The Dilemma of Obedience: When Conscience confronts Malevolent Authority
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-Milgram and shock experiment (teacher and learner – think sears play)
-65% obeyed until the end (450 volts) – men and women
-did it mostly because didn’t feel like they were responsible, experimenters were
Factors That Influence Destructive Obedience
-remoteness of the victim – obedience greater when learner was out of sight
-closeness and legitimacy of the authority figure – highest obedience when authority figure was close and
perceived as legitimate
-cog in a wheel – obedience increases a LOT when someone else does the dirty work, but when one feels
completely responsible for learner’s welfare, no one obeys until the end
-personal characteristics – not really a strong factor
Lessons Learned: From the Holocaust to Airline Safety
-by arranging a situation appropriately, most people can be induced to follow orders from an authority
figure they perceive as legit, even when doing so contributes to harming innocent ppl
-increased sensitivity to the power of obedience pressures has concrete applications (re: co-pilot)
Crowd Behaviour and Deindividuation
-deindividuation = a loss of individuality that leads to disinhibited behaviour
-anonymity to outsiders is the key to it
-reduced anonymity (=increased public accountability) may be the most basic approach to counteracting
deindividuation
Group Influences on Performance and Decision Making
-some factors that enhance or interfere withgroup productivity
Social Loafing: Failing to Pull You Own Weight
-social loafing = tendency for people to expend less individual effort when working in a group rather
than when working alone
-collective effort model = on a collective task, people will put forth effort only to the extent that they
expect their effort to contribute to obtaining a valued goal
-more likely to occur when ppl believe that individual performance within the group is not being
monitored, the task has less value or meaning to the person, the group is less important to the person, &
the task is simple and the person’s input is redundant withthat of other group members
-more factors include fatigue, gender, and culture
When are groups more productive than Individuals?
-usually when performance is monitored or when group or task goal is highly valued
-social compensation = will work harder in a group than alone if they expect that their colleagues either
don’t have the ability or will slack off
-even when social loafing occurs, groups still do things individuals cannot alone
Group Polarization: Going to Extremes
-group polarization = when a group of like-minded people discuss an issue, the opinion of group
members tend to become more and more extreme
-reasons for it: normative and informational social influence
Groupthink: Suspending Critical Thinking
-groupthink = the tendency for group members to suspend critical thinking because they’re striving to
seek agreement
-mostly likely to occur when the group is under high stress, insulated from outside input, has a directive
leader who promotes his/her personal agenda, and high cohesion (spirit of closeness)
-members display self-censorship and create the possibility of an illusion of unanimity
-Challenger is an example of groupthink and illusion of unanimity
-to avoid it leader should be impartial, encourage critical thinking, bring outsiders to offer opinions, and
divide larger group into subgroups
*Social Thinking and Perception
Attitudes and Attitude Change
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-attitude = positive or negative evaluative reaction towards a stimulus
Do Our Attitudes Influence Our Behaviour
-little evidence that attitudes predict behaviour
-attitudes influence behaviour more strongly when counteracting situational factors are weak
-theory of planned behaviour = intention to engage in a behaviour is strongest when we have a positive
attitude toward that behaviour, subjective norms support our attitudes, and we believe that the
behaviour is under control
-attitudes have a greater influence on behaviour when we are aware of the and when they are strongly
held – also when formed through direct experience, not 2nd hand info
-general attitudes are better at predicting general classes of behaviour, and specific attitudes are better at
predicting specific behaviour
Does Our Behaviour Influence Our Attitudes?
Self-justification
-$1/$20 experiment withjustification
-theory of cognitive dissonance = people strive for consistency in their cognitions
-cognitive dissonance = uncomfortable state of tension when 2+ cognitions contradict each other
-counterattitudinal behaviour = behaviour inconsistent withour attitudes – produces dissonance
-can lead to attitude change
Self-perception
-self-perception theory = make inferences about own attitudes by observing how we behave
-observe how you acted and infer how you musty have felt to have behaved that way
-in situations where counterattitudinal behaviour doesn’t threaten one’s self-worth & have weak
attitudes to begin with, less likely to create significant arousal – but ppl still change their attitudes
-self-perception seems to be better theory, though both are correct under different circumstances
Persuasion
-involves communicator who delivers a message through a channel to an audience within a context
The communicator
-communicator credibility = how believable the communicator is – key to effective persuasion
-2 major components to credibility = expertise and trustworthiness
-also NB: physical attractiveness, likeability, similarity, and memorability
The message
-2-sided refutational approach is most effective – seems less biased
-moderate degree of discrepancy and arousal of moderate fear is most effective
The audience
-2 basic routes of persuasion:
-central route to persuasion = when ppl think carefully about message and are influence because they
find the arguments compelling
-peripheral route to persuasion = when ppl do not scrutinize the message but are influenced mostly by
other factors (appearance, emotional appeal, etc)
-attitude change from central has deeper foundation, lasts longer, and predicts behaviour better
-central route when more personally relevant or highly involved
-but some people differ in need for cognition and differ in their approach to new info
Applications of Psychological Science
Detecting and Resisting Persuasion Tactics
-norm of reciprocity = do unto other as they do unto you
-treat others well and do something they want in hopes that you’ll get something out of it
-door-in-the-face technique = large request, then “compromises” to a smaller one
-foot-in-the-door technique = smaller to bigger request (not sure why it’s effective)
-lowballing = gets you to commit to some action and then before you actually perform it, increases the
cost of that same behaviour – uses the fact that people feel obligated
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Attribution: Perceiving the Causes of Behaviour
-attributions = judgements about the causes of our own and other people’s behaviour and outcomes
Personal versus Situational Attributions
-personal (internal) attributions = infer people’s behaviour is caused by their characteristics
-situational (external) attributions = infer aspects of the situation cause a behaviour
-3 types of information determine the attribution we make for a behaviour: consistency, distinctiveness,
and consensus
Attributional Biases
-fundamental attribution error = underestimating the impact of the situation and overestimating the
role of personal factors when explaining other people’s behaviour
-applies to how we perceive other people not ourselves
-when ppl have time to reflect on their judgement or are highly motivated to be careful, fundamental
attribution error is reduced
-self-serving bias = making relatively more personal attributions for successes and more situational
attributions for failures (when it comes to ourselves)
Culture and Attribution
-culture does influence how we perceive the social world
-also influences attributions for own behaviour (modesty in china)
Forming and Maintaining Impressions
-many factors affect ho we form and maintain impressions
Primacy versus Recency: Are First Impressions More Important?
-primacy effect = tendency to attach more importance to the initial info we learn about a person
-new info can change opinions, but has to work harder
-primacy effects decrease and recency effects may occur when we are asked to avoid making snap
judgements, carefully consider he evidence, and feel accountable for our judgements
Mental Sets and Schemas: Seeing What We Expect to See
-our mental set powerfully shapes how we interpret a stimulus
-stereotype = generalized belief about a group or category of people – powerful type of schema
Self-Fulfilling Prophecies: Creating What We Expect to See
-self-fulfilling prophecy = occurs without conscious awareness when people erroneous expectations
lead them to act toward others in a way that brings about the expected behaviours
-when interacting withothers, initial unfounded expectations can influence how we behave towards
them, thereby shaping their behaviour in a way that confirms our expectations
*Social Relations
-4 types of social interactions: attraction, prejudice, altruism, and aggression
*Affiliation and Interpersonal Attraction
-belongingness and love are psychological needs – make life meaningful
Why Do We Affiliate?
-Hill suggests 4 basic reasons: to obtain positive stimulation, receive emotional support, gain attention,
and permit social comparison
-social comparison = comparing our beliefs, feelings, and behaviours to those of other people to
determine whether or not our responses are “normal”
-people differ in how strongly they need to affiliate
-people with higher need show a stronger psychological sense of community
-situational factors influence tendency to affiliate – i.e. fear and during emergencies
Initial Attraction
-first phase of most friendships and romantic relationships
Proximity and Mere Exposure: “Haven’t I Seen You Somewhere?”
-proximity increases chance of frequent encounters
-mere exposure effect = repeated exposure to a stimulus typically increases our liking for it
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Similarity: Birds of a Feather
-most often attracted to people who are similar to themselves
-similarity of attitude, beliefs, and values matter the most
Physical Attractiveness: Spellbound by Beauty
-two major factors that make us desire to affiliate withattractive people:
-stereotype that what is beautiful is good
-since often judged by company we keep, associating withattractive people to help our self-esteem
-matching effect = most likely to have a dating partner or spouse whose level of physical attractiveness
is similar to our own
Close Relationships: As Attraction Deepens
-women are more likely to want partners who make an emotional investment in the relationship
What Do Men and Women Seek in a Mate
-men: younger women, women: older men; pretty much rest is the same
The Evolution of Desire
-parental investment theory = the gender withthe greater investment in producing offspring will be
more selective in choosing a mate
Social-cultural perspectives
-social structure theory = men and women display different mating preferences because society directs
them into different social roles
Research Close-Up
Gender Differences in the Ideal Mate: Evolution or Social Roles
-findings strongly support evolutionary theory because it was similar across cultures
-social works too, but doesn’t explain why men place higher value on attractiveness
-more similarity from men & women from same cultures than same sex/different cultures
Social penetration and social exchange
-social penetration theory = relationships progress as interactions between people become broader
(part of more areas of their lives) and deeper (part of more intimate/personally meaningful areas)
-social exchange theory = course of the relationship is governed by rewards and costs that the partners
experience
-outcomes are evaluated against 2 standards: comparison level (influences satisfaction) and comparison
level for alternatives (influences degree of commitment)
Love
-5 fundamental types of love: parental love, erotic (sexual) love, self-love, love for humanity, and love of
God (Erich Fromm)
Types of Love
-passionate love = intense emotion, arousal, and yearning for the partner
-companionate love = affection, deep caring, and commitment
-triangular theory of love = focuses on intimacy, commitment, and passion (Sternberg)
-ultimate form of love occurs when all 3 factors are present (consummate love)
The Cognitive-Arousal Model: Why Does My Heart Pound?
-cognitive-arousal model of love = passionate component of love has interacting cognitive and
physiological components – suggests that emotional arousal actually caused by some other factor may
sometimes be misinterpreted as love
-transfer of excitation = arousal due to one source is perceived as being due to another source
-Capilano suspension bridge experiment – attraction increased by arousal by being on that bridge
Applications of Psychological Science
Making Close Relationships Work: Lessons from Psychological Research
-amount of anger expressed by spouses in lab interactions didn’t predict stability or happiness
-four behaviours that were important (how they dealt withanger): criticism, contempt, defensiveness,
and stonewalling
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-happily married people also make the effort to know each other’s psych world
Prejudice and Discrimination
-prejudice = a negative attitude toward people based on their membership in a group
-discrimination = treating people unfairly based on their group to which they belong (overt behaviour)
Overt and Covert Prejudice: Have Times Changed?
-implicit association test – test used to measure covert prejudice (reaction time)
-prejudiced attitudes may surface when we’re cued to think in negative ways
-therefore, how we feel influences how we feel about others
Cognitive Roots of Prejudice
-caused by a many factors including historical and cultural norms
Categorization and us-them thinking
-we have a tendency to categorize objects and people to organize and simplify our world
-in-group favouritism = favour and attribute more positive qualities to “us” over “them”
-out-group homogeneity bias = view members of out-groups as being more similar to one another than
are members of in-groups (they’re all the same, but were all different/diverse)
Stereotypes and attributional distortions
-categorization and in-group biases lead us to respond quickly to out-group members based on perceived
group characteristics (stereotypes) rather than based on their individual characteristics
-members of out-groups that contradict our stereotypes usually seen as an exception than changing our
attitudes (i.e. strong woman = feminist)
Motivational Roots of Prejudice
-people’s well-ingrained ways of perceiving the world appear to set the wheels of prejudice in motion but
motivational factors affect how fast those wheels spin
Competition and Conflict
-realistic conflict theory = competition for limited resources foster prejudice
-prejudice triggered more strongly by a perceived threat t one’s in-group
Enhancing Self-Esteem
-social identity theory = prejudice stems from a need to enhance our self-esteem
-can raise self-esteem by associating ourselves without in-group’s accomplishments and conversely
threats to the in-group threaten our self-esteem
-prejudiced individuals show greater concern withaccurately determining who is an in-group vs. outgroup member
How Prejudice Confirms Itself
-self-fulfilling prophecies are one of the most invisible but damaging ways of maintaining prejudiced
beliefs
-stereotype threat = stereotypes create a fear and self-consciousness among stereotypes group
members that they will live up to other people’s stereotypes
-equal status contact = prejudice between 2 people or groups is most likely to be reduced when they
engage in close contact, have equal status within this interaction, and work together to achieve a common
goal that would be difficult to attain without such cooperation
Pro-social Behaviour: Helping Others
Why Do People Help?
Helping, Evolution, and Genetics
-sociobiologists – helping has a genetic basis
-kin selection = organisms are most likely to help others withwhom they share the most genes
-by protecting their kin, odds that their genes will survivor increases
-reciprocal altruism = helping others increases the likelihood that they will help us or our kin in return,
thereby enhancing the survival of our genes
-do not adequately explain why people cooperate
Social Learning and Cultural Influences
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-exposed to helpful models and taught pro-social norms since we are young
-two social norms relevant to helping behaviour:
-norm of reciprocity = we should reciprocate when others treat us kindly
-norm of social responsibility = people should help others and contribute to the welfare of society
-eventually internalize these norms, enabling powerful self-reinforcers like pride to maintain these
behaviours even when external reinforcement is absent
-socialization matters – can see difference withobligation of American vs. Hindu children
Empathy and Altruism
-empathy-altruism hypothesis = altruism does exist and is produced by empathy (the ability to put
oneself in the place of another and to share what that person is experiencing)
-negative state relied model = high empathy causes us to feel distress when we learn of others’
suffering so by helping them we reduce our own personal distress – a self-focused, not altruistic goal (feel
guilty for not helping)
When Do People Help?
-bystander intervention is a 5 step process: notice the situation, interpret as danger, assume
responsibility for helping, know how to help, and decide to help
-social comparison = look around to see how other people are responding
-diffusion of responsibility = someone else will help (when large group of people)
-bystander effect = presence of multiple bystanders inhibits each person’s tendency to help
-also, more helpful when in a good mood, have pre-existing guilt, observing a helpful role model, and
when we’re not in a hurry
Whom Do We Help?
-more likely to help someone similar to us and if there is perceived responsibility
-women are more like to receive help than men if bystander is male, women and men equally help by
female bystander
-just world hypothesis = since people want to view the world as fair, they perceive that people get what
they deserve and deserve what they get
Increasing Pro-Social Behaviour
-exposing people to pro-social models
-developing feelings of empathy and connectedness withothers
-learning about factors tat hinder bystander intervention
Aggression: Harming Others
-aggression = any form of behaviour that is intended to harm another person
Biological Factors in Aggression
-some species have certain aggressive behaviours that result from a fixed action pattern
-no single brain structure that turns on and off aggression in people
-involves activity of hypothalamus, amygdala, frontal lobes
-low levels of serotonin may play a role in impulsive aggression
Aversive Environmental Stimuli: Beyond Frustration
-frustration-aggression hypothesis = frustration inevitably leads to aggression and all aggression is the
result of frustration
-have been disproved
-painful stimuli, provocation, crowding, and heat can also trigger aggression
Learning to Aggress: Reinforcement and Modelling
-children become increasingly aggressive when their aggressive behaviour produced positive outcomes
(i.e. getting the desired toy)
-aggressive and delinquent children tend to have parents who frequently model aggressive behaviour
Psychological Factors in Aggression
-may employ several types of self-justification: may blame victim, minimize seriousness, or dehumanize
victims
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Perceived intent, empathy, and emotional regulation
-attribution of intentionality affect of how we respond to provocation
-degree of empathy for someone influences how we react to provocation
-response type depends on ability to regulate our emotions
Psychodynamic processes
-catharsis = performing an act of aggression discharges aggressive energy and temporarily reduced our
impulses to agree (Freud)
-overcontrolled hostility – bottle up anger and over time the pressure to aggress builds up and at a
critical point erupts into violence
Media Violence: Catharsis versus Social Learning
-acc to the psychodynamic theory, TV violence = great catharsis
-social learning theories: TV violence provides aggressive models (often reinforced)
-copycat acts of violence illustrate the above effects
-social learning more favoured as right one
-media violence exerts its effects through multiple avenues: viewers learn new aggressive behaviours
through modelling, believe aggression is rewarded or rarely punished, become desensitized to sight and
thought of violence and suffering of victims, and fear of becoming a target of crime or violence increases
-some people more influenced than others, negative stimulus needs to be present for aggressive
behaviour to occur, and cues present in TV how are similar to those in the actual situation
Psychological Frontiers
Do Violent Video Games Promote Aggression?
-violent video games teach people to overcome the natural inhibition against killing members of own
species – are a powerful disinhibitor and teacher
-could just be greater arousal that led to greater aggression not the actual violence
-overwhelming majority of children and adults who play violent games do not go out and commit crimes
or kill people
Chapter 12: Personality
*What is Personality
-the distinctive and relatively enduring ways of thinking, feeling, and acting that characterize a person’s
responses to life situations
-concept of personality rises from 2 common observations:
-1st, we observe that people differ meaningfully in the way they think, feel, and act
-2nd, people seem to behave fairly consistently over time and across different situations
-Behaviours attributed to personality typically has three characteristics:
-components of identity distinguishing one person from other people
-behaviours viewed as being caused by internal rather than environmental factors
-behaviours fitting together in meaningful fashion
-3 standards used to evaluate the usefulness of personality theory are: 1)provides a comprehensive
framework within which known facts can be incorporated, 2)allows us to predict future events withsome
precision, & 3)stimulates the discovery of some knowledge
*The Psychodynamic Perspective
Freud’s Psychodynamic Theory
-conversion hysteria convinced Freud of the power of the unconscious mind because patients’ symptoms
related to painful memories and feelings repressed out of awareness and when patients re-experienced
traumatic events, symptoms disappeared or, at least, improved
Psychic Energy and Mental Events
-Freud considered personality to be an energy system
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-instinctual drives generate psychic energy, which powers the mind and constantly presses for either
direct or indirect release
-mental events may be conscious, preconscious, or unconscious
-conscious = mental events we’re presently aware of
-preconscious = memories, thoughts, feelings, and images we’re unaware of at the moment but can be
recalled
-unconscious = dynamic realm of wishes, feelings, and impulses that lie beyond our awareness
The Structure of Personality
-personality’s 3 separate yet interacting structures:
-id = exists totally within unconscious mind
-innermost core of personality and only structure present at birth
-source of all psychic energy; no direct contact withreality; and functions in totally irrational manner
-operates according to pleasure principle
-seeks immediate gratification or release regardless of rational considerations & realities
-ego = develops out of id so that it has contact withreality
-functions primarily at conscious level and operates according to reality principle
-it tests reality to decide when and under what conditions id can safely discharge its impulses and satisfy
its needs
-superego = moral arm of personality
-develops by 4 or 5 and contains traditional values and ideals of society
-strives to control instincts of id and tries to block gratification permanently
-ego sometimes referred to as “executive of the personality” because it must achieve compromise
between demands of the id, constraints of the superego, and demands of reality
Conflict. Anxiety, and Defence
-defence mechanisms = unconscious processes by which the ego prevents the expression of anxietyarousing impulses or allows them to appear in disguised forms
-they develop when realistic strategies are ineffective in reducing anxiety
-specific forms of defence of mechanisms:
-repression = ego uses some of it’s energy to prevent anxiety-arousing memories, feelings and impulses
from entering consciousness
-remain in unconscious and may be expressed indirectly (i.e. slips of the tongue, dreams)
-primary means of “keeping a lid on the id”
-sublimation = repressed impulse released in the form of a socially acceptable or even admired
behaviour (i.e. painting instead of fulfilling aggressive desires)
-also denial, displacement, intellectualization, projection, rationalization, and reaction formation
Psychosexual Development
-psychosexual stages = children pass through these stages during which id’s pleasure-seeking
tendencies are focused on specific pleasure-sensitive areas of body called erogenous zones:
a. oral stage – excessive gratification or frustration of oral needs can result in fixation on oral
themes of self-indulgence or dependency as an adult
b. anal stage – harsh toilet training can produce compulsions on cleanliness, obsessiveness,
and insistence on rigid rules as an adult; lax training results in messy, negative, and
dominant adult
c. phallic stage – identify withsame sex parent, boys taking on dad’s traits, girls taking on
mom’s traits
d. latency stage – sexually dormant
e. genital stage – sexuality re-emerges and remain in this stage for the rest of their life/erotic
impulses find direct expression in sexual relationships
-Oedipus complex = male child experiences erotic feelings twd his mother
desires to posses her sexually, and views father as rival (can lead to castration anxiety)
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-Electra complex = female version of above – desires father, mother as rival; also penis envy – lack penis
and blame mother for not having one
-both occur in phallic stage
Research on Psychoanalytic Theory
Research Close-up
Using Neurophysiology to Study Unconscious Psychodynamics
-Shevrin believed that if the brain reacts differently to psychodynamically meaningful stimuli than it dies
to other stimuli
-the concept of unconscious psychodynamics receives a level of support
-results were that patients’ brain wave patterns were different to the unconscious conflict words than to
the symptom or ordinary words
Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theory
-difficult to test because it often explains too much to allow clear cut behavioural predictions
-i.e. predict the participants will behave aggressively but behave lovingly instead
-because of false theory or because aggression is masked by defence mechanism of rxn formation?
-current status of unconscious processes is that nonconscious processes have been experimentally
demonstrated but they’re not as “exotic” as Freud described
-research shows kinder, gentler unconscious
-psychosexual stages are widely rejected but strong evidence that childhood experiences influence
development of personality
Freud’s Legacy: Neoanalytic and Object Relations Approach
-neoanalysts believed that Freud stressed infantile sexuality too much – he laid too much emphasis on
events of childhood as determinants of adult personality
-Alder insisted that humans are motivated by social interest (the desire to advance the welfare of others
(not inborn sexual and aggressive drives)
-motive is striving for superiority which drives people to compensate for real or imagined defects in
themselves (inferiority complex)
-analytic psychology = humans posses personal unconscious based on personal experiences but also
collective unconscious consisting of memories accumulated throughout the history of the human race
(Jung)
-these memories are represented by archetypes, inherited tendencies to interpret experiences in certain
ways
-object relations theorists focus on images that people form of themselves and other people as a result
of early experience withcaregivers
-whether realistic or distorted, internal representations of important adults (i.e. parents) become
“working models” through which later social interactions are viewed and these relational themes exert
unconscious influence on person’s relationships throughout life
*The Humanistic Perspective
-central role of conscious experience, creative potential and striving for self-actualization
Carl Roger’s Self Theory
-behaviour is response to immediate conscious experience of self and environment
The Self
-self = an organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself
-self-consistency = absence of conflict among self-perceptions
-congruence = consistency between self-perceptions and experience
-both are needed
-inconsistency creates threat and anxiety
-as difficult for people withnegative self-concepts to accept success as it is for unrealistically positive selfconcepts to accept failure
-degree of congruence between self-concept and experience helps define level of adjustment
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The Need for Positive Regard
-need for positive regard = need acceptance, sympathy, and love from others
-unconditional positive regard = shows one is inherently worthy of love
-conditional positive regard = love dependant on how child behaves; can hurt us
-need for positive self-regard = need to be positively regarded by oneself
-conditions of worth dictate when we approve or disapprove of ourselves
Fully Functioning Persons
=people that don’t adopt artificial roles, feel a sense of inner freedom, self-determination, and choice in
the direction of their growth
Research on the Self
-because self is central in the theory, 2 NB topics are: development of self-esteem and its effects on
behaviour, and roles played by self-enhancement and self-consistency motives
Self-Esteem
=how positively or negatively we feel about ourselves
-very NB for healthy functioning
-conditions for high-self-esteem: unconditional love and acceptance by parents, clear guidelines and
reinforcement, while giving freedom to make decisions within guidelines
Self-Verification and Self-Enhancement Motives
-self-verification = need to preserve self-concept by maintaining self-consistency and congruence
-self-verification needs expressed in seeking out self-confirming relationships
-self-enhancement = need to regard oneself positively
-i.e. self-serving bias
-these two work to develop one’s self-esteem
Culture, Gender, and the Self
-culture provides learning context in which the self develops (i.e. individualistic cultures vs. collectivistic
cultures)
-gender schemas = organized mental structures that contain our understanding of the attributes and
behaviours that are appropriate and expected for males and females
-in general, in our culture, men tend to be more individualistic and women collectivistic
Evaluating Humanistic Theories
-seems non-scientific but a scientific measure created for it by Rogers
-to asses effectiveness, measure discrepancy between ideal self and perceived self
-when first enter therapy, big discrepancy, but gets smaller as therapy proceeds
*Trait and Biological Perspectives
-goals are to describe the basic classes of behaviour that define personality, devise ways to measure the
individual differences in personality traits and to use these measures to understand and predict a
person’s behaviour
-use factor analysis to identify withclusters of specific behaviours that are correlated withone another
so highly that they can be viewed as reflecting a basic dimension
-i.e. introversion/extraversion
Cattell’s Sixteen Personality Factors
-developed 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire to measure individual differences on each dimension and
provide a comprehensive personality description
The Five Factor Model
-suggest that 5 higher-order factors needed to capture basic structure of personality
-are openness, conscientiousness, extraversion*, agreeableness, and neuroticism`
Eysenck’s Extraversion-Stability Model
Normal personality can be understood in terms of only 2 basic dimensions
-are introversion-extraversion* and stability-instability`
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-extreme extraverts chronically overaroused, brains too electrically active, so try to minimize stimulation
and reduce arousal to get down to optimal level or comfort zone
-extreme introverts and chronically under aroused and need powerful and frequent stimulation to
achieve optimal level or cortical arousal and excitation
-stability continuum from high emotional stability to unstable and emotionally reactive behaviour
pattern that involves moodiness, anxiety, and depression
-unstable = extremes = neuroticism
Traits and Behaviour Prediction
-predict real-life behaviour on basis of person’s traits + basic structure of personality
-16 factors predict behaviour best
Biological Foundations of Personality Traits
-bio explanations focus on 3 levels: NS functioning, genetic basis for trait inheritance, and evolutionary
principles
Personality and the Nervous System
-studies of brain activity indicate differences between introverts and extraverts
-twins studies support above
Behaviour Genetics and Personality
-identical twins more similar than fraternal
-but could be because both types of twins treated differently
-twin studies withtwins reared apart support genetic basis for personality
-family environment had little influence on personality in these studies
-individual’s unique personal experience accounted for much of the variance
-NB: always combination of bio + environmental factors
Evolutionary Approaches
-evolutionary personality theory = traits developed through human history because they helped us to
physically survive or helped aid reproduction
-regard Big 5 as having been sculpted by natural selection pressure until they become part of human
nature
-from most to least importance: extraversion, agreeableness, conscientious, neuroticism, and openness
(intelligence?)
The Stability of Personality Traits
-since traits are defined as enduring, should be fairly stable over time & across situations
-optimism vs. pessimism stable characteristic
-personality also shows a capacity for change – i.e. honesty across situations
-three factors make it difficult to predict on the basis of personality traits how people will behave in
certain situations:
1) personality traits interact e/other traits and characteristics of diff situations
2) degree of consistency across situations depends on how NB given trait is to the person
3) people differ in the tendency to tailor their behaviour to what is called for by the situation (=
self-monitoring)
-stability and distinctiveness come from average amount of extraversion, etc
Evaluating the Trait Approach
-more attention should be paid to how traits interact and influence behaviour
Psychological Frontiers
Personality and Health
-type A personalities = live under great pressure and are demanding of self
-prone to coronary heart disease because of the negative emotions
-type B = more relaxed and agreeable and less rushed
-type C = like type As that bottle up feelings appear as nice and sociable
-risk factor for cancer
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-optimism = good for health and happiness
-conscientiousness has strongest link to physical health and longevity (of the Big 5)
*Social Cognitive Theories
=combination of behavioural and cognitive perspectives
-reciprocal determinism = person, behaviour, & environmental factors affect each other
Julian Rotter: Expectancy, Reinforcement Value, and Locus of Control
-likelihood that we’ll engage in a certain behaviour is governed by expectancy and reinforcement value
-expectancy = perception of how likely it is that certain consequences will occur if engage in a particular
behaviour
-reinforcement value = how much we desire or dread the outcome that we expect the behaviour to
produce
Locus of Control
-refers to the degree to which we believe internal or external factors control our behaviour
-internal-external locus of control = expectancy concerning the degree of personal control we have in
our lives
-people withan internal locus of control behave in more self-determined manner
-internal locus positively related to self-esteem and feelings of personal effectiveness, and tend to cope
with stress in a more active and problem-focused manner
Albert Bandura: Social Learning and Self-Efficacy
Self-Efficacy
-self-efficacy = the conviction that we can person the behaviours necessary to produce a desired
outcome
-is a key factor to how people regulate their lives
-people with high self-efficacy have confidence in their ability to do what it takes to overcome obstacles
and achieve goals
-are 4 NB factors that affect one’s sense of self-efficacy
1) Performance experiences – previous experiences of success/failure on similar tasks
2) Observational learning – observing others’ behaviours and their outcomes
3) Verbal persuasion – message from others that affirm/downgrade our abilities
4) Emotional arousal – anxiety or fatigue tends to decrease self-efficacy
Applications of Psychological Science
Increasing Self-Efficacy through Systematic Goal Setting
-six principles to increase self-efficacy:
1) Set specific, behavioural, and measurable goals
2) Set performance, not outcome, goals
3) Set difficult, but realistic, goals
4) Set positive, not negative, goals
5) Set short-range as well as long-term goals
6) Set definite time spans for achievement
Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda: The Cognitive-Affective Personality System
-a five-person variable system: the cognitive-effective personality system (CAPS)
-five factors are encoding strategies, expectancies and beliefs, goals and values, affects, and selfregulatory processes and competencies
-the interactions of these 5 factors result in distinctive behavioural signatures which are consistent ways
of responding to situations
-behavioural signatures = consistent ways of responding in particular classes of situations
-people can have very distinctive behaviour signatures, so you can’t just average personality factors and
say someone is just “aggressive”
Encoding Strategies
-people differ in how they encode (represent, interpret, and construe) situations
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-people assume different things about certain situations, and that influences how they’d behave in said
situations
Expectancies and Beliefs
-if… then link between alternative behaviours and possible outcomes
Goals and Values
-motivation toward goals and values that guide behaviour
Affects (Emotions)
-anything withNB consequences to us triggers an emotional response
-once aroused, emotions influence our perceptions and behaviour
Self-Regulatory Processes and Competencies
-people extensively control or regulate own behaviour
-self-reinforcement processes = internal, self-administered rewards and punishments in response to
our own behaviour
Resolving the Consistency Paradox
-people will behave similarly in situations that have important characteristics in common
-inconsistently in situations that differ in ways that evoke different responses by CAPS
-i.e. withJulia: if in a superficial relationship, then friendly and charming, but if in a close and potentially
intimate relationship, then guarded and hostile
Evaluating Social Cognitive Theories
-strengths: strong scientific base, ability to translate insights derived from other perspectives into
cognitive-behavioural concepts
-resolves contradiction between assumption that personality produces stability in behaviour and
research findings of behaviour not being very consistent across situations
-ability of CAPS to predict behaviour needs to be examined more
*Personality Assessment
-6 common measurement approaches to asses personality are interview data, report or ratings by others,
behavioural assessment, physiological measures, responses on projective tests, and personality scales
and self-ratings
-reliability = consistency of measurement – a test that measure a stable personality trait should yield
similar scores when administered to the same individual at different times
-validity = accuracy of measurement – does it measure what it intents to measure?
Interviews
-structured interviews = interviews that contain a set of specific questions that are administered to every
participant
-frequently used to collect research data or make a psychiatric diagnosis
-better than informal because they can properly compare withothers
-valuable because of direct personal contact
-limitations: interviewer characteristics may affect how person responds, interviewee’s desire to
cooperate, respond honestly, and report accurately what the interviewer’s trying to asses – all this can
affect the validity
Behavioural Assessment
=psychologists devise an explicit coding system that contains the behavioural categories of interest
-can provide valuable information about how frequently and under what conditions certain classes of
behaviour occur
-requires precision in defining behaviours of interest
Remote Behaviour Sampling
=researchers and clinicians collect samples of behaviour from respondents as they live their daily lives
-respondent’s beeper randomly goes off and they record their thoughts, feelings, etc
-detection of patterns of personal functioning that might not be revealed by other methods
Personality Scales
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-are objective measure because they include a standard set of questions (true/false, rating, etc)
-advantages: collecting data from lots of people at once, all respond to same items, and easy scoring
-disadvantage: possibility that some people won’t respond truthfully; validity decreases
-to combat that, some have validity scales to find out when people lie
-2 major ways items are developed on a personality scale
-rational approach = items based on theorist’s conception of personality trait to be measured (i.e. NEOPI which measure Big 5)
-empirical approach = items chosen because that differentiate between 2 groups that are known to
differ on a particular personality variable
-empirical approach used to develop the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) – most
widely used personality inventory
Projective Tests
-projective tests = tests of ambiguous stimuli (subjective)
-assumption is that when a person is presented with ambiguous stimuli, the interpretation attached to
the stimulus will have come partly from within
Rorschach
-consists of 10 inkblots and asked “what does this look like?”, etc
-interpretations of made by examiners often based on what response seem to symbolize
-problem is different examiners see interpretations in different ways
Thematic Apperception Test
-TAT – a series of pictures derived from paintings, drawing, and magazine illustrations
-respondents asked to describe what’s going on in each scene, what has led to the current situation, what
the characters are thinking and feeling, and what the situational outcome will be
-same problems as Rorschach
Personality Theory and Personality Assessment
-theories provide framework
-psychodynamic theorists go withprojective tests
-humanistic – self-report measures of self-concept and personal aspirations
-social cognitive – behavioural assessments and ask ppl to rate their expectations about what’ll happen in
the future and how well they’ll do in the situations
-also go for remote behaviour sampling
-MMPI and NEO-PI preferred by trait theorists and bio people
Chapter 13: Psychological Disorders
*Historical Perspectives on Psychological Disorders
The Demonological View
-perspective on abnormal behaviour was that it’s caused by supernatural forces – the work of the devil
-treatment: to chisel a hole in the skull (trephination) to release the evil spirit attempting to escape the
body
-during the 16th and 17th centuries 100,000+ people withpsychological disorders were identified as
witches, hunted down, and killed
Early Biological Views
-Hippocrates suggested mental illness are just like physical disorders (5th century B.C.)
-by 1800s, medical diagnoses for mental illnesses
-general paresis = a disorder characterized in advanced stages by mental deterioration and bizarre
behaviour, resulting from massive brain deterioration caused by syphilis
-is historically important because it was the first time that a psychological disorder was linked to an
underlying physical problem
Psychological Perspectives
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-1900s: Freud’s psychoanalytic theory emerged as new way to view abnormal behaviour
-Concepts used to explain abnormal behaviour:
a. Psychodynamic = psychological disorders are caused by unresolved conflicts from
childhood that makes a person vulnerable to certain kinds of life events which arouse
anxiety. The person uses defence mechanisms to try and cope. An inappropriate or
extreme use of defence mechanisms results in maladaptive behaviour.
b. Behavioural: disordered behaviours are learned responses that like normal behaviours are
learned through classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and modelling
c. Cognitive: maladaptive thoughts about oneself and environment linked to different
disorders
d. Humanistic: abnormality is a result of environmental forces that frustrate or pervert
people’s inherent self-actualization tendencies and search for meaning in life
e. Socio-cultural: psychological disorders cannot be understood without taking into account
the cultural context in which they occur
Today’s Vulnerability-Stress Model
-each of us has some degree of vulnerability to developing a given psychological disorder
-vulnerability (=predisposition) factors: genetic factors, biological characteristics, psychological traits,
previous learning history, and low social support
-stressors (=recent or current event that requires a person to cope): economic adversity, environmental
trauma, interpersonal stresses, and occupational demands
-combination of vulnerability factors and stressors lead to psychological factors
*Defining and Classifying Psychological Disorders
What is “Abnormal”
-it is a social construction and can be affected by value judgements and political agendas
-3 Ds that underlie judgements of abnormal behaviour:
a. Distressing to self or others: i.e. overly anxious, depressed, etc. when suffering is
disproportionate to the situation or is too long-lasting, it is viewed as abnormal
b. Dysfunctional for person or society – behaviours interfering with a person’s ability to work
and experience relationships with other
c. Deviance of given behaviour – violating instated norms
-Abnormal behaviour = behaviour that is personally distressful, personally dysfunctional, and/or so
culturally deviant that other people judge it to be inappropriate or maladaptive
Diagnosing Psychological Disorders
-reliability = clinicians using the system should show high levels of agreement in their diagnostic
decisions
-validity = diagnostic categories should accurately capture the essential features of the various disorders
and should allow us to differentiate between different disorders
-DSM-IV = Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition – most widely used
classification system in North America; more than 350 diagnostic categories
-5 axes of DSM-IV:
-Axis 1: Primary diagnosis that represents the person’s primary clinical symptoms
-Axis 2: reflects the long-standing personality or developmental disorder, such as ingrained,
inflexible aspects of personality, that could influence the person’s behaviour and response to
treatment
-Axis 3: notes physical conditions that may be relevant, like high blood pressure
-Axis 4: rates intensity or environmental stressors in recent life
-Axis 5: rates coping resources as reflected in recent adaptive functioning
1
- / 2 of all people who receive a specific personality disorder diagnosis could easily be classified
differently – reduces reliability and validity
Critical Issues in Diagnostic Labelling
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-diagnostic labels can have important personal, social, and legal consequences for patient
Social and Personal Implications
-once label attached, too easy to accept label as description of individual, not behaviour
-makes it difficult to look at person’s behaviour objectively without preconceptions about how they’ll act
-also affects how we’ll react with someone who has been labelled
-may also create or worsen psychological disorders - when ppl become aware the label has been applied
to them, they may accept the new identity and develop the expected role
-effects on morale and self-esteem are often devastating.
Legal Consequences
-competency = defendant’s state of mind at the time of the hearing (not at time of crime)
-insanity = presumed state of mind of defendant at the time the crime was committed
-current burden of proof lies withdefence to prove the client was insane at time of murders
-guilty but mentally ill = normal sentence for crime but defendant goes to mental hospital
“Do I Have That Disorder?”
-assuming you have whatever disorder you read about
*Anxiety Disorders
-in anxiety disorders, frequency and intensity of anxiety responses out of proportion to situations that
trigger them.
-Anxiety has 3 components:
a. Cognitive component: including subjective feelings of apprehension, sense of impending
danger and feeling of inability to cope
b. physiological component: including increased HR, BR, muscles tension, rapid breathing,
nausea, dry mouth, diarrhea, and frequent urination
c. behavioural responses such as avoidance of certain situations and impaired task
performance
Phobic Disorder
-phobias = strong and irrational fears of certain objects or situations
-3 major types:
-agoraphobia = fear of open and public places
-social phobias = excessive fear of situations in which the person might be evaluated and possible
embarrassed
-specific phobias = fear of certain things like spiders, airplanes, water, etc
Generalized Anxiety Disorder
-GAD = a chronic state of diffuse, or “free floating”, anxiety that’s not attached to specific situations or
objects
-this is different from a phobic disorder which is a fear of certain situations or objects
-it’s different from panic disorders because generalized anxiety disorders involve chronic tension and
anxiety where panic disorders occur suddenly and are unpredictable
Panic Disorder
-occur suddenly and unpredictably and are very intense
-out of the blue in the absence of any identifiable stimulus
-unpredictability makes panic attacks terrifying to victims
-many withit develop agoraphobia because of fear that they’ll have an attack in public.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
-consists of 2 components: 1 cognitive (obsessions) + 1 behavioural (compulsions)
-obsessions = repetitive and unwelcome thoughts, images, or impulses that invade consciousness, are
often abhorrent to the person & are very difficult to dismiss or control -compulsions = repetitive
behaviour responses that can be resisted only withgreat difficulty
-are responses to obsessions and function to reduce anxiety associated with the thoughts
-onset typically occurs in one’s twenties
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Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
-PTSD = four common features or symptoms
1) experiences severe symptoms of anxiety, arousal, and distress that weren’t present before the
trauma
2) relives trauma in “flashbacks”, dreams, and in fantasy
3) becomes numb to the world and avoids stimuli that remind him/her of the trauma
4) In instances where others are killed, may experience extreme guilt about surviving the
catastrophe when others didn’t
-psychological wreckage caused by PTSD may increase vulnerability to the later development of other
disorders
-importance of prompt post-trauma intervention to prevent development of PTSD
Casual Factors in Anxiety Disorders
-anxiety = complex phenomenon withbiological, psychological, and environmental causes
Biological Factors
-evidence that there’s a genetic predisposition to anxiety disorders:
-identical and fraternal twin studies (40% vs 4% concordance rate)
-genetic factors may increase vulnerability to anxiety disorders
-vulnerability may be autonomic nervous system that overreacts to perceived threat, creating high
levels of physiological arousal
-could also be hereditary factors causing overreactivity of neurotransmitter systems involved in
emotional responses
-GABA = inhibitory neurotransmitter that reduces neural activity in the amygdala and other structures
that stimulate physiological arousal
-abnormally low levels of GABA in arousal areas may cause people to have highly reactive nervous
systems that quickly produce anxiety responses in response to stressors
-factors producing sex difference in prevalence of anxiety disorders could be a sex-linked biological
predisposition but also social conditions that give women less power and personal control contribute
-biological preparedness = easier to learn to fear certain stimuli – may explain why phobias centre on
certain classes of “primal” stimuli and not on more dangerous modern ones like guns, etc (evolutionary
theorists)
Psychological Factors
Psychodynamic theory
-anxiety = central feature of psychoanalytic conceptions of abnormal behaviours
-neurotic anxiety occurs when unacceptable impulses threaten to overwhelm ego’s defences and
explode into action
-how ego’s defence mechanisms deal withneurotic anxiety determines the form of the anxiety disorder
-i.e. in phobic disorders: anxiety displaced onto external stimulus withsymbolic significance in relation to
underlying conflict, obsession: symbolically related to underlying impulse and compulsion is way of
“taking back” unacceptable urges, and generalized anxiety and panic disorders: when one’s defences
aren’t strong enough to contain anxiety but strong enough to hide underlying conflict
Cognitive factors
-cognitive forces make anxiety disorder people magnify demands into threats and anticipate that the
worst will happen and they’re powerless to cope
-panic attacks are triggered by exaggerated misinterpretations of normal anxiety symptoms like hear
palpitations, dizziness, and breathlessness – appraises signs as heart attack or loss of psychological
control about to occur, creating more anxiety until process spirals out of control producing panic attacks
Anxiety as a learned response
-fears acquired from classical condition, modelling, and operant conditioning
-classical conditioning – fears acquired as result of traumatic experiences producing classically
conditioned fear response
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-observational learning (modelling) – televised images of air crashes can evoke high levels of fear, etc
-operant conditioning – behaviours successful in reducing anxiety strengthened through process of
negative reinforcement
Socio-Cultural Factors
-role of cultural and social factors play a role, best seen in culture-bound disorders
-culture-bound disorders = disorders that only occur in certain places
-i.e. anorexia only in developed countries because thinness is cultural obsession
*Mood (Affective) Disorders
-mood disorders = disorders that involve depression and mania
Depression
-major depression = intense deprssion that interferes markedly with functioning
-dysthymia = less intense form of depression that has less dramatic effects on personal and occupational
functioning, but is more chronic and long-lasting
-four classes of symptoms characterizing depression:
a. Negative mood states: report sadness, misery, and loneliness, and activities that used to
bring pleasure no longer do
b. Cognitive symptoms: difficulty concentrating and making decisions; have low self-esteem,
feel inferior, inadequate, and blame themselves for setbacks in life; expect failure in future
c. Motivational symptoms: inability to get started and to perform behaviours that might
produce pleasure; everything seems like too much effort.
d. Somatic symptoms: loss of appetite and weight loss, sleep disturbances, weakness, &
fatigue; may lose sexual desire & responsiveness
Bipolar Disorder
-unipolar disorder = person experiences only depression
-bipolar disorder = depression alternates withperiods of mania
-mania = state of highly excited mood and behaviour that is opposite of depression
-four classes of symptoms characterizing mania:
a. Mood: euphoric
b. Cognitions: grandiose thoughts
c. Motivations: behaviour is hyperactive
d. Somatic symptoms: engages in frenetic activity, speech is rapid or pressured, don’t sleep so
much and go without it until exhaustion sets in
Prevalence and Course of Mood Disorders
-men and women don’t differ in prevalence of bipolar disorder
-women are twice as likely to suffer from unipolar depression
-could be because of biochemical differences in NS or monthly premenstrual depression
-could be expectation for women to be passive and dependant in the face of stress & to focus on feelings,
whereas men are more likely to distract themselves through activities
-left untreated: depression typically lasts 5-10 months and then dissipates
-once a depressive episode has occurred, ½ never experience it again, many recover withrecurrence a
few years later, and 10% never recover
Causal Factors in Mood Disorders
Biological Factors
-both genetic and neurochemical factors linked to depression
-twin studies show that identical twins have a concordance rate of 67% for experiencing clinical
depression where fraternal twins have rates of only 15%
-adoption studies show biological parents are 8 times more likely to suffer from depression than adoptive
parents of children who eventually develop depression
-biochemical processes possibly underlying depression are on the underactivity of a family of
neurotransmitters called monoamines (norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin)
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-play roles in brain regions that are important sites for experiencing reward and pleasure -manic
disorders may be from overproduction of above neurotransmitters
Psychological Factors
-bio factors increase vulnerability and environmental events trigger them
Personality-based vulnerability
-psychoanalysts believe early losses & rejection creates vulnerability for later depression by triggering a
grieving and rage process that becomes part of the individual’s personality
-evidence for it uses the rate of depression among women who had lost their mothers before 11 and who
also experienced severe recent loss was 3 times higher than the rate of women who had experienced
similar recent loss but hadn’t lost mothers before 11
-death of father while young is associated greatly with risk of greater depression
-humanistic perspective: Seligman explains the increase in depression among people born after 1960 by
saying that this generation overemphasizes individuality & personal control
-occurs because they define self worth in terms of individual attainment (and less on family and common
goal)
-are likely to react stronger to failure and view negative events as own inadequacies
Cognitive processes
-Beck: depressive cognitive triad and depressive attributional pattern
-depressive cognitive triad = negative thoughts concerning (1) the world, (2) oneself, and (3) the future
– seems to pop into consciousness automatically & can’t be suppressed. -tend to remember most failures
but few successes and focus attention on perceived inadequacies, which trigger depressed affect
-depressive attributional pattern = interpret successes as being due to factors outside self while
attributing negative outcomes to personal factors; maintains low self-esteem
-learned helplessness theory = depression occurs when people expect that bad events will occur and
that there’s nothing they can do to prevent or cope withthem
-depression occurs as result of negative attributions for failure that are personal (It’s all my fault), stable
(I’ll always be like this), and global (I’m a total loser)
Learning and environmental factors
-Lewinsohn’s learning theory explains spiralling downward:
1) depression is triggered by loss, punishing event, or decrease in the amount of positive
reinforcement form environment
2) stop performing behaviours that previously provided reinforcement
3) make those around you feel depressed and hostile and they lose patience, results in
diminishing social support
-environmental factors help explain why depression runs in families – children of depressed parents fail
to develop good coping skills because of poor parenting and many stressful experiences; therefore are
more vulnerable
Socio-cultural factors
-prevalence of depression in Hong Kong and Taiwan is much lower than Western Nations because strong
family connections and other group connections
-feelings of guilt & personal inadequacy are predominant in North American & Western European
countries, but fatigue, loss of appetite, etc in Latin, Chinese, & African cultures
-no sex difference in developing (3rd world) countries, just technologically advanced
Applications of Psychological Science
Understanding and Preventing Suicide
-suicide = wilful taking of one’s own life
-depression is one of the strongest predictors of suicide
-15% of clinically depressed individuals eventually kill themselves (22-36 times higher than general
population rate for suicide)
-80% of suicidal people are significantly depressed.
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-2 fundamental motives for suicide: desire to end one’s life and desire to manipulate and coerce other
people into doing what the suicidal person wants
-56% of attempts are motivated by desire to die, 13% suicide attempts manipulative, and 31% are the
combination of 2 types of motivation
-4 guidelines for helping a suicidal person: 1) ask person if he/she is considering suicide, 2) provide
social support and empathy, 3) Discuss reasons to continue to live & focus on doubts person has about
suicide, & 4) stay with him/her and seek professional assistance
*Somatoform Disorders
-somatoform disorders = physical complaints or disabilities that suggest a medical problem, but withno
biological cause and aren’t produced voluntarily by the person
-hypochondriasis = become unduly alarmed about any physical symptom they detect and are convinced
that they have or are about have a serious illness (think George)
-pain disorder = experience intense pain that either is out of proportion to whatever medical condition
they might have or for which no physical basis can be found
-different from psychophysiological disorders (psychological factors cause or contribute to a real medical
condition, like ulcers, asthma, hypertension, or cardiac problems)
-conversion disorder = a type of somatoform disorder where serious neurological symptoms like
paralysis, loss of sensation, or blindness suddenly occur
-the complaint can even be physiologically impossible – i.e. glove anaesthesia
-conversion disorders are rare, 3/1000 N. Americans in peacetime
-symptoms = symbolic expression of underlying conflict to Freud
-predisposition to somatoform = bio + psych vulnerabilities
*Dissociative Disorders
-dissociative disorders = a breakdown of normal integration of personality that allows people to act,
think, and feel with some consistency
-results in significant alterations in memory or identity.
-3 major types of dissociative disorders:
-psychogenic amnesia = person responds to stressful event withextensive but selective memory loss
-some remember nothing about the past, others can’t recall specific events, but other contents of memory
like language and cognitive motor skills remain intact
-psychogenic fugue = person loses all sense of personal identity, gives up customary life, wanders to
new, faraway location and establishes new identity
-usually triggered by highly stressful event or trauma and may last from hours to years
-dissociative identity disorder (DID) – aka multiple personality disorder = 2 or more separate
personalities coexist in same person
-primary or host personality appears most often (others are alters) but each has own set of memories
and behaviours
-may or may not know of existence of other personalities
-personalities can differ in age, gender, and physiology
-trauma-dissociation theory = the development of new personalities occurs in response to severe
stress
-usually begins in early and middle childhood when child’s personality is not well established and it’s
quite easy for them to dissociate
-in response to trauma, children create new alternate identity to detach themselves from trauma and
transfer what’s happening to someone who can handle it
-new personality remains separate rather than being integrated into host personality
Psychological Frontiers
Dissociative Identity Disorder: A Clinical and Scientific Puzzle
-Grounds that critics have questioned validity of DID:
-many observations based on uncontrolled case studies
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-some evidence that EEG differences can be made by role-playing in normal individuals
-tendency for some who have committed serious crimes to disclaim responsibility on grounds that
they’re DID victims
-wonder if DID is a therapy-produced phenomenon: prior to 1970, only about 100 cases, but after book
and movie “Sybil” tens of thousands of cases reported (1990’s) and instead of 2 or 3 personalities per
person, the average grew to 15
*Schizophrenia
-schizophrenia = a psychotic disorder that involves disturbance in thinking, speech, perception,
emotion, and behaviour
-certain psychological functions which are joined in normal person are disconnected
Characteristics of Schizophrenia
-person misinterprets reality and exhibits disordered attention, thought, or perception
-withdrawal from social interaction, inappropriate or strange communication, neglected personal
grooming, and disorganized behaviour
-delusions: false beliefs that are sustained in face of evidence that normally would be sufficient to
destroy them
-hallucinations: false perceptions that have a compelling sense of reality (auditory most common)
-emotions affected; blunted affect, manifesting less sadness, joy, anger than most people; flat affect,
showing no emotion at all; inappropriate affect – i.e. laughing at tragedies, crying at comedies, etc
Subtypes of Schizophrenia
-Four major types of schizophrenia:
-paranoid type = believe that others mean to harm them (delusions of persecution) and/or they believe
they’re enormously important (delusions of grandeur)
-suspicion anxiety or anger may accompany delusions and hallucinations may occur
-disorganized type = confusion and incoherence withsevere deterioration of adaptive behaviour
-difficult to communicate withthem because thought disorganization is extreme
-silly, childlike behaviour, inappropriate emotional responses; unable to function on own
-catatonic type = motor disturbances
-alternate between stuporous states where oblivious to reality and agitated excitement when can be
danger to others
-in stuporous state, may exhibit waxy flexibility (limbs can be moulded by another person into grotesque
positions that they’ll maintain for hours)
-also categorize with2 categories: Type I and Type II
-type I schizophrenia = predominance of positive symptoms such as delusions, hallucinations, and
disordered speech and thinking
-positive symptoms = pathological extremes of normal processes
-type II schizophrenia = features negatives symptoms, such as lack of emotional expression, loss of
motivation, and absence of normal speech (poorer chance of recovery)
-negative symptoms = an absence of normal reactions
-schizophrenia afflicts only 1-2% of population
-about the same number of males and females, but appears earlier in males
Causal Factors in Schizophrenia
-results from a biologically based vulnerability factor that is set into motion by psychological and
environmental factors
Biological Factors
-evidence for genetic and neurological factors in schizophrenia
-closer to biological relationship to person withschizophrenia, greater risk of developing the disorder
-identical twins have higher concordance rates than fraternal twins and adoption studies show higher
concordance withbiological parents instead of adoptive parents
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-20-35% show mid-moderate brain atrophy (deterioration of neurons in cerebral cortex & limbic system)
especially in brain regions influencing cognitive processes and emotion
-the thalamus, which collects and routes sensory input, shows MRI abnormalities
-dopamine hypothesis = symptoms of schizophrenia (esp. positive symptoms) produced by overactivity
of dopamine in brain regions that regulate emotional expression, motivated behaviour and cognitive
functioning (more dopamine receptors)
-effectiveness of antipsychotic drugs related directly to their effectiveness in reducing dopamineproduced synaptic activity
Psychological Factors
-psychoanalytic theorists say that schizophrenia is an extreme example of defence mechanism of
regression
-regression = retreating to an earlier and more secure stage of psychosocial development in the face of
overwhelming anxiety
-also a retreat from interpersonal world that has become too stressful to deal with
-cognitive theorists say schizophrenics have deficit in attention mechanism that filters out irrelevant
stimuli so they’re overwhelmed by internal and external stimuli, irrelevant thoughts flash into
consciousness
Environmental Factors
-search for family characteristics that might cause the disorder large unsuccessful
-children withbiologically normal parents, raised by schizophrenic adoptive parents not at higher risk
-previously, hospitalized schizophrenics more likely to relapse if return to home high in expressed
emotion
-expressed emotion = involves high levels of criticism, hostility, and over-involvement
Socio-cultural Factors
-definitely linked to schizophrenia
-social causation hypothesis = attributes higher prevalence of schizophrenia to higher levels of stress
that low income people experience, particularly in urban environments
-social drift hypothesis = as people develop schizophrenia, their personal and occupational functioning
deteriorates so they drift down the socio-economic ladder into poverty and migrate to low cost urban
environments
-prevalence not dramatically different throughout world
-recovery, however, greater in developing countries than in nations like United States and Canada due to
stronger community orientation and greater social support
*Personality Disorders
-personality disorders = people exhibit stable, ingrained, inflexible, and maladaptive ways of thinking,
feeling, and behaving
-ten personality disorders: anti-social, histrionic, narcissitic, and borderline (dramatic/impulsive cluster),
avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive, (anxious/fearful cluster), schizoid, schizotypal, and
paranoid (odd/eccentric cluster)
Anti-Social Personality Disorder
-often called psychopaths or sociopaths
-most interpersonally destructive and emotionally harmful individuals
-males outnumber females three to one
-seem to lack a conscience
-impulse and unable to delay gratification of their needs
-lack of emotional attachment to other people
-not caring about others can make them a danger to society
-often appear intelligent and charming and can rationalize their behaviour so it seems justifiable and
reasonable; so often manipulate and talk their way out of situations
-failure to respond to punishment
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-must be at least 18 to be diagnosed but need substantial evidence of anti-social behaviour (like habitual
lying, vandalism, etc) before age 15
Causal Factors
Biological Factors
-twin and adoption studies show that there’s a genetic factor
-if biological and environmental factors combined, incidence increases greatly
-suggested that physiological basis may arise in dysfunction of brain that govern emotional arousal and
behaviour inhibition
-support comes from MRI findings where subtle neurological deficits in prefrontal lobes
Psychological and Environmental Factors
-psychoanalytic: lack anxiety and guilt because have an underdeveloped superego
-learning explanation – impaired ability to develop conditioned fear responses when punished (classical
conditioning failure)
-modelling learning – parents exhibit great deal of aggression (bad role models)
-though often lack capacity to make intimate and caring relationships, often marry
Research Close-Up
Personality Disorders in Men Who Batter Women
-two distinct groups of abusive men: “pit bulls” and “cobras”
-pit bulls – contemptuous, but dependant, of wives; so fearful of abandonment that they used violence to
gain total domination over them (80%)
-violence marked by gradual increase in emotional arousal that culminated in an emotional outburst and
physical assault
-a third had anti-social behaviour disorder
-cobras – about 20% of them – grew angrier but physiological measures decreased in emotional arousal:
a cold fury
-almost all had anti-social behaviour disorder
-had capacity to use others for need gratification
Chapter 14: Treatment of Psychological Disorders
*The Helping Relationship
-relationship between client and person providing help is a prime ingredient of therapeutic success, as is
the therapists’ use of a variety of treatment techniques to promote positive change in the client combine
in the treatment of behaviour disorders
-counselling and clinical psychologists = one group of psychologists (have a PhD)
-psychiatrists = MDs who specialize in psychotherapy and biomedical treatments
-also other professionals that provide treatment like counsellors, social workers, etc
*Psychodynamic Therapies
-psychoanalysis – refers to specific approach Freud developed
Psychoanalysis
-insight = the conscious awareness of the psychodynamics that underlie their problems
-goal is to help clients achieve insight
-this awareness permits clients to adjust their behaviour to their current life situations, rather than
continuing to repeat the old maladaptive routines learned in childhood
Free Association
=the procedure of verbalizing all thoughts that enter consciousness without censorship
-clients are asked to recline on a couch and to report verbally without censoring any thoughts, feelings, or
images that entered awareness
-sat out of sight of the client so that the client’s thought processes would be determined primarily by
internal factors
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-the analyst does not expect that free association will lead directly to unconscious material, but that it will
provide clues concerning important themes or issues
Dream Interpretation
-dreams express impulses, fantasies, and wishes that the patient’s defences keep in the unconscious
during waking hours
-analyst tries to help patient search for the unconscious material contained in the dreams
Resistance
=defensive manoeuvres that hinder the process of therapy
-patient experiences difficulty in free-associating, comes late or forgets about appointments, avoids
talking about certain topics
-acts as a sign that anxiety-arousing sensitive material is being approached
Transference
=patient responds irrationally to the analyst as if he or she were an important figure from the client’s past
-it brings out into the open repressed feelings and maladaptive behaviour patterns that the therapist can
point out to the client
-2 basic forms: of transference:
-positive transference –client transfers feelings of intense affection, dependency, or love to the analyst
-negative transference - irrational expressions of anger, hatred or disappointment
-until transference reactions are analyzed and resolved, there can be no full resolution of the patient’s
problems
Interpretation
=any statement y the therapist intended to provide the client with insight into his or her behaviour or
dynamics
-confronts clients with something that they have not previously admitted consciously
-general rule in treatment: interpret what is already near the surface and just beyond current awareness,
allowing him/her to eventually arrive at the insight (deep solutions)
Brief Psychodynamic Therapies
-classical psychoanalysis = expensive and time consuming process that is both impractical and
unnecessary (hypothesis)
-results: half improved within 8 sessions, and most of the therapeutic effects occurred within 26 session
and no evidence that long term yields better output than short term
-brief psychodynamic psychotherapies = emphasize understanding and maladaptive
influences of the past and relating them to current patterns of self-defeating behaviour
-utilize importance of insight and the use of interpretation, but employ them in a more focused and active
fashion
-patient sits facing therapist and conversation replaces free association
-seen 1-2 timeswithk and the goal is helping the client deal with specific life problems rather than
attempting a complete rebuilding of the client’s personality
-focuses on current life situations, not past childhood experiences
-interpersonal therapy = form of brief psychodynamic therapy that focuses on patient’s problems and
seeks to develop new interpersonal skills
*Humanistic Perspective
-believe everyone possesses inner resources for self-healing and personal growth
-disordered behaviour reflects a blocking of the natural growth process that is brought about by distorted
perceptions, lack of awareness about feelings, or a negative self-image
-goal is create an environment in which clients can engage in self exploration and remove the barriers
that block their natural tendencies toward personal growth
-focus is on present and future instead of past, directed at helping clients become aware of feelings as
they occur rather than to achieve insight into the childhood origins of the feelings
Client-Centred Therapy
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-developed by Carl Rogers, most widely used form of humanistic therapy
-three important and interrelated therapist attributes:
-unconditional positive regard – when therapists show clients they care and accept them without
judgment or evaluation and communicates a sense of trust in clients’ ability to work through their
problems
-empathy – willingness and ability to view the world through the client’s eyes where the therapist comes
to sense the feelings and meanings experienced by the client and communicates this understanding to the
client done by reflecting back to the client what he or she is communicating; i.e. by rephrasing something
-genuineness – must be consistency between way therapist feels and the way he/she behaves
-he/she must be open enough to honestly express feelings, whether positive or negative
Gestalt Therapy
-based on “whole” patterns: we concentrate on only part of our whole experience
-people have an inherent tendency toward self-actualization, but they can be blocked from achieving
their potential when they cut off important aspects of their experience
-therapists often ask clients to role-play different aspects of themselves to that they may directly
experience their inner dynamics
*Cognitive Therapies
-focus on role of irrational and self-defeating thought patterns
-help uncover and change cognitions that underlie their problems
Ellis’s Rational-Emotive Therapy
-ABCD model for rational-emotive therapy (Ellis):
-activating event: triggers the emotion
-belief system: way a person appraises the event
-consequences: emotional and behavioural consequences of the appraisal
-disruption: challenging or erroneous belief system – key to changing maladaptive emotions and
behaviours
-this model describes the theory of the cause of maladaptive emotional responses and behaviours
-in therapy the goal is to discover, dispute, and change the client’s maladaptive beliefs
-people accustomed to viewing their emotions (C) as being caused directly by events(A)
Beck’s Cognitive Therapy
-goal is to point out errors of thinking and logic that underlie emotional disturbance and to help patients
identify and reprogram their overlearned automatic thought patterns
-patients’ thoughts, not the situation caused their maladaptive emotional reactions
-therapy is used for depression, and most recently anger and anxiety disorder
*Behaviour Therapies
-behaviour disorders are learned in the same way as normal behaviours
-these maladaptive behaviours can be unlearned by application of principles derived from research on
classical and operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning Treatments
-used to reduce or decondition anxiety responses and condition new anxiety responses to a particular
class of stimuli
Exposure: An Extinction Approach
-requires exposure to the feared CS in the absence of the UCS while using response prevention to keep
the operant avoidance response from occurring
-patient may be opposed to flooding (real life stimuli) or through implosion therapy (asked to imagine
scenes involving the stimuli) where the stimuli will evoke considerable anxiety, but will extinguish in
time and the person remains in the presence of the CS and the UCS does not occur
-withagoraphobics, confront feared situations such as driving alone and going into crowded shopping
centres, assessed on a series of tasks and improvement was great
Systematic Desensitization: A Counterconditioning Approach
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-systematic desensitization = a learning based treatment for anxiety disorders
-goal: to eliminate the anxiety by using a procedure called counterconditioning, where a new response
that is incompatible with anxiety is conditioned to the anxiety-arousing CS
-1st step is train the patient in the skill of voluntary muscle relaxation
-next, patient is helped to construct a stimulus hierarchy
-the therapist relaxes the client and asks them to vividly imagine the 1st scene in the hierarchy in these
sessions
-patient can’t be both relaxed and anxious at the same time, so if the relaxation is strong enough, it
replaces anxiety as the CR to that stimulus—the counterconditioning process
-once that got that down, they move up the ladder
-vivo desensitization = carefully controlled exposure to a hierarchy of real-life situations
Aversion Therapy
=a CS that currently evokes a positive but maladaptive response is paired witha noxious, unpleasant UCS
in attempt to condition an aversion toward the CS
-treatment effects often fail to generalize from the treatment setting to the real world, so more likely to
succeed if it is part of a more comprehensive treatment program in which the client also learns specific
coping skills for avoiding relapses
Operant Conditioning Treatments
-behaviour modification = treatment techniques that involve the application of operant conditioning
procedures in an attempt to increase or decrease a specific behaviour
-focus is on extremely observable behaviours, and measurement of the behaviours targeted for change
occurs throughout the treatment program, allowing therapists to track the progress of the treatment
program and to make modifications
-impressive results to those difficult to treat with more traditional therapies, like chronic hospitalized
schizophrenics, profoundly disturbed children, & mentally retarded persons
Positive Reinforcement
-a danger of long-term care is gradual loss of social, personal-care, and occupational skills needed to
survivor outside the hospital
-token economy = system for strengthening desired behaviours through the systematic application of
positive reinforcement where a number of plastic tokens is given for performance of each desired
behaviour
-tokens can be redeemed by the patients for a wide range of tangible reinforcers (private room, rental TV
set)
-long term goal: to get the desired behaviours started with tangible reinforcers until they eventually
come under the control of social reinforcers and self-reinforcement processes needed to maintain them
in the world outside the hospital
-highly effective: 98% released as opposed to 45% for control group
Therapeutic Use of Punishment
-conditions to use it: if no alternative, less painful approaches that might be effective or if the behaviour
to be eliminated sufficiently injurious to the individual or to society to justify the severity of the
punishment
-evidence: treatment of such children, successfully eliminated such behaviour with a limited number of
contingent electric shocks
Modelling and Social Skills Training
-modelling – one of the most important and effective learning processes in humans
-social skills training = technique where patient learns more effective social skills by observing and
imitating a model who performs a socially skilful behaviour
-used withmany populations, including ppl who have minor deficits in social skills, delinquents who need
to learn to resist -ve peer pressures, and hospitalized schizophrenic patients who need to learn social
skills in order to function adaptively outside the hospital
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*Group, Family, and Marital Therapies
-group therapy – usually 6-8 people
-seeing others struggle counter feeling of isolation and deviance
-see how others approach problems, interpersonal relationships that develop there can be training for
learning new interpersonal skills, and gain insight to how they are perceived
Family Therapy
-roots in observation that the disorder shown by the “identified patient” may reflect disordered
relationships within the family system, and that permanent change in the client might require that the
entire family system be the focus of therapy
-family therapists try to help the family understand how it functions and how its unique patterns of
interaction contribute to conflict and to the problems of one or more members
-i.e. anorexic girl seeking father’s attention
Marital Therapy
-targets improvement in talking to one another, keeping communication channels open, show more
sensitivity to other’s feelings, and problem-solving skills
-recent focus on marital therapy is acceptance
-in well functioning couples & those who profit from treatment, partners make a decision to accept those
aspects of the partner’s behaviour that are too ingrained to change
-emphasis: on helping couples work twd change in those areas where change is possible & to learn to
accept aspects of the partner & relationship that seem unlikely to change
-reduces frustration, lessens demands on the other spouse, and allows the couple to focus on and enjoy
the positive aspects of their relationship
*Integrating and Combining Therapies
-eclectic = approach that incorporates principles and procedures from multiple therapies to provide
most suitable therapy to the client
-i.e. psychodynamic behaviour therapy involves an integration of psychoanalysis and behaviour
therapy
Psychological Frontiers
Virtual Reality as a Therapeutic Technique\
-virtual reality = use of computer technology to create highly realistic “virtual environments” that
simulate actual experience so vividly that they evoke many of the same reactions that a comparable realworld environment would create
-highly flexible and programmable, allowing a therapist to present a variety of controlled situations and
monitor their effects on a client where scenes can easily be changed depending on the actions of the
client
-i.e. arachnophobia reaction
*Cultural and Gender Issues in Psychotherapy
-psychotherapy based Westernized values and assumptions
Cultural Factors in Treatment Utilization
-many factors serve as barriers to therapy for ethnic minorities
-one is a cultural norm against turning to professionals outside one’s own culture for help
-many minority members have a history of frustrating experiences withwhite bureaucracies that makes
them unwilling to approach a hospital or mental-health centre
-access is sometimes difficult because many minority groups suffer high rates of unemployment and
poverty
-biggest issue is that there are too few skilled counsellors who can provide culturally responsive forms of
treatment.
-cultural competence = set of therapeutic skills needed when dealing withpeople from minority cultures
-skills found in culturally competent therapist:
-able to use knowledge about client’s culture to achieve broad understanding of the client
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-at the same time are attentive to how the client may differ from the cultural stereotype, balancing
cultural understanding withindividual characteristics & needs of the client
-also able to introduce culture-specific elements into the therapy
-therefore, a therapist might draw upon some of the techniques used by folk healers within that culture
to effect changes in the client
Gender Issues in Therapy
-many psychological disorders occur more frequently in women
-may be due to more women in poverty, less opportunity because of sexism, strains by being mother,
worker, and spouse, and violence and abuse many have been subjected to
-important to focus on what can be done to change women’s life circumstances than helping to adapt to
sex-role expectations
*Evaluating Psychotherapies
-specificity question = “Which types of therapy, administered by which kinds of
therapists to which kinds of clients having which kinds of problems, produce
which kinds of effects?”
-measures of typical ways of measuring change differ in the outcome variable assessed (emotions,
thoughts, or behaviours) and is the source of the data (the client, therapist or other informants)
-a behaviourist insists that direct observations of behaviour are the best measure
-a psychodynamic therapist most interested in how clients feel and how much insight they have achieved
in to the childhood roots of their problems
-a humanistic may place the greatest stock in self-concept changes
Psychotherapy Research Methods
-Eysenchk challenged therapy effectiveness and the data on which it was based
-concluded that the rate of spontaneous remission was as high as the success rates reported by
psychotherapists, so troubled people who receive psychotherapy are no more likely to improve than are
those who go untreated
-actually too pessimistic, but point got across
-spontaneous remission = symptom reduction in the absence of any treatment
What Is a Good Psychotherapy Research Design?
-most psychotherapy researchers favour randomized clinical trials involving participants who have
well-defined psychological disorders and are similar on other variables that might affect response to
treatment
-people are randomly assigned either to an experimental condition that gets the treatment or to a control
condition (either no-treatment condition or placebo control group)
-if the treatment being tested in experimental condition is equally or more effective than the established
treatment, the new therapy is deemed effective
-sometimes the treatment is combined with another intervention such as a drug treatment, making it
possible to see if the group that received the drug plus therapy does better than the groups that got only
the drug or only the therapy
-to standardize the treatment, APA recommends a manual containing procedures that the therapists have
to follow exactly, and that therapists’ compliance with these procedures be evaluated by observing them
or taping their sessions
-in a follow up we want to know not only how the treatment conditions differ at the end of the clinical
trail, but also how lasting the effects are
Meta-Analysis: A Look at the Big Picture
-technique of meta-analysis allows researchers to combine the results of
many studies to arrive at an overall conclusion
-can compute an effect size statistic (represents a common measure of treatment effectiveness)
-psychodynamic, client-centred, and behavioural approaches were quite similar in
their effectiveness, and all of the seemed to yield somewhat more positive effects than gestalt therapy
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Factors Affecting the Outcome of Therapy
-3 Factors important to client variables: Openness to therapy, self-relatedness, and the nature of the
problem
-openness involves clients’ general willingness to invest themselves in therapy and take the risks
required change themselves
-self-relatedness refers to their ability to experience and understand internal states such as thoughts
and emotions, to be attuned to the processes that go on in their relationship with their therapist, and to
be able to apply what they learn in therapy to their lives outside of treatment
-nature of the problem and its degree of “fit” with the therapy being used
-therapist factors that affect treatment outcomes:
-establishment of an empathic, trusting, & caring relationship forms the foundation upon which the
specific techniques employed by the therapist can have most beneficial effects
-if these behaviours not manifested, effects of therapy not simply null; clients get worse
-i.e.hostile interchanges between therapist & client contribute to deterioration effect in therapy
-most effective therapists adjusted their techniques to the specific needs of their clients.
-common factors shared by diverse forms of therapy that may contribute to their success
1. Faith in the therapist and a belief on the part of clients that they
are receiving help
2. A plausible explanation for their problems, and an alternative way of
looking at themselves and their problems
3. A protective setting n which clients can experience and express their
deepest feelings within a supportive relationship
4. An opportunity to practice new behaviours
5. Increased optimism and self-efficacy
Research Close-Up
The Effectiveness of Psychotherapy: Feedback from the Consumer
-efficacy = scientific term referring to whether a therapy can produce positive outcomes exceeding those
in appropriate control conditions
-effectiveness = the outcomes that psychotherapy has in the real-life settings of clinical practice, in
which clients are free to pursue any kind of treatment they wish and the nature of the treatment is left
uncontrolled
-CR survey found no effectiveness differences between the various types of psychotherapy the clients
said they had received
-issues raised:
1. Effectiveness of therapy could be exaggerated in this self- selected sample
2. A dissonance effect could also account for the apparent superiority of long-term therapy, in which
more time and money were expended, as well as the tendency to return the questionnaire and
share the success story
3. Can’t be sure what kinds of therapy were administered, because respondents
didn’t describe their treatment in detail
4. Because no control groups, CR study can’t tell us directly whether talking to sympathetic friends
or merely letting time pass would have produced just as much improvement as treatment by a
mental-health professional
*Biological Approaches to Treatment
Drug Therapies
-most commonly used biological interventions
Anti-anxiety Drugs
-anti-anxiety drugs are designed to reduce anxiety as much as possible without affecting alertness or
concentration, sometimes used in combination with other therapies to help clients cope successfully with
problematic situations
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-a drawback is psychological and physical dependence that can result from their long-term use
-those that develop physiological dependence may experience characteristic withdrawal symptoms, such
as intense anxiety, nausea and restlessness whey the stop taking them where the symptoms often return
once drug is stopped
-i.e. buspirone (buSpar) slow acting, less fatiguing side effects withless potential for abuse
-has proven effective in the treatment of generalized anxiety and post-traumatic stress disorder that
works by slowing down excitatory synaptic activity in the nervous system that can be done by enhancing
the postsynaptic activity of GABA
-other examples: Valium and Xanax
Antidepressant Drugs
-3 major classes of antidepressants are: Tricyclics, monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, and selective
serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
-1st 2 classes increase activity of the excitatory neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin, whose
lowered level of activity in brain regions involved in positive emotion and motivation is related to
depression
-tricyclics (Alavil, Tofranil) work by preventing reuptake of the excitatory transmitters into the
presynaptic neurons, allowing them to continue stimulating postsynaptic neurons
-MAO inhibitors (Nardil, Parnate) reduce the activity of monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down
the neurotransmitters in the synapse
-MAO inhibitors have more severe side effects: cause dangerous elevations in blood pressure when taken
with certain foods
-SSRIs (Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil) designed to decrease side effects by increasing the activity of just one
transmitter, serotonin that do have some side effects
-i.e. those on Prozac report nervousness, insomnia, sweating, joint pain, or sexual dysfunction
-however they are replacing the tricyclics because in addition to milder side effects they reduce
depressive symptoms more rapidly and also reduce anxiety symptoms, including panic disorder,
obsessive-compulsive behaviours and social phobia
-the combination of psychotherapy and drug treatment yielded the best recovery rates in more severe
cases of depression
Antipsychotic Drugs
-most dramatic effects of drug therapy occurred in treatment of severely disordered ppl
-these drugs allow many people to be released from hospitals and reduced need for padded cells,
straightjackets, etc
-tardive dyskinesia = an irreversible motion disorder that can occur as a side effect of antipsychotic
drugs
-symptoms: production of severe movement disorder that are uncontrollable and grotesque movements
of the face and tongue that are especially prominent in this disorder, and sometimes the patient’s arms
and legs flail uncontrollably
-can be more debilitating than psychotic symptoms and is irreversible once it develops
-clozapine (Clozaril) reduces not only positive symptoms but also negative ones and appears not to
produce tardive dyskinesia
-however, does produce a fatal blood disease in 1-2% of people who take it.
Electroconvulsive Therapy
=a biomedical technique involving the application of electrical current to the brain
-seizure induction might be useful in treatment of schizophrenia BUT research shows it can’t relieve
anxiety disorders & it’s of questionable value for schizophrenic patients
-can be useful in treating severe depression, particularly if there is a high risk of suicide where the effects
are immediate
-should be regarded as a useful procedure for major depression in patients who can’t take or do not
respond to medication
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Psychosurgery
=surgical procedures that remove or destroy brain tissue to change disordered behaviour
-a lobotomy was a surgical procedure that removes or destroys brain tissue to change disordered
behaviour – was common in the past, not so much today
-replaced by a sober recognition that the massive neural damage it caused had severe side effects on
mental and emotional functioning, including seizures, stupor, memory and reasoning impairment and
listlessness
-cingulotomy involves cutting a small fibre bundle near the corpus callosum that connects the frontal
lobes with the limbic system
-used successfully in treating sever depressive and obsessive-compulsive disorders that have failed to
improve with drug treatment or psychotherapy
-can produce side effects including seizures and still considered a last resort procedure
Mind, Body, and Therapeutic Interventions
-different forms of therapy may result in similar changes at neurological level, and therefore, at a
behavioural level
-NB: drug treatments suppress symptoms, do not cure them
*Psychological Disorders and Society
-many of the people in hospitals lost self-confidence, motivation and skills needed to re-enter and adapt
to the outside world, so had little chance surviving out there
Deinstitutionalization
=a movement that transfers the primary focus of the treatment from the mental institution to the
community
-requires the availability of high-quality mental health care in community clinics, halfway houses,
sheltered workshops and other community facilities
-when available deinstitutionalization can work
-due to cutbacks and poor funding many patients are being released into communities that are ill
prepared to care for their needs
-result is a revolving door phenomenon involving repeated rehospitalizations
Preventative Mental Health
-are 2 major approaches to prevention:
-situation-focused prevention – directed at reducing or eliminating the environmental causes of
behaviour disorders or at enhancing situational factors that help prevent the development of disorders
-insists that prevention must focus on efforts to reduce the stresses of unemployment, economic
exploitation, discrimination and poverty
-competency-focused prevention – the personal side designed to increase personal resources and
coping skills
-programs focus on strengthening resistance to stress, improving social and vocational competencies,
enhancing self-esteem and helping people to gain the skills needed to build stronger social support
systems
Applications of Psychological Science
When and Where to Seek Therapy
-when:
-if experiencing serious emotional discomfort that are adversely affecting your personal, work, or
family life
-if encountering a serious problem or life transition that you feel you can’t handle on your own
-if a problem that has interfered with your life or happiness in the past is worsening or has suddenly
resurfaced
-if you’ve experienced some traumatic event that you find yourself thinking about, dreaming about,
or responding to withnegative emotions
-if you’re preoccupied withyou weight or body image and are taking extreme steps
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-if you hear voices telling you what to do or feel others are controlling your thoughts
-where: place where there’s a fully trained and licensed therapist
Chapter 15: Living in the Modern World
*Linkages Between Theory, Research, and Interventions
-theories provide a framework for understanding a behavioural phenomenon by
specifying causal factors and how they operate
-interventions = systematically applied programs designed to solve a practical problem
-research evidence usually gives birth to a theory and subsequent research is used to test the theory
where an intervention should be based on a body of scientific evidence or on a theory that specifies how
the application should be designed
-once implemented, the results of the intervention should be scientifically evaluated, ideally against a
randomly assigned control group of similar participants who did not receive the intervention
-evaluation provides new scientific data from an applied setting and also tests the adequacy of the theory
-programs designed to deal withsociety’s problems can be viewed as social experiments having
independent & dependent variables involving application of previously identified causal factors that are
designed to have an effect on people, situations, or problems
-the medical, behavioural or social indicators used to evaluate the impact of the interventions are like
dependent or outcome variables
-program evaluation research = designed to measure the outcomes of an intervention
*Enhancing Children’s Development
-socially toxic environments = marked by poverty, crime and violence, child abuse, family
disintegration, low levels of social support, lack of helpful and friendly interaction among neighbours and
physical danger
-children in those environments have high levels of delinquency & aggressive behaviour, substance
abuse, psychological & behaviour problems, and poor educational & occupational outcomes.
Early Childhood Interventions
-belief: early childhood education can positively influence lives of poor children
-Head Start is an attempt to compensate for the limited learning environments of disadvantaged children
-the 2 factors that may have limited the outcomes could be the fact that it was only a half day program
that did not begin until age 4
-it inspired other intervention programs like the Abecedarian Program
-Abecedarian Program outcomes:
-every one of the children who had the early intervention attained a higher IQ than the control group
because the preschool program provided the environmental stimulation needed for normal intellectual
development to occur
-later training, however, (exposed to program from 5-8yrs) had little effect as to early intervention which
was much stronger
-social and educational outcomes of the High/Scope Perry Preschool Program:
-preschool group had lower crime rates, required less welfare assistance, exhibited better academic
performance and progress and had higher income and home ownership
-proves early intervention does work by providing social, intellectual, educational and psychological
dividends if the program is intensive enough and administered early in life
-children of higher income and socio-economic backgrounds are more likely to already experience these
benefits in their own homes, so that early intervention can add little to what they already have
Promoting Psychological Well-Being
-15-22% of children and adolescents have diagnosable psychological disorders
-young people were taught skills, like control of emotions, in school – it seemed to work
Preventing Teenage Depression
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-Penn Optimism Program attempts to teach cognitive and behavioural coping skills that’ll reduce the
likelihood of later depression, based on the finding that people who think in an optimistic fashion seldom
develop depression, whereas pessimism is a major risk factor
-those placed in intervention programs used procedures derived from cognitive therapy and problemsolving training to teach them coping skills
-the behavioural problem-solving component used modeling and role playing to teach the children
constructive ways to solve problems with parents, teachers, and peers, the goal being to help children
reduce stressful life events that might trigger depression, and to increase their sense of self-efficacy
concerning their own coping abilities
*Health Promotion and Illness Prevention
-in 1900, leading causes of death were influenza, pneumonia, tuberculosis, and gastroenteritis; today,
they are heart disease, cancer, and stroke
-health psychology = study of psychological and behavioural factors in prevention and treatment of
illness and in maintenance of health
-2 types of health-related behaviours:
-health-enhancing behaviours = maintain or increase health
-i.e. exercise, healthy diet, safe sex, regular check-ups, etc
-health compromising behaviours = promote development of illness
-i.e. smoking, fatty diets, sedentary lifestyle, unprotected sex, etc
Applications of Psychological Science
How People Change: The Stages of Change Model
-Stages of Change:
1) Precontemplation: problem unrecognized or unacknowledged
2) Contemplation: recognition of problem and contemplating change
3) Preparation: preparing to try and change behaviour
4) Action: implementing change strategies
5) Maintenance: behaviour change being maintained (after 6 months)
-Relapse = complete return to former pattern
-Lapse = an occasional slip
6) Termination: permanent changes; no maintenances efforts required
-stage-matched interventions: designed to move person towards the action and maintenance stages
-move people from precontemplation to action by 1st making people aware of the risks involved in their
behaviour to motivate them to change
-when contemplation or preparation, training in specific skills is necessary to move them to the action
level
Increasing Health-Enhancing Behaviour
Exercise
-inactivity doubled obesity rate since 1900, despite a 10% decrease in caloric intake
-aerobic exercise = sustained activity, such as jogging, swimming, etc that elevates
heart rate and increases body’ need for oxygen
-Evidence that it promotes health and longevity:
-study of 17,000 Harvard undergrads followed them to middle age and death rates were ¼ to 1/ 3 lower
among moderate exercises than among the less active group
-performing 70-85% maximal HR for 15 minutes 3 timeswitheek is related to reduced risk of coronary
heart disease
-dropout rates of 50% within 6 months are quite typical in virtually all the exercise programs that have
been studied
-people who are able to persist for 3 to 6 months are likely to continue
-factors that predict dropout:
-low self-efficacy or success in exercising regularly
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-Type A personality
-inflated estimates of current physical fitness
-inactive leisure-time pursuits all predict
-lack of social support from friends, family or other exercisers (strongest factor)
Weight Control
-obesity = risk factor for cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, diabetes, etc
-yo-yo dieting results in big up and down weight fluctuations
-increases the risk of dying from cardiovascular disease because it increase abdominal fat
-major behaviour change techniques in weight control programs:
-keep eating diary to examine eating patterns
-get rid of problem foods and have healthy food readily available
-eat in one place only at certain times
-put utensils down between bites to slow eating and be aware of fullness
-program exercise activity
-begins withperiod of self monitoring, how much they eat and under what circumstances and then taught
to take control of those antecedents
-followed by stimulus control techniques, like confining eating to one location in the house and eating
only at certain times of the day
-finally, they chart the amount of food they eat to provide constant feedback, and they arrange to
reinforce themselves for successful performance
Psychology and the AIDS Crisis
-16,000 new infections occur each day
-1 in every 100 adults ages 15 to 49 is infected with the AIDS virus
-46% are women, 20% children and only 5-10% occur in homosexual men
Prevention Programs
-four features of most AIDS prevention programs:
1) designed to educate people concerning the risks that attend certain behaviours, such as having sex
without using a condom
2) to motivate people to change their behaviour and convince them they can do so
3) provide specific guidelines for changing the risky behaviours and teach the skills needed for
change
4) give support and encouragement for the desired changes
-educated the men of the risks involved in sexual behaviours, promoted use of condoms, and taught them
coping skills to deal with high-risk situations
-research shows success of prevention programs depends on the extent to which the individual’s social
system supports the desired changes
-when the use of condoms runs contrary to the values of an individual or cultural group, people may
continue to engage in high risk behaviours
*Combating Substance Abuse
-substance abuse highly associated withpsychological disorders, often part of a larger pattern of
maladjustment in adults and adolescents
Psychological Approaches to Treatment and Prevention
-cognitive-behavioural most cost-effective & successful in substance abuse reduction
Aversion Therapies: Harnessing the Power of Classical Conditioning
-aversion therapy – conditions a negative response, or aversion, to a positive stimulus, such as the sight
and taste of alcohol, tobacco, or some other drug
-in treating substance abuse, the procedure involves pairing a negative stimulus such as electric shock or
drug-produced nausea, with the substance in question
-effects often fail to generalize to the outside environment, where many people relapse or, in the case of
Antabuse, stop taking the medication
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Multimodal Treatment: Combining Treatment Approaches
-multimodal treatment approach = involves multiple treatment elements, i.e.:
-teaching relaxation and stress management techniques as a more adaptive means of dealing with
stressful situation
-applying self-monitoring procedures to help the person identify the antecedents and consequences of
the abuse behaviours
-coping and social skills training for dealing with high-risk situations that trigger abuse
-marital and family counselling to reduce conflict and increase social support for change
-use of positive reinforcement procedures to strengthen change
Motivational Interviewing
=a treatment approach that avoids confrontation and leads clients to their own realization of a problem
and to increased motivation to change
-goal: to help abusers increase their awareness of problems, desire to take action and self-efficacy for
doing so
-interviewer leads the person to that very conclusion by asking questions that focus on discrepancies
between what is presently occurring and the individual’s ideal self-image,
desired behaviours and desired outcomes
-by focusing on these discrepancies it may produce a state of cognitive dissonance that helps motivate
change
-in a large scale study of alcohol abuse patients, 4 session motivational interviewing intervention was as
effective as a 12 session program modeled on Alcoholics Anonymous
Relapse Prevention
-relapses cause high dropout rates and are the major problem in treating substance abuse
-relapse = a return to the undesirable behaviour pattern
-lapse = a one time slip
-most relapses tended to occur after the person had suffered a lapse when confronted with a high-risk
situation (including such things as stressful events, interpersonal conflicts, social pressure to perform the
undesirable behaviour, etc)
-once this lapse occurs, it would be followed by a critically important reaction called the abstinence
violation effect, which often leads to relapse
-abstinence violation effect = the person becomes upset and self-blaming over the failure to remain
abstinent and viewed the lapse as proof that he or she would never be strong enough to resist temptation
-relapse prevention treatments involve teaching people that a lapse means nothing more than the fact
that they’ve encountered a situation that exceeds their current coping skills
-at this point attention is then directed at learning and practicing the required skills so that self-efficacy
improves with the continuing focus on progress, not perfection
-has been found to have an overall effectiveness equal to AA programs, even though it is usually a much
briefer intervention
Harm Reduction Approaches to Prevention
-harm reduction = a prevention strategy that is designed not to eliminate a behaviour, but rather to
reduce the harmful effects of a behaviour when it occurs
-reasoning is that even if an addictive behaviour cannot be eliminated, it is possible to modify how often
and under what conditions it occurs and thereby to minimize its harmful effects on the person and
society
-frequent binge drinkers were 7 to 10 times likely than moderate drinkers to engage in unplanned and
unprotected intercourse, to suffer injuries, to drive under the influence of alcohol, to damage property
and to get into trouble with the police
-non-drinkers and moderate drinkers were 2-3 times more likely to report physical assault, sexual
harassment, and interruption of their sleep & studying by heavy drinkers
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-Marlatt’s alcohol harm reduction study withhigh-risk uni students: outcomes and methods:
-based on the motivational interviewing approach: by increasing motivation to make constructive
changes, rather than to stop students’ drinking
-results: high-risk drinkers who underwent the program still reported more alcohol-related problems
than the average university student, but fewer than the high-risk drinkers in the control group
*Stress, Coping, and Health
-psychological & physical well-being depends on complex interactions between environmental demands,
personal & environmental resources that we have to deal withthem, & individual vulnerabilities that
make us susceptible to certain kinds of demands
The Nature of Stress
-3 ways theorists have defined stress are: 1) as a stimulus, 2) as a response, and 3) as an organismenvironment interaction
-stressors = eliciting stimuli or events placing strong demands on us
-response = cognitive, psychological, & behavioural components (negative emotions)
-person-situation interaction (or transaction) = interactions among stressors, cognitive appraisals,
psychological responses, and behaviour attempts to cope withdemands
-stress = pattern of cognitive appraisals, physiological responses, and behavioural tendencies that occurs
in response to a perceived imbalance between situational demands and the resources needed to cope
withthem
Stressors
-3 classes of stressors:
-microstressors – daily hassles and everyday annoyances
-catastrophic events – occur unexpectedly and affect large number of people
-major negative events – victim of crime, loss of a loved one, career failure, etc
-events over which a person has little or no control, and which occur suddenly or unpredictably and
which impact over long period of time take the greatest physical and psychological tolls
Measuring Stressful Life Events
-life event scales – quantify amount of life stress person has experienced over a given amount of time,
self-report measure
The Stress Response
-4 types of appraisal occurring in response to stress
a. appraisal of demands of situation (primary appraisal)
b. appraisal of resources available to cope with it (secondary appraisal)
c. judgements of what consequences of the situation could be
d. appraisal of the personal meaning, that is, what outcome might imply about us
-primary appraisal of situation seen as being either benign, neutral/irrelevant, or threatening in terms
of its demands and its significance for you well-being
-at the same time, you’re appraising perceived ability to cope or resources available to deal with it
(secondary appraisal)
-also take in potential consequences of failing to cope successfully withthe situation
-finally, the psychological meaning of the consequences may be related to basic beliefs about yourself or
the world
-Selye’s GAS (General Adaptation Syndrome):
a. alarm: in response to stressor, organism immediately increases physiological arousal as
body mobilizes itself to threat. Occurs because of sudden activation of sympathetic
nervous system and release of stress hormones by endocrine system
b. resistance: body’s resources are mobilized by continued outpouring of adrenaline and
stress hormones. Can last relatively long time but body’s resources being depleted and
immune system functioning being suppressed by hormones
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c. exhaustion: occurs if stressor is intense and persists too long. There’s increase
vulnerability to disease. Whichever system of body is weakest will be the 1st to be affected
Stress and Health
-stress can result in physical and psychological deterioration
Stress and Psychological Well-Being
-effects of stress are clearest and most dramatic among people who have experienced catastrophic life
events
-rape trauma syndrome = victims feel nervous and may fear another attack by a rapist for months or
years after rape
-victims often report decreased enjoyment of sexual activity long after rape
-many change place of residence but still have nightmares and are frightened when along, outdoors, or in
crowds
-path 1: stresses causes distress – the more negative life events people report on measures, the more
likely they are also to report symptoms of psychological distress
-path 2: reverses the first causal interpretation, suggesting that people’s levels of distress may influence
their reporting of negative life events
-distressed people more likely to remember negative things that have happened to them, or tend to view
more events as negative, resulting in higher negative life change scores
-path 3: a third variable causes both negative life events and psychological distress
-personality trait of neuroticism might be one such factor
-people who are high in neuroticism have a heightened tendency to experience negative emotions and to
get themselves into stressful situations through their maladaptive behaviours (causes both distress and
high negative life change scores)
Stress and Illness
-stress can combine withother physical psychological factors to influence the entire spectrum of physical
illness
-secretion of stress hormones by the adrenal gland is an important part of stress response
-these hormones affect the activity of the heart, and excessive secretions can damage the lining of the
arteries
-by reducing fat metabolism, the stress hormones also can contribute to the fatty blockages in arteries
that cause heart attacks and strokes
-can also trigger illness by causing a breakdown in immune system functioning
Vulnerability and Protective Factors
-vulnerability factors increase people’s susceptibility to stressful events
-include lack of support network, poor coping skills, tendencies to become anxious or pessimistic and
other factors that reduce stress resistance
-protective factors are environmental or personal resources that help people cope more effectively with
stressful events
-include social support, coping skills and personality factors such as optimism
Social Support
-one of most important environmental resources people can have
-evidence that social support is a protective factor:
-37,000 people were studied for up to 12 years. Even after taking into account medical risk factors
(age, smoking, high BP, high cholesterol, obesity, etc), people with weak socialites are twice as
likely to die during the study as those with strong ties
-social support protects against stress by enhancing immune system functioning (people injected
withantigen and spouse of cancer patient withmore social support showed higher production of
immune cells)
-disclosing upsetting experiences to others enhance well-being:
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-in the study, students who poured out traumatic incidents had 50% fewer visits to health centre over
next 6 months than those who didn’t talk about traumatic incidence and blood samples showed
increased immune system functioning in those who talked
-also 33 holocaust survivors talked about ordeal and those who disclosed the most had most
improved health 14 months later
-environmental factors making same children highly resistant to stressful environments:
-the role of social support in helping blunt the impact of terrible stressors experienced
-individual characteristics like easygoing and sociable disposition, self-efficacy, elf-confidence, high
self-esteem, talents and faith
-family characteristics like closer relationships, authoritative parenting style, and socio-economic
advantages also important
Cognitive Protective Factors: The Importance of Beliefs
Hardiness
=stress-resistant personality pattern – factors of commitment, control, & challenge
-hardy people are committed to family, work, and their involvements and believe what they’re doing is
important
-view themselves as having control over their outcomes and they appraise demands of situation as
challenges, not threats (control strongest in buffering stress)
Coping Self-Efficacy
=conviction that we can perform behaviours necessary to cope successfully
-4 types of info increasing coping self-efficacy are:
-previous successes in similar situations
-observing others cope successfully
-social persuasion and encouragement from others
-experiencing low level of physiological arousal in face of stressor, conveying sense of strength and ability
Optimism
-beliefs about how things will turn out have an NB role in stress
-optimistic people are at lowered risk for anxiety and depression when they confront stress because they
appraise themselves as being less helpless
-also a health protective factor like hardiness
-in a year-long study, had ½ as many infectious illnesses and doctor visits than pessimists
-optimistic breast cancer patients lived longer than pessimistic ones over a 5 year study
Finding meaning stressful like events
-human need to find meaning one’s life – are psych costs and benefits
-spiritual beliefs can be great source of comfort in face of crisis
-religious beliefs can either decrease or increase stress
-i.e. in medically ill older adults who viewed god as punishing them, poorer physical and psychological
adjustments because they saw themselves as victims of demonic forces and showed anger towards god
and questioned their faith
Coping with Stress
3 major classes of coping strategies:
-problem-focused coping strategies: attempt to confront and deal directly withdemands of situation or
to change situation so it’s no longer stressful
-i.e. studying for tests or going directly to another person to work out a misunderstanding
-emotion-focused coping: attempt to manage the emotional responses that result from it
-some forms of coping involve appraising the situation in a manner that minimizes its emotional impact
-other forms involve avoidance or acceptance of the stressful situation
-so, a student might decide to deal with anxiety about an upcoming test by going to a party and forgetting
about it.
-seeking social support: turning to others for assistance and emotional support in times of stress
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-therefore, the student might seek help in preparing for the test
Effectiveness of Coping Strategies
-generally found that problem-focused coping and seeking social support were associated with
favourable adjustment to stressors, whereas emotion focused strategies that involved avoidance, denial
and wishful thinking seem to be related to less effective adaptation
-there are adaptive emotion-focused strategies, however, like identifying and changing irrational
negative thinking and learning relaxation skills to control arousal
Controllability and Coping Efficacy
-those who had received emotion-focused training adapted better to the largely uncontrollable
conditions of captivity than did those who had received problem-focused coping
-emotion-focused better when instructions where the effectiveness depends on the characteristics of the
situation, the appropriateness of the technique, and the skill with which it is carried out
-people are likely to adapt most effectively to the stresses of life if they have mastered a variety of coping
techniques and know how and when to apply them most effectively
Gender, Culture, and Coping
-both men and women use problem focused coping
-men are more likely to favour it as the fist strategy they use when they confront a stressor whereas
women tend to have larger support networks and higher needs for affiliation than men to seek social
support
-women are also more likely than men to report using emotion-focused coping
-in most cultures boys are pushed to be more independent, assertive and self-sufficient, whereas girls are
expected to be more emotionally expressive, supportive and dependent
-North Americans and Europeans use problem-focused coping more than do Asian and Hispanic peoples
who tend to use emotion-focused coping and social support
-Asians show a greater tendency to avoid the stressful situation, particularly interpersonal stressors,
reflecting their culture’s emphasis on interpersonal harmony
*Reducing Violence
-girls are less likely than boys to use physical aggression
-girls nearly 3X more likely to inflict “wounds of the heart” through relational aggression, which
involves spreading of vicious rumours, exclusion from peer groups, and withdrawal from friendships
-relational aggression may be more psychologically damaging than physical bullying
Approaches to Violence Reduction
Antecedents and Consequences of Violence
-many violent behaviours are strengthened and maintained by negative reinforcement resulting from the
removal of some unpleasant or aversive antecedent
-i.e. perceived insult or disrespect s a powerfully unpleasant experience that motivates many violent acts
in young people
-positive reinforcement = where the violent acts ma result in tangible rewards such as acquiring a
victim’s money or personal belongings
-commission of a violent act is required for admission to some gangs
-positive reinforcer for some men who batter wives is increased dominance and control over one’s
spouse so the spouse will not hesitate to meet whatever needs the batterer has
-“bullies & sadists” are those who derived pleasure from simply hurting other people
Rage and Violence
-are interventions for people that focus on teaching them to anticipate high-risk situations and training
them in methods for reducing physiological arousal, such as relaxation
-i.e. abusive parents need to learn more constructive child management techniques to help eliminate the
child’s aversive behaviours that trigger the emotional responses
-also the exposure to models who demonstrate non-violent ways of responding to provocation decreases
aggressive behaviour in observers.
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Using the Mass Media to Teach Non-Violence
-exposure to models who demonstrate non-violent ways of responding to provocation decreases
aggressive behaviour in observers
-APA began a joint project withMTV based on this principle
Changing Cultural Beliefs That Encourage Violence Against Women
-studies on Russian women have revealed that, like the men who beat them, they have accepted the long
standing cultural norms, some claiming that they “deserved it”
-same in Mexico: women never disclose their abuse to anyone else and suffer in silence because they
accept it as part of their gender role
-projects going withgoal being to shift the problem of abuse from a private “family matter” to a
community issue that deserves everyone’s attention, to reduce victim-blaming, and to promote
supportive responses from family and friends of women in abusive relationships
Biological Approaches to Violence Reduction
-aggressive behaviour associated withlow levels of serotonin
Research Close-Up
A Therapeutic Community Treatment Approach for Violent Offenders – and Its Surprising Outcomes
-overall, the psychopaths had a significantly higher rate of repeat violence, whether treated at Oak Ridge
or sent to prison
-however, the rate of repeat in non-psychopaths decreased to about half
-in designing and evaluating social interventions it is important to discover when and for whom they
work or do not work
-the positive side is the low rate of repeat violent on the part of the non-psychopaths who were exposed
to the therapeutic community and for psychopaths, prison may be a better and less expensive alternative
-for delinquents you should isolate them
*Psychology in a Multicultural World: Increasing Understanding and Reducing Conflict
-multiculturalism has evolved into “a social-intellectual movement that promotes the value of diversity as
a core principle and insists that all cultural groups be treated with respect and as equals”
-this movement views cultural diversity as a positive force that allows different groups the freedom to
follow their own paths to individual and group destiny
-in addition, it holds that interaction can enrich all cultures by exposing them to new ideas and customs
and to a cultural dialogue about what is worthwhile in human living
Approaches to Reducing Intergroup Conflict
The Contact Hypothesis: Lessons from School Integration
-contact hypothesis = direct contact between the races could set the stage for greater multicultural
understanding and a reduction in prejudice and discrimination
-because segregation had harmful effects on the self-esteem and academic achievement of AfricanAmericans and that it contributed to racial prejudice and hostility
-four factors that influence the extent to which the effects predicted by the contact hypothesis actually
occur:
-1st: Need equal status, since unequal status serves only to perpetuate both
groups’ negative stereotypes of one another
2nd: Requires personal one on one interaction between the groups, so that
members of each group come to be judged on the basis of their individual
qualities rather than in terms of stereotypes applied to all group members
3rd: Intergroup hostility breaks down most quickly when opposing groups such
as the Rattlers and Eagles engage in cooperative activities that lead them
toward goals that both groups want
4th: Intergroup contact will only work if it is supported by social norms
-in a school setting, these 4 principles are applied in cooperative learning programs involving children
of different ethnic groups
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-i.e. the jigsaw program from chapter 1
Interactive Problem Solving: The Israeli-Palestinian Project
-a new field called international conflict resolution has been developed to help groups communicate and
work toward peaceful solutions to problems that divide them
-approach is called interactive problem solving
-interactive problem solving = a procedure used in the field of international conflict resolution that
brings competing groups together, enables them to share their differing perspectives, & work together to
develop solutions that’ll satisfy both groups’ needs
Psychological Frontiers
Terrorism: Aggression, Politics, and Religion
-terrorism often viewed as political act – but that’s only one type of terrorist activity
-common perception of terrorists is that they’re psychopaths – but don’t fit all the criteria
-after September 11, symptoms of post-traumatic stress were everywhere
-lots of prejudice and discrimination, but also an outpouring of altruism
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