European Journal of Biophysics
2014; 2(4): 38-48
Published online September 20, 2014 (http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ejb)
doi: 10.11648/j.ejb.20140204.12
ISSN: 2329-1745 (Print); ISSN: 2329-1737 (Online)
Evolution of cancer: A quantum mechanical approach
Md. Shaifur Rahman1, #, *, Md. Fahmid Islam2, #, Md. Al Mamun3, S. M. Abdul-Awal4,
Mahbub E. Sobhani5
1
Tissue Banking and Biomaterial Research Unit, Atomic Energy Research Establishment, Dhaka-1349, Bangladesh
Graduate Student and Research Assistant, Department of Biochemistry, Saskatchewan Cancer Research Agency, University of
Saskatchewan, Canada
3
Lab on a Pad Group, College of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dow Street, Dundee DD1 5EH, UK
4
Signal Transduction Group, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK
5
PNI Group, Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering Discipline, Khulna University, Khulna-9208, Bangladesh
#
Equally Contributed
2
Email address:
mdshaifur@gmail.com (M. S. Rahman)
To cite this article:
Md. Shaifur Rahman, Md. Fahmid Islam, Md. Al Mamun, S. M. Abdul-Awal, Mahbub E. Sobhani. Evolution of Cancer: A Quantum
Mechanical Approach. European Journal of Biophysics. Vol. 2, No. 4, 2014, pp. 38-48. doi: 10.11648/j.ejb.20140204.12
Abstract: Cancer, the ‘Emperor of All Malady’ has already occupied its position in the list of most fascinating but elusive
enigmas in human history like life and consciousness. Existence of phenocopy, C-value paradox and many other electrifying
findings has questioned the linear central dogma of molecular biology. This points a paradigm shift towards a stochastic
realization of biology. And here, quantum mechanics comes forward with all its experiences in studying the nature’s
inherent superposed hierarchy of organizational complexity. Life may be said as information processor that has got the ability
to self-organize, driven by the action of consciousness and certainly includes the surrounding environment to form the totality
of reality. Any type of noise either subjective or objective causes the fluctuation of this coherent quantum state and can be
reduced to a macroscopic disorder that perturbs the biomolecular behavior. These non-local disturbances might be manifested
as cancer in a non-deterministic pattern.
Keywords: Cancer, Consciousness, Quantum Mechanics, C-Value Paradox, Phenocopy
1. Introduction
Modern biology, under the influence of molecular
biology, is based on the materialist ontology that everything
is made of matter [1]. The transfer of information from
DNA to proteins is carried out through a straight pathway,
from the DNA through the RNA to proteins, in which the
RNA translates the DNA code to amino acids that again are
gathered to form the proteins of the cell cytoplasm [2].
However, a term, ‘Phenocopy’, coined by Goldschmidt
(1935), describes genetic mutations that follow phenotypic
changes produced by the environment. In some cases, these
alterations are heritable, indicating that they are
accompanied by mutations. This phenomenon is contrary to
the linear pattern of DNA> RNA> Protein [3-4]. Again,
each of the internal microscopic states of the protein can
store information. And these higher information storage
densities can’t be stored in DNA alone [5]. Lee et al., (1985)
[6] showed that proteins are hardly responsible for the
magnificent and manifold structural forms of cell. The
C-value paradox (complex puzzle surrounding the
extensive variation in nuclear genome size among
eukaryotic species, for example, some single celled protists
have genomes much larger than that of humans) shows that
organizational complexity is not determined by the DNA
sequence [7]. Even the form of an organism may evolve in
absence of corresponding molecular evolution in DNA
[8-9]). Thus, the DNA is merely able to transfer the
information for the shape of the proteins, not to transfer the
information necessary to organize the proteins in the cell.
The mechanisms behind cell (as well supra-cellular)
organization and morphogenesis thereby seem to be very
difficult to describe in terms of a conventional (particular)
molecular biological frame of reference. However,
regarding the classical molecular biology of cancer and the
basic flaw with pros and cons we published a paper in
Oncol Rev [10].
European Journal of Biophysics 2014; 2(4): 38-48
Let’s come to the point of cancer biology. Cancer could
be described as a group of diseases [11] that are
characterized through the process of tumorigenesis (also
referred as neoplastic transformation) whereby cells
undergo a change involving uncontrolled proliferation, a
loss of checkpoint control tolerating the accumulation of
chromosomal aberrations and genomic aneuploidies, and
misregulated differentiation. It is commonly thought to be
triggered by at least one genetic lesion, such as a point
mutation, a deletion or a translocation, activating either
oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes [12]. A tumor can be
viewed as an aberrant organ initiated by a tumorigenic
cancer cell that acquired the capacity for indefinite
proliferation through accumulated mutations [13].
According to clonal selection, abnormal cancer cells
survive and proliferate because they have been selected in
the evolutionary pathway through environmental influence,
inheritance or spontaneous error [14]. However, in the era
of genetic engineering, oncogene/suppressor theory has
failed to explain cancer. No consistent set of gene
mutations correlate with malignancy; each tumor may be
unique in its genetic makeup [15]. Along with genome wide
genetic instability, concomitant proteomic instability in
premalignant cancer cells which indicates that cancer could
be the result of a non-linear and non-local biomolecular
alteration [16].
‘The hard problem’ in biology, medicine and
psychobiology is the problem of the connection between
subjective and objective factors in life: how can a
super-advanced, chemical machine like our body give us a
conscious state? So, what is chemistry, and what is
consciousness, and can these two ever meet [17]?
Molecular biology is founded on a key dualism. Biological
molecules serve two distinct roles: (i) specialized chemicals
and (ii) informational molecules which reflect the
underlying dualisms of phenotype/genotype. Using the
analogy of computing, chemistry corresponds to hardware
and information to software. A full understanding of the
origin and function of life requires the elucidation of both
the hardware and software aspects [18]. Living organisms
are not of course unique in being composed of fundamental
particles. What is unique is that the coupling between
fundamental particles and the environment of living cells
enables their macroscopic behavior to be determined by
quantum laws rather than classical ones [19]. Beginning
with Erwin Schrodinger’s groundbreaking little book ‘What
is Life?’ in 1944, there has been several claims that
quantum mechanics plays a non-trivial role in the operation
of living body [18]. Hameroff, 2004 [20] and
Klein-Seetharaman et al., 2002 [21] and many other
explained various quantum phenomena inside cell
regulating different cellular activities. So, it will not be in
evident to say, there might be a quantum mechanical origin
of cancer that ascertains the non-linearity involved in
cancer evolution. Just think, life is a consciousness driven
information processor that is autopoietic by nature and the
basic phenomena of life can’t be reduced to any set of
39
physical laws. In regards of holistic view of life e.g.
morphogenetic field [22] and implicate order [23], living
body cannot be isolated from its surrounding environment.
And both of these together form the sub-totality that is
manifested while consciousness remains subtle. Cancer,
being treated as an abnormal organ [13], might act as
unprecedented and abnormal ‘whole’ (like normal organs)
in the complex hierarchy of ‘wholeness’ that works in
biological organization. So, it can be viewed from a holistic
paradigm underlying the process of life. And consciousness
accounts for the reason behind, how this very much
complex organism gains the ability to know and act in
response to its environment, by functioning in a symbiotic
manner that controls the necessary genetic and biochemical
functions for survival [24]? The purpose of this review is to
propose a holistic view of cancer origin which would
enable us to understand the non-linearity that mostly
accounts for the cancer enigma. The necessity of a new
formulation of biology within the primacy of consciousness
based on biological quantum field and information
processing that has been taken up here as well.
2. Life, Consciousness, Information and
Living System
"Everything taking form in nature incurs a debt which
must be paid by dissolving again so that other things may
form" Anaximander.
As Anaximander said, nature is a large entangled pattern
in which nothing is continuous but the form because nature
utilizes it to encode energy and information and recurrent
unfolding and enfolding of forms structure our observable
world [25-26]. In mechanistic worldview, life was regarded
as a mechanical device but as life is autopoietic i.e.
self-producing and self-maintaining, it is not sensibly
reliable with the concept and reality of mechanism. Life
characterizes living organisms by signaling and
self-sufficient processes namely metabolism, maintenance
of homeostasis, capacity to grow, response to stimuli,
adaptation and reproduction [27]. Biological systems
remain functional as non-equilibrium steady state through
continual change and life can’t be ascribed in parts of a
body rather it is the process of body as a whole [28]. Yet
classical biology has failed in understanding life as a whole
in comparison to meager success in understanding the
thorough composition of life. Only a small fraction of DNA
(< 5%) carries blue-prints for the particular proteins which
compose the living body while the function of the
remaining is still mysterious [25].
Life arises from complex interactions of organic
molecules, ions and atoms [29]. A single organ in our body
shows far more complexities than the most complex
computer and the entire organs act as a harmonic unit. Here,
in order to describe the complexity of living system, we use
the term ‘holon’ that was first introduced by Koestler (1967)
[30], in his book ‘The Ghost in the Machine’ which is
40
Md. Shaifur Rahman et al.:
Evolution of Cancer: A Quantum Mechanical Approach
con-currently a whole and a part. Let’s think individual
cells as autopoieticholons constituting the organs which are
again holons creating the organismic holons – that is the
holarchy of holons is the basis of life [25] and at a certain
level of hierarchy it gives rise to being who can think,
perceive and make decisions. Thus processes like thought,
perception and cognition comes within the realm of life.
According to Gödel's incompleteness theorem, statements
generated from any trivial axiomatic system beyond a
certain basic level of complexity, can’t be proved or
disproved within the system. By means of this phenomenon
Penrose [31-32] strongly suggested that human thought
involves non-computable processes which can’t be reduced
to a computer program and the term ‘consciousness’ comes
into act here to explain further domain of life which is
beyond classical biologist’s thinking .
The riddle of consciousness has been a serious mystery
throughout the scientific history. Consciousness provides
an organism, with the ability to know and act in response to
its environment, by functioning in a symbiotic manner that
controls the necessary genetic and biochemical functions
for survival [24] and it is a quality of mind. Sutherland [33]
defined consciousness as- “Having of perceptions, thoughts,
and feelings; awareness. The term is impossible to define
except in terms that are unintelligible without a grasp of
what consciousness means. Many fall into the trap of
confusing consciousness with self-consciousness- to be
conscious it is only necessary to be aware of the external
world. Consciousness is a fascinating but elusive
phenomenon: it is impossible to specify what it is, what it
does, or why it evolved. Nothing worth reading has been
written about it”. PEAR has denoted consciousness is the
criteria of living things that distinguishes each dynamic
magnitude of self from which is not-self and determines the
exchange of information with the surroundings [34]. State
of being conscious or self-reference arises from the
inherent complexity of living systems. But applying
Gödel’s Theorem, it is suggested that living systems
confine the exactness with which they can be represented
due to the uncertainty produced from this inherent
complexity [34]. It seems, consciousness is more subtle
than the chemistry of life and it can be said as a function of
quantum mechanical activity [24] generating at a certain
hierarchy of holarchy.
The non-computable processes involved in human
thought force the collapse of subtle superposed quantum
state and manufacture our conscious experience of the
surrounding classical world [31-32]. Erwin Schrodinger
[35], in his classic book “What is Life?” in 1944 suggested
that the orderliness of living system is guided by means
completely different from statistical mechanics and he
emphasized quantized basis for life and at present it is
evident to suggest that organic molecules can exploit heat
and energy to uphold active quantum state [36]. The totality
of a sys-tem is not only what is manifested but also the
process that makes the manifestation and concomitantly
one of these two aspects is unfolded and other remains
subtle [26]. For simple analogy, in life’s perspective, we
can consider chemistry (DNA, RNA and Proteins) and
consciousness as these two aspects. Now the question is
how the interplay between these two aspects takes place?
We might consider this as Chalmers [37] calls the ‘hard
problem of consciousness’ and information at the subtle
level may help to understand the observed phenomena [26].
‘Informare’- the Latin root for the word information,
means to form, fashion, or bring a certain shape or order
into something [38]. More simply, information is a
difference that makes a difference [39]. Feynman suggested
that all points in the space can process incoming
information and outputting novel information just like a
computer [40]. But living system differs from the
mechanical systems as it compensates the ever increasing
entropy by continually drawing negative entropy from its
environment and prevents the state of maximum entropy to
be alived [35]. If information arises from matter and energy,
as regarded in reductionist approach, thermodynamics
doesn’t support its harmonic interplay in a living
non-equilibrium steady state. So information should have
its definition outside the realm of matter and energy and
obviously there is evidence in support of the proposition
that information is non-material and helps to maintain the
non-equilibrium steady state [41]. It is not possible to
separate any informational aspect from causal relations of
matter and energy if the effects of a system are completely
derivable from the outside causes. Information is produced
by a system when effects become system dependent that
means when the system is self-organizing at any level [42].
And there has been several evidences claiming living
system as an information processor [5]. Thus we can say
that an autopoietic living system utilizes information to
maintain the holarchy that simultaneously ranges from
classical to quantum or physical to metaphysical paradigm.
So we define living system as consciousness driven
information processor which is autopoietic by nature. And
no secular geometry at present can outline this complex
hierarchy of, how an invisibly small egg grows into an
entire human being?
3. Biological Quantum Field and Super
Orbital
Schrodinger [35] realized that splendid orderliness and
regularity runs the unfolding of events in the life cycle of
an organism and this very regularity can’t be reduced to any
regular physical laws. Explaining the form of this regularity
has been a great enigma for science. "The area of
development (ontogeny) is full of unanswered questions.
How can a single celled embryo produce an organism in
which there are different specialized cell types? How do
these cell types organize themselves into organ systems?
No adequate physicalistic explanation is available now, so
why not advance a vitalistic claim about ontogenetic
processes? The point to recognize is that vitalism does not
European Journal of Biophysics 2014; 2(4): 38-48
become plausible just because we currently lack a physical
explanation. Although there is no reason to doubt that these
phenomena are consistent with our current best physical
theories, no one has the slightest idea how the physics
might be put to work" [43].
The feature of 'wholeness' in the parts of an organism,
which we have acknowledged as ‘holons’- has led this
enigma away from physical - chemical basis (Harrison,
1945). Energy is the principle of change but form of a
body is stable until it has the ability to resist the change
[22]. So the form of continual biological information
organization demands an explanation beyond matterenergy cause and effect relations. The particle aspect
behavior of reality is robustly influenced by the wave
aspect though the latter carries no energy and using this
non-energetic wave aspect Rupert Sheldrake formulated his
hypothesis of ‘Formative Causation’. This hypothesis
speculates that morphogenetic field is fundamental to the
development and maintenance of the form of a system at all
levels of complexity [22]. Sheldrake suggests that
non-energetic morphic resonance underpins the collective
memory of the species from non-local morphogenetic fields,
which contains the information necessary to shape the exact
form of living things, on present patterns of form. Morphic
resonance, non-locality, purposiveness and downward
causation collectively Sheldrake’s specialize theory yet it
shows an inherent dualism that the morphogenetic fields
going beyond matter, influences the material organization,
what is the source of morphogenetic information?
Sheldrake gives no answer but assuming consciousness as
the source of morphogenetic information, Sheldrake’s
theory can be explained quantum mechanically [44].
To emphasize subtler orders of change, development and
evolution Bohm used the term ‘holomovement’ which is an
unbroken and undivided totality and carries an implicate
order (totality of an order including both the manifested
and non-manifested aspects of the order) [23]. Holo
movement in its totality includes the principle of life,
grounds both the living and non-living entities and is
primary, self existent and universal [23]. Non-local
quantum phenomena reside in a subtler level than quantum
level that is the quantum potential which sustains intimately
within the underlying implicates order and the quantum
processes are driven by information from quantum
potential [45]. In a quantum field there is the possibility for
multiple levels and there are relationships between these
levels such as quantum potential, superquatum potential
and so on, which represents a tangled-hierarchy within the
universal holo-movement that underlies the manifestation
of form, more simply the objective life. “Life acquires its
own principles from the hierarchical structure of nature. As
levels of complexity mount along the hierarchy of atom,
molecule, gene, cell, tissue, organism, and population, new
properties arise as results of interactions and
interconnections emerging at each new level. A higher level
cannot be fully explained by taking it apart into component
elements and rendering their properties in the absence of
41
these interactions [46]. These two forms of hierarchy seem
similar but they are not the same as the quantum hierarchy
is subjective and Gould’s argument is about objective
hierarchy, yet they interweave and subjective and objective
aspects together make the whole reality. This may be
analogous to genetic - paragenetic duality of genes
proposed by Brink [47] if Brink’s paragenetic horizon that
entitles the chromatin behavior, is extended to cover the
subjective quantum field of possibilities while genetic
paradigm is the objective aspect [48]. Figure 1 summarized
the implicate order of body, life, environment and
biological quantum field.
Fig 1. Schematic view of implicate order.
DNA specifies all possible proteins in an organism but
organization at cellular, tissue, organ level and organismic
development as a whole requires something more than our
classical genome [22]. Morphogenetic information is not
constrained within the DNA sequences and there are strong
supports for this assumption like C-value paradox (complex
puzzle surrounding the extensive variation in nuclear
genome size among eukaryotic species, for example, some
single-celled protists have genomes much larger than that
of humans) [7], general morphological features are not
shown in normal self-organization of proteins (Jackson,
2002), the forms can evolve in absence of corresponding
molecular evolution [8-9]. Non-locality can only become
biological phenomena if quantum components are coupled
to the computational process in living system. Recently
Stuart Hameroff hypothesized, “DNA utilizes quantum
information and quantum computation for various
functions.” It has been suggested that stability of DNA
double helix may be explained by quantum entanglement
among base pairs [49]. Consideration of single bases of
DNA strand as independent unit, has been questioned by
showing entanglement persists even at room temperature
[49]. There have been several other claims of quantum
behavior within living system. Stochastic behavior of
microtubules in a field guides the strength of spindle
assembly during mitosis [50]. Microtubules within brain
neurons may function as quantum computer. Non-local
quantum computation may be involved in protein folding
[21]. There are many other suggestions claiming quantum
mechanics not only provides the basis of shapes and sizes
of organic molecules but also drives the operation of living
organisms [18]. These investigations all-together suggest
towards a unified quantum field for which morphogenetic
42
Md. Shaifur Rahman et al.:
Evolution of Cancer: A Quantum Mechanical Approach
field along with implicate order makes a strong stand.
This biological quantum field will give rise to
macroscopic quantum phenomena in living systems by
influencing a certain level of organizational hierarchy, the
complex global energy-information pattern through
downward causation in order to distribute information in a
non-local way [24]. Here we support the hypothesis of
‘super orbital’ that is the global cell field originated through
many levels of interactions among all particles of a cell. It
is well known from quantum mechanics that all electrons
that are contained in one system are inseparable from each
other. In a cell the cytoplasm is a gel made of about 40%
proteins, and the structure of this gel is very much like a
liquid crystal; there are collective properties of the
electrons but they are difficult to identify and map. The
reason why collective properties of electrons in large
molecules like proteins and protein ensembles have been
difficult to explore is the difficulty describing the collective
high-level quantum chemical phenomena mathematically.
Actually calculating the collective behavior of the electrons
in molecules much larger than water is almost impossible.
All the electrons of the molecular orbitals of all the protein
molecules and co-enzymes of the cell, including all the
many small molecules embedded in these large
biomolecules, and cofactors transporting electrons in the
mitochondrion’s and mediating the photosynthesis in plants
are making up one huge structure that is a global cell
orbital [24]. If the molecular orbital is connected to a
higher system, this system could be energized, through the
activity of co enzymes, as well in these movements
allowing the super-orbital of the cell to manage energy that
can be used to control the dance of other proteins. There are
many ligands modifying the activity of active proteins, and
these ligands are more active or more passive as their form
shifts; a sys-tem that can control the protein activity and the
likelihood that a protein is in a specific allosteric
configuration is then controlling the activity of the cell [24].
Figure 2 depicts the steps of the evolution of quantum
system.
Fig 2. Evolution of quantum system
4. Biological Information Processing
Although there is no agreed definition of life, all living
organisms are information processors: they store a genetic
database and replicate it, with occasional errors, thus
providing the basis for natural selection [18]. If the
information pattern in biological systems has to be
understood, it is obvious that we must study how the
complexity of the isolated biological system has been
developed [24]. The organization of cells takes place at
different levels from molecules to organelles that again
organize to form the full cell. Cell organelles are shaped
precisely after the needs of the specific type of cell.
Examples of this are the endoplasmic reticule, the Golgi
apparatus, the vesicle, cell membrane systems, and
mitochondrion, which take their shape after the specific
type of cell [2]. At the Tetrahymenae, the cell structure is
not decided by the proteins they consist of; this could be a
general phenomenon in the world of the eukaryotes: “To a
first approximation - Tetrahyminae pyriformis cells and T.
voraxmicrostomes maintain the same morphology with
different proteins, whereas T. voraxmicrostomes and T.
voraxmacrostomes maintain different morphologies with
the same proteins” [51]. Also, the genetically variegating
Tetrahyminae often have the same shape. This means that
proteins have no superior meaning for the formation of
shape in this. Therefore, it is hardly the proteins that give
the protozoans their manifold and magnificent forms [6].
The same molecules generally build different cells and
their different structures. The different ways of organization
may be due to different information. Information
transmitting interactions give the information for the
organization to the cells so these can organize themselves
through complex behavior under the control of an
information-carrying global quantum field (super orbital)
[24]. Our understanding of the nature of information has
undergone something of a revolution with the development
of the subjects of quantum computation and quantum
information processing. Central to this enterprise is the
replacement of the classical information “bit” by its
quantum counterpart, the “qubit.” As a quantum system
evolves, input qubits transform into output qubits.
Information may be processed by associating it with qubits;
importantly, the processing efficiency is enhanced because
quantum superposition and entanglement represent a type
of computational parallelism [18]. Several researchers have
spotted the sweeping consequences that would follow from
the discovery that living organisms might process
information quantum mechanically, either at the
biomolecular level, or the cellular/neuronal level [32,
52-56].
Home and Chattopadhyaya [57] suggested that DNA
may persist as a superposition of mutational states in a
biomolecular version of Schrodinger’s cat paradox. The
components of living cells may therefore maintain an
ordered structure that is compatible with retention of
quantum coherence at much higher temperatures than those
European Journal of Biophysics 2014; 2(4): 38-48
that would be expected to destroy the quantum state of
inanimate systems [19]. Patel [53] has argued that the
nucleotide bases can remain in a quantum superposition for
long enough to participate in the replication process.
According to quantum no-cloning theorem [58], a pure
quantum state cannot be quantum mechanically replicated
[18] that a quantum system can replicate into an identical
one quantum fluctuation would take place. According to
these phenomena quantum states will give rise variations
through replication which is the basis for selection in
biological evolution.
Information, if it can be copied, can be a plan - a plan for
a new copy, or a code plan for something else. DNA can
copy, or replicate, itself, but not without the help of proteins
that can unlock DNA zippers. The DNA-protein partnership
evolved in such a way that while proteins unlocked DNA
zippers, they also got DNA to store plans coded for
building more protein as well as more of itself. Thus the
DNA-protein partnerships as wholes were capable of
reproducing themselves [25]. Many studies of protein-DNA
complexes acknowledge the intrinsic flexibility of proteins
and nucleic acids because both molecules often undergo
conformational changes prior to or upon their recognition.
DNA conformational deformations, for example, have been
thought to contribute to binding specificity, selectivity, and
affinity [59-60]. Protein conformational changes can
discriminate between specific and nonspecific binding [61].
Protein disorder can, in principle, facilitate the diffusive
search through the “fly-casting” mechanism [62], where a
flexible region of the protein partially and nonspecifically
binds to a DNA sequence. Indeed, several DNA binding
proteins are known to have partially unstructured structures
in the unbound state, and the unstructured regions fold
upon binding to the target [63]. An insightful analysis
suggests induced folding by DNA binding, as reflected by
the sequential binding of a dimeric transcription factor as
un-folded monomers that fold and dimerize on the DNA
[64], is vital in providing both rapid and specific assembly
[65].
A good example in biological body is the polymerase
enzyme that crawls along DNA forging the base pairs. This
is a molecular motor, powered by ATP and using
nucleotides as the raw material for the base pairing.
Viewing the motor as a complex adaptive system that is
capable of utilizing information in its environment to
evolve or learn may shed new light on how information
processing and computation can be realized at the
molecular level [5]. Goel et al., (2003) [66] suggests that
the speed of the motor is not determined by the availability
of nucleotides or temperature rather, it depends in some
way on the geometrical configuration of the components.
The actual number of computational steps taken by our
motor is about 3 × 105 (or information bits processed) for
every DNA base that the motor reads. Each of the internal
microscopic states of the motor can store in-formation. This
leads to dramatically higher information storage densities
than if the information were stored solely in the DNA
43
molecule itself [5]. The slight deformation caused by the
stretching serves to disrupt either the production of ATP or
the efficiency of the pair bonding reactions, or both. This
suggests that some form of sharply-peaked quantum
resonance (e.g. tunneling) process might be involved.
Evidence that quantum tunneling plays an essential role has
been obtained for many enzyme driven reactions, and it is
likely that tunneling is an important factor contributing to
the extraordinary efficiency of enzyme catalysis [67].
Proton tunneling can indeed spontaneously alter the
structure of nucleotide bases, leading to incorrect pair
bonding. McFadden and Al-Khalili [19] have suggested
that, in some circumstances, the genetic code should be
regarded as a quantum code, so that superpositions of
coding states might occur, leading to spontaneous errors in
base pairing. And Polymerase is just one of many
molecular motors at work in the living cell [18].
The quantum model of self-organizing electron as an
open
system
showed
physical
mechanism
of
self-organization consisting in the back influence of the
own field created by electron on the same electron. The
own field of electron endows the electrically charged
particle with wave properties and represents, a bearer of
faster than light communication. Generally, the own field of
particle contains four components according to the four
now known types of interaction - electromagnetic, weak,
strong, and gravitational. Each of these components is a
classical field linking the particle to the surrounding world
via faster than light communication. Apparently, the
Principle of self Organization: any material object
represents neither an open self-organizing system whose
internal structures is formed with the participation of the
whole universe, incorporated in nature as one of the
integral properties of matter, is nothing more nor less than
the existence of a unified quantum field or implicates order.
Phenocopies, a term coined by Goldschmidt to describe
genetic mutations that follow phenotypic changes produced
by the environment contradicts the linear view of molecular
biology, DNA> RNA>Protien. Goldschmidt found that if
Drosophila embryos at a certain developmental stage are
exposed for brief periods to elevated temperature, ether,
X-rays, or other factors that affect development, then the
phenotype of the organism may be altered in ways that
mimic or copy the kind of changes produced by gene
mutations. In some cases, these alterations are heritable,
indicating that they are accompanied by mutations, hence
the term phenocopy. This phenomenon is contrary to the
fundamental Weismann doctrine denying the inheritance of
acquired characteristics (Lamarckism). Some biologists
regard phenocopies as conclusive evidence that there are
epigenetic mechanisms that contribute to evolution [3-4].
Super orbital or unified energetic quantum state of cell can
be used for the explanation of this phenomenon. Protiens,
genes and all other molecules are within the same quantum
system. Both genes and proteins will be affected
simultaneously due to the quantum state alteration. The
protein modifications become the phenocopies. The
44
Md. Shaifur Rahman et al.:
Evolution of Cancer: A Quantum Mechanical Approach
interaction of the environmentally affected cellular
quantum system with the genetic apparatus leads to gene
mutation, which itself is a quantum process. The mutated
genes remain as uncollapsed coherent superposition’s while
such mutations accumulate in possibility. They are
amplified by the measurement apparatuses of the protein
producing machinery but still remain in possibility.
Eventually, when there is a realization of the desired
phenotypical expression (the phenocopy) in a particular
organism, consciousness recognizes it and collapses the
whole chain from the quantum system to the genotype to
the phenotype. At this stage genetic assimilation has taken
place and phenocopies occur even without direct
environmental stimulus [1]. Quantum electrodynamical
effects such as the Casimir effect could become significant
in this aspect [18]. The ‘Casimir effect’ is a physical force
arising from a quantized field. The typical example is of
two uncharged metallic plates in a vacuum, placed a few
micrometers apart, without any external electromagnetic
field. In a classical description, the lack of an external field
also means that there is no field between the plates, and no
force would be measured between them [68]. When this
field is instead studied using quantum electrodynamics, it is
seen that the plates do affect the virtual photons which
constitute the field, and generate a net force, either an
attraction or repulsion depending on the specific
arrangement of the two plates. And we think virtual photon,
Z particle, gluon and graviton those holding the interaction
with surrounding world, carries or themselves are the
information originated from universal holomovement (or
highest level of holarchy or common sub-quantum
morphogenetic field or may be the common consciousness)
and helps to direct self-organization of biological body in
the evolutionary pathway via the super orbital (collective
electron field). Figure 3 represents the organization of
Biological System from consciousness.
Fig 3. Downward Causations of organization in Biological System
5. Quantum Mutation and Cancer
In the quantum approach, gene mutations are regarded as
quantum processes of sufficient uncertainty that propagate
as coherent superposition’s of possibilities [1]. According
to Schrodinger [35], “The mutations are actually due to
quantum jumps in the gene molecule. The ‘quantum jump’
which we mean is the transition from one relatively stable
molecular configuration to another”. In their seminal paper,
Cairns et al., (1988) [69] declared, “We describe here
experiment and some circumstantial evidence suggesting
that bacteria can choose which mutations they should
produce.” The idea of directed or adaptive mutation
suggests that, at least on occasion, consciousness may play
a direct role in evolution [1]. The phenomenon bears many
similarities to the inverse quantum Zeno effect, as
described by [70-72], whereby a dense series of
measurements along a particular path will force a quantum
system to evolve along that path [19]. It might be apparent
to say the inverse quantum zeno effect is analogous to the
canalized pathway of change which was proposed for the
extension of unitary field concept in order to cover the
temporal aspect of development (Fig. 4) [22].
Fig 4. Part of an ‘epigenetic landscape’ illustrating the canalized pathway
of change [22].
Coupling between the wave function and the
environment allows the cell to simultaneously sample the
vast mutational spectra as a quantum superposition. It has
been demonstrated that accelerated decoherence caused by
the environment, has the potential to accelerate the
generation of the mutant state out of the quantum
superposition [19]. The possibilities are amplified by the
cellular mechanisms (acting as measurement apparatuses)
to the macro level, but cannot be collapsed into actualities
by these mechanisms because a quantum measurement
requires self-referential action of consciousness. The wave
functions collapse and the genetic material becomes fixed
in one configuration only when consciousness sees a
meaningful pattern emerge that merit phenotypical
expression and genetic information alone cannot predict the
outcomes [1]. Figure 5 shows the quantum mechanical
control of physiological order from biological quantum
field.
European Journal of Biophysics 2014; 2(4): 38-48
Fig 5. Quantum mechanical control of physiological order
There are several hints in molecular biology that cancer
evolution ascertains non-linearity, non-locality and
geometric alterations in biomolecular arrangement. Such as,
alterations outside the genome and altered centrosome
cycle might cause the genomic instability whereas genomic
instability is thought to cause the alterations in protein
function that controls centrosome duplication [20]. Cancer
development is driven by the accumulation of DNA
changes in the approximately 40000 chromosomal genes.
The genes code the actual players in the cellular processes,
the 100 000–10 million proteins, which in (pre)malignant
cells can also be altered in a variety of ways [16]. This
surely perturbs the linear gene to protein thinking in cancer.
Fig 6. Nuclear structure in normal (a) and cancer cells (b) [73].
There are characteristic differences in the nuclear
architectures of cancer cells, compared with normal cells,
and some anticancer treatments restore normal nuclear
structure and function (Figure 6) [73]. Cancer accelerates
the aging process (Inflammation) and disrupts the
orderliness of the body that accounted for compensating
positive entropy increase. So, the body becomes susceptible
to ‘maximum entropy’ state in an accelerated way than
normal and cancer patient dies. These evidences could be
the account for both spatial and temporal disorder in cancer.
Interactions between the quantum system and its
environment will serve to decohere the wave function: the
noise of the environment effectively scrambles the phases.
Once decohered, a quantum system behaves in most
45
respects as a classical system [74]. Ever since Crick and
Watson elucidated the structure of DNA the possibility has
been seriously entertained that mutations might occur as a
result of quantum fluctuations, which would serve as a
source of random biological information. When any field
(such as the electromagnetic field) is quantised, it is
subjected to quantum fluctuations. If general relativity is a
correct theory of gravity then we know from the theory that
the metric of space-time plays the role of the gravitational
potential. If the gravitational field fluctuates, the space time
metric must fluctuates. But the metric is intimately related
to the geometry of space-time. In consequence if the metric
fluctuates, all the geometric properties of space-time will
also fluctuates [26]. Quantum gravitational effects may
induce stochastic fluctuations in the structure of space-time
[75]. This gravitational potential can be regarded as
information potential, which induces the change of form in
a system [26]. The carcinogenic effects causing cancer
through inducing biomolecular instability might have an
informatic potential explanation that redistributes the
biomolecular organization what we presume as instability.
Danah Zohar [76] asserts in her ground-breaking ‘The
Quantum Self’ that in our essential being, we are made of
the same stuff and held together by the same dynamics as
those which account for everything else in the universe.
‘And equally,’ she adds, ‘which brings out the enormity of
this realization, the universe is made of the same stuff and
held together by the same dynamics as those which account
for us.’ We now know that there is biomolecular basis for
the role of chronic psychological stress in development of
cancer [77]. As mental and physical aspects are just
different aspects of same process that gives us the form of a
being, there should be no distinction between these two
aspects. And same quantum phenomena are in act with
mental aspect as in physical context [26]. So, chronic
psychological stress also may be called carcinogen and can
induce cancer through quantum fluctuation (Figure 7).
This non-linear quantum mechanical model for cancer
initiation could be in account for explaining the classical
flaws. We say, due to carcinogens either physical or
psychological, superfluous fluctuations occur in the
quantum state. Apparently, decoherence rate is accelerated
and selection of unprecedented information occurs rather
than the cell or cell population as described in classical
models. This information causes fluctuation in entangled
energetic state of super orbital and results in the
redistribution of biomolecular organization in a non-local
manner. When replication occurs, according to quantum
no-cloning theorem, there will be more fluctuations and
biomolecular organization will be redistributed again and
so on. This is the reason behind increasing instability of
genome and proteome in cancer and also accounts strongly
for drug-resistance.
46
Md. Shaifur Rahman et al.:
Evolution of Cancer: A Quantum Mechanical Approach
that has seemingly failed to treat cancer.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in
the absence of any commercial or financial relationships
that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
References
[1]
Goswani A and Todd D (1997) Is there conscious choice in
directed mutation, phenocopies, and related phenomena? An
answer based on quantum measurement theory. Integrative
Physiological & Behavioral Science 32 (2), 132-143.
[2]
Alberts B, Johnson A, Levis J, Raff M, Roberts K, and
Walke P (1983) Molecular Biology of the Cell. Garland
Science, Taylor and Francis Group.
[3]
Goodwin BC (1994) How the Leopard Changed Its Spots,
Orion Books, London.
[4]
Ho MW (1987) Evolution by process, not by consequence:
implications of the new molelcular genetics on development
and evolution. Int. J. Comp. Psychol. 1, 3-27.
[5]
Abbott D, Davies PCW and Pati AK (2008) The Quantum
Aspects of Life. page- 60, 100-103 Imperial College Press.
[6]
Lee JJ, Hutner SH, and Bovee, EC (1985) Illustrated Guide
to the Protozoa. Allen Press, USA.
[7]
Dawkins R (2003) The Information Challenge, pp. 107-122
(quote is from p. 121), Chapter 2.3 of a Devil’s Chaplain;
Selected Essays by Richard Dawkins, Ed. Latha Menon,
Phoenix.
[8]
Birney E et al. (2007) Identification and analysis of
functional elements in 1% of the human genome by the
ENCODE pilot project. Nature 447,799-816.
[9]
de Laat WL, Jaspers NGJ, and Hoeijmakers JHJ (1999)
Molecular mechanism of nucleotide excision repair. Genes
and Development 13 (7), 768-785.
Fig 7. Quantum mechanical model for cancer
6. Concluding Remarks
Cancer is a disease, which cannot be treated like other
diseases rather it is an altered form of organogenesis. Its
non-linearity accounts for a deeper point of view than
classic molecular biology can reach. As a disordered form
of physiological order it is related to the process of
autopoiesis underlying the biological self-organization and
it extends the arena for studying cancer towards realistic
viewpoint of life. The reality cannot be devoid of subtler
subjectivity that is not considered in materialistic molecular
biology. This is why molecular biology has failed to
provide a faithful explanation of cancer origin. The linear
central dogma of molecular biology has been questioned by
various findings. Phenocopies, C-value paradox, evolution
of form in absence of molecular evolution etc. cannot be
explained by this linear model. And now, it is very much
required to see the process of life from a holistic view that
accounts both manifested living body and non-manifested
consciousness as well as surrounding environment as a
unitary whole. So, cancer should also be considered from
this point of view. Quantum mechanics plays a non-trivial
role in the operation of life and it could obviously be an
account for new holistic explanation of cancer. And this
review was aimed to make a comprehensive study towards
the holistic viewpoint that ascertains a paradigm shift in
present classical thinking. The quantum mechanical model
proposed here can answer basic flaws in molecular biology
but it must acknowledged that it has been very tiny step
towards the vast arena of cancer mystery along with the
gorgeous and enormous quantum mechanics. So this study
also requires a vast spectrum of thinking and gathering
knowledge of biology, chemistry, and physics. Yet, this tiny
step proposes our present understanding should be shifted
to a new era of holism, which will be the basis of
understanding the drawbacks in our technological approach
[10] Mamun MA, Rahman MS, Islam MF, Honi U and Sobhani
ME (2011) Molecular biology and riddle of cancer: the ‘Tom
& Jerry’ show. Oncol Rev, 5:215–222. DOI
10.1007/s12156-011-0091-2
[11] Goldthwaite CA (2006) Are stem cells involved in cancer?
Regenerative Medicine, 9: 89-96
[12] Hanahan D and Weinberg RA (2000) The hallmarks of
cancer. Cell 100 (1), 57-60.
[13] Reya T, Morrison SJ, Clarke MF and Weissman IL (2001)
Stem cells, cancer, and cancer stem cells. Nature 414,
105-111.
[14] Breivik J (2005) The evolutionary origin of genetic
instability in cancer development. Cancer Biology 15,
51-60.
[15] Marx J (2002) Debate surges over the origins of genomic
defects in cancer. Science 297, 544-546.
[16] Baak JPA, Hermsen MAJA, Meijer G, Schmidt J, Janssen
European Journal of Biophysics 2014; 2(4): 38-48
47
EAM (2003) Genomics and proteomics in cancer,
European Journal of Cancer 39, 1199–1215.
[37] Chalmers D (1995) Facing up to the problem of
consciousness. J Conscious Stud 2:200–219.
[17] Gorgoulis VD et al. (1992) Expression of EGF, TGF-alpha
and EGFR in squamous cell lung carcinomas. Anticancer
Res 12, 1183-1187.
[38] Miller GL (1987) Resonance, Information and the Primacy of
Process: Ancient Light on Modern Information and
Communication Theory and Technology, Doctorial Thesis,
Rutgers.
[18] Davies PCW (2004) Does quantum mechanics play a
non-trivial role in life? BioSystems 78, 69–79
[19] McFadden J and Al-Khalili J (1999) A quantum mechanical
model of adaptive mutation. BioSystems 50, 203-211.
[20] Hameroff SR (2004) A new theory of the origin of cancer:
quantum coherent entanglement, centrioles, mitosis, and
differentiation. BioSystems 77, 119–136.
[21] Klein-Seetharaman J, Oikawa M, Grimshaw SB, Wirmer J et
al. (2002) Long-range interactions within a nonnative protein.
Science 295, 1719–1722.
[22] Sheldrake R (1981) A new science of life. page-52, 67, 74.
[23] Bohm D (1980) Wholeness and implicate order, page- 191,
247.
[24] Ventegodt S, Hermansen TD, Flensborg-Madsen T, Nielsen
ML and Merrick J (2006) Human development VIII: a
theory of “Deep” quantum chemistry and cell consciousness:
quantum chemistry controls genes and biochemistry to give
cells and higher organism’s consciousness and complex
behavior. The Scientific World Journal 6, 1441-1453.
[25] Sahtouris E (1999) Earth Dance: Living Systems in
Evolution, chapter-3, 13.
[26] Hiley BJ (2008) Quantum Reality Unveiled Through Process
and the Implicate Order. Oxford Conference. UK
[27] Koshland J and Daniel E (2002) The Seven Pillars of Life.
Science 295 (5563), 2215–2216.
[28] Igamberdiev AU (1993) Quantum mechanical properties of
biosystems: A framework for complexity, structural stability,
and transformations. BioSystems 31, 65‐73.
[29] Scott AC (1995) Stairway to the mind. New York:
Springer-Verlag (Copernicus).
[30] Koestler A (1967) The Ghost in the Machine, page-48.
[39] Bateson G (1972) Steps to an ecology of mind. New York:
Chandler.
[40] Finklestein D (1969) Space-time Code, Phys. Rev.184,
1261-71.
[41] McIntosh AC (2006) “Functional Information and Entropy in
living systems”, pp. 115-126, Design and Nature III:
Comparing Design in Nature with Science and Engineering,
Vol. 87 of WIT Transactions on Ecology and the
Environment, Editor Brebbia, C.A., WIT Press
[42] Fleissner P and Hofkirchner W (1996) Emergent information,
Towards a unified information theory, In: BioSystems 2-3
(38), 243-248.
[43] Sober E (1993) The Philosophy of Biology. Boulder CO:
Westview Press
[44] Goswami A (2006) A quantum explanation of Shaldrake’s
morphic resonance.
(http://www.stealthskarter.com/Documents/Consciousness_3
2.doc)
[45] Hiley BJ (2007) Phase space description of quantum
mechanics and non-commutative geometry: Wigner–Moyal
and Bohm in a wider context, In: Theo M. Nieuwenhuizen et
al (eds.): Beyond the quantum, World Scientific Publishing,
ISBN 978-981-277-117-9.
[46] Gould SJ (2002) The Structure of Evolutionary Theory, The
Belknap Press of Harvard University Press: Cambridge, MA.
[47] Brink RA (1960) Paramutation and
organization. Q. Rev. Biol. 35, 120–137
chromosome
[48] Jorgensen RA (2011) Epigenetics: biology’s quantum
mechanics. Front Plant Sci 2, 10.
[49] Rieper E, Anders J and Vedral V (2010) Entanglement at the
quantum phase transition in a harmonic lattice. New J. Phys.
12, 025017.
[31] Penrose R (1994) Shadows of the Mind. Oxford Press,
Oxford,UK.
[50] Karsenti E and Vernos I (2001) Science.;294:543–547.
[32] Penrose R (1989) The Emperor’s New Mind. Oxford Press,
Oxford, UK.
[51] Buhse HEJ and William NE (1982) A comparison of cortical
proteins in Tetrahymena vorax microstomes and
macrostomes. J Protozool 29(2), 222–226.
[33] Sutherland S (1996) International dictionary of psychology.
2nd ed. New York, NY: Crossroad.
[52] Matsuno K and Paton RC (2000) Is there a biology of
quantum information? BioSystems 55, 39–46.
[34] Dunne BJ and Jahn RG (2005) Consciousness, information,
and living systems. Cellular and Molecular Biology 51,
545-561.
[53] Patel A (2001) Why genetic information processing could
have a quantum basis. J. Biosci. 26, 145–151.
[35] Schr ̈odinger, E (1944) What is life? The physical aspect of
the living cell. Cambridge Univ. Press
[54] Davies PCW (2003) The Origin of Life. Penguin, London
(Previous title: The Fifth Miracle. Penguin, London and
Simon & Schuster, New York, 1998)
[36] Engel GS, Calhoun TR, Read EL, Ahn TY, Manal T, Cheng
YC, Blankenship RE and Fleming GR (2007). Evidence for
wavelike energy transfer through quantum coherence in
photosynthetic systems. Nature 446, 782–786
[55] Vedral V (2003) Entanglement hits the big time. Nature 425,
28–29.
[56] Schempp W (2003) Replication and transcription processes
in the molecular biology of gene expressions: control
48
Md. Shaifur Rahman et al.:
Evolution of Cancer: A Quantum Mechanical Approach
paradigms of the DNA quantum holographic information
channel in nanobiotechnology. BioSystems 68, 119–145.
[57] Home D and Chattopadhyaya R (1996) DNA molecular
cousin of Schrodinger’s cat: a curious example of quantum
measurement. Phys. Rev. Letts. 76, 2836–2839.
[58] Pati AK and Braunstein S L (2000) Nature. 404, 164
[59] Olson WK, Gorin AA, Lu XJ, Hock LM, Zhurkin VB (1998)
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95, 11163-11168.
Electromagnetic vacuum fluctuations,Casimir and Van der
Waals forces. Annales de la Fondation Louis de Broglie,
Volume 29 no 1-2, 331.
[69] Cairns J, Overbaugh J, Millar S (1988) The origin of mutants.
Nature 335, 142–145.
[70] Altenmuller TP, Schenzle A (1993) Dynamics by
measurement: Aharonov’s inverse quantum Zeno effect.
Phys. Rev. A 48, 70–79.
[60] Zhang Y, Xi Z, Hedge RS, Shakked Z, Crothers DM (2004)
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 101, 8337-8341
[71] Altenmuller TP, Schenzle A (1994) Quantum Zeno effect in a
double-well potential-a model of a physical measurement.
Phys. Rev. A 49, 2016–2027.
[61] Kalodimos CG, Biris N, Bonvin AMJJ, Levandoski, MM,
Guennuegues M, Boelens R and Kaptein R (2004) Science
305, 386-389.
[72] Aharonov Y, Vardi M (1980) Meaning of an individual
‘Feynman path’. Phys. Rev. D 21, 2235–2240.
[62] Shoemaker BA, Portman JJ and Wolynes PG (2000) Proc
Natl Acad Sci USAs 97, 8868-8873.
[63] Spolar R and Record M (1994) Science 263, 777-784.
[64] Kohler JJ, Metallo SJ, SchneiderT L and Schepartz A (1999)
Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 96, 11735-11739.
[65] Slutsky M and Mirny LA (2004) Biophys J 87, 4021-4035.
[66] Goel A, Astumian RD, Herschbach D (2003) Tuning and
switching a DNA polymerase motor with mechanical tension.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 98, 8485–8491.
[67] Garcia-Viloca M, Gao J, Karplus M, Truhlar DG (2004) How
enzymes work: analysis by modern rate theory and computer
simulations. Science 303, 186–195.
[68] Genet C, Intravaia F, Lambrecht A and Reynaud S (2004)
[73] Zink D, Fischer AH and Nickerson JA (2004) Nuclear
structure in cancer cells. Nature Reviews, Cancer 4, 677.
[74] Zurek WH (1991) Decoherence and the transition from
quantum to classical. Phys. Today, 36–44.
[75] Aloisio R, Blasi P, Galante A, Grillo AF (2004)
Phenomenology
of
Space
Time
Fluctuations.
arXiv:astro-ph/0410413v1
[76] Zohar D (1990) The Quantum Self: Human Nature and
Consciousness Defined by the New Physics, ISBN
0-688-08780-9.
[77] Sobhani ME, Molla AWM, Rahman MS (2010) A review on
biomolecular basis of role of psychological stress in the
development and progression of cancer. Mag Euro Med
Onco 3, 136-142.