CAREER COUNSELLING POSITION PAPER
by Sharon Crozier (University of Calgary) , Jack Dobbs (Mount Royal College, Calgary),
Kathy Douglas (University of Guelph), & Jeanette Hung (Dalhouise University)
SUBSECTION: INTRODUCTION
Career development is a major aspect of an individual's development which spans
the entire lifetime of the individual and concerns the whole person. Career development
is integral to a person's self-concept (Super, 1963). Career development is the
interaction of the psychological, sociological, economic, physical, and chance factors that
shape the sequence of jobs, occupations, or careers that a person may engage in
throughout his/her lifetime (Sears, 1982). Career counselling is defined broadly as
a series of general and specific interventions... dealing with such concerns
as self-understanding; broadening one's horizons, work selection,
challenge, satisfaction, and other interpersonal matters, work site behavior,
communication, and other interpersonal phenomena, and lifestyle issues,
such as balancing work, family, and leisure, discrimination, stress, sexual
harassment, bias, stereotyping, pay inequities, and tokenism.
(Engels, Minor, Sampson & Splete, 1995, p. 134)
This position paper is formulated under the auspices of the Canadian University
and College Counselling Association (CUCCA) to support the significant role of career
development in the lives of post-secondary students and of career counselling in
post-secondary institutions. CUCCA reaffirms the position in earlier documents (Wine,
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1985), that career and personal counselling are interconnected, but broadens the scope of
career development to acknowledge that there are three interconnected domains:
personal-career counselling, career education, and career information.
The major focus
of the paper is on the role and function of post secondary counsellors who specialize in
career counselling and the issues and concerns that affect their practice within post
secondary institutions.
CUCCA recognizes that there are existing differences in career counselling
services across institutions in such areas as the breadth, depth, and placement of service.
Therefore, this position paper describes both the current reality of practice and guidelines
which all career counsellors can strive for. It is hoped that this document reflects the
philosophy and practice of the majority of the Canadian University and College
Counselling Association's membership who offer career counselling.
SUBSECTION: CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF POST-SECONDARY STUDENTS
The profile of the post-secondary student has changed greatly in the past ten years.
In addition to the traditional student, who may be characterized as eighteen years old,
just having graduated from high school and often still living at home or just recently
moved into residence, a post-secondary campus now accommodates increasing numbers
of women, minorities, international students, older students, part-time students, full-time
workers, evening/weekend students, and commuter students (Haskell & Wiener, 1992).
It may no longer be possible to talk of the typical post-secondary student as the hallmark
of the student population is "diversity". Predictions are for further increases in the
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diversity of the post-secondary student population. As the pool of potential high school
graduates continues to decline, post-secondary institutions are competing to appeal to
new populations of students to maintain their enrollment figures (Stone & Archer, 1990).
Consequently, post-secondary institutions may be working with out-dated policies and
concepts for such a diverse population.
One illustration of this would be the concept of
referring to students according to the number of years of education they have completed.
For example, students completing a degree on a part-time basis may easily be in their fifth
or sixth year of education, while having completed three years worth of course work.
Post-secondary career counsellors dealing with a diverse student population need to be
aware of the characteristics of the different groups, in relation to their career development
and develop services and programs to meet the needs of many different types of students.
Stages and Tasks of Career Development of Post-Secondary Students
One way to conceptualize the career development of post-secondary students is to
utilize Super's (1957, 1980, 1990; Super, Savickas, & Super, 1996) well established
career theory where vocational development is considered to be one aspect of the overall
process of human development.
The individual is seen as progressing through a series
of career development stages, with each stage having specific goals and tasks that need to
be accomplished. The stages include growth, exploration, establishment, maintenance,
and disengagement. Individuals become more career mature as they progress through
the stages increasing in planfulness, exploratory attitudes, decision-making skills,
knowledge about occupations and various other life roles, and realism (Crites, 1978;
Super et al., 1996). In 1980, Super added the concept of recycling to the developmental
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process. This change minimizes the view that the stages are inextricably linked with
particular ages and allows for individual experience such as occupational or educational
changes or time-out from the workforce.
Most post-secondary students, who are using education to establish themselves in
a new career direction, would be in the exploration stage of career development.
According to Super's theory, the younger students are entering the exploration stage for
the first time, while the mature students are recycling back to re-explore their career
options. Some of the mature students though, could be considered to be in the
establishment stage, if they are using further education as a way to advance themselves in
their careers. Some of the relevant tasks for students in these stages may be understanding
their own personal attributes and learning about the world of work; making decisions
about suitable educational and professional development opportunities; taking action to
implement their plans; securing suitable employment whether permanent, part-time or
contract; performing effectively in education, volunteer and employment; and taking
responsibility for continuing their career development.
Post-secondary students need to
learn about the stages of career development and come to understand that career
development will be a process they will be involved in throughout their lifetimes.
Another model of relevance, for career counsellors to consider, is the 1992
National Occupational Information Coordinating Committee's (NOICC) Career
Development Guidelines. These American Guidelines were developed by a very diverse
group of career development professionals and are endorsed by the American National
Career Development Association (NCDA), American Association for Counseling and
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Development (AACD), and American Vocational Association: Guidance Division
(AVA). In particular the "Adult: Competencies and Indicators" highlight the necessity for
preparing post-secondary students in the following areas:
*
self-knowledge (skills to maintain a positive self-concept and effective
behaviors as well as an understanding of developmental changes and
transition);
*
educational and occupational exploration (skills to enter and participate in
education/training);
*
participation in work/lifelong learning;
*
evaluation and interpretion of career information;
*
preparation to seek, obtain, maintain, and change jobs;
*
an understanding of how the needs and functions of society influence the
nature and structure of work;
*
career planning (skills to make decisions, manage career transitions); and
*
an understanding of the impact of work on life and of the continuing changes
in gender roles.
This is not to imply that all students will be at exactly the same stage of
development.
It will be necessary for the career counsellor to assess the student's stage
of development, the career development competencies the student will need to develop to
be successful and to facilitate the student's development in appropriate ways. Assisting
post-secondary students to accomplish the tasks of their career development stage and to
develop the necessary competencies to manage the future world of work presents a
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significant challenge to post-secondary career counsellors and "points out the importance
of and need for an effective career guidance program" in post-secondary institutions
(Zunker, 1994, p. 243).
Given the diversity of the post-secondary population, as highlighted earlier, the
career counsellor also needs to be aware of particular issues which may be significant to
different populations of students.
Adult students, for example, may also be managing
multiple life roles; holding age-biases or facing age-bias in the policies and staff of the
institution; dealing with transitions such as being displaced from work; adjusting to the
departure of adult children from the home; having made major geographical moves; or
coping with reduced finances. Women students often face unique issues such as
balancing home and family responsibilities, finding affordable and flexible day-care,
limiting sex-role biases, facing limited opportunities for learning experiences that lead to
nontraditional career choices or successful occupational integration, and having low
self-esteem.
Minority or international students share some of the barriers other
sub-groups face but may also contend with ethnic and racial discrimination and bias,
carry negative self-images, question their adequacy as professional workers, and show a
disbelief in the efficacy of rational career planning (Hotchkiss & Borow, 1990). The
statements for minority students may apply to person's with disabilities as well. Herr
(1982) comments on the specialized skills and knowledge required by career counsellors
for person's with disabilities. The diverse post-secondary population presents
counsellors on these campuses with special challenges and requires that they be prepared
with knowledge and skills to deal with each individual's unique concerns.
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Not only do post-secondary career counsellors need to be able to deal with a wide
diversity in the student population, they must also be aware of the increasing complexity
in the context in which they provide counselling. Career counselling takes place in the
context of an increasingly complex labour market which is constantly changing and will
continue to do so while post-secondary students prepare to enter it, change their careers,
or continue their education while employed (Bridges, 1994; Foot, 1996). The provision
of career counselling services on Canadian campuses is occurring in a changing economic
climate which makes it necessary for counsellors to integrate the new realities of the
workplace and include a "strong job skills, work-based orientation" into their work
(Jones, 1996a, p.457) in addition to more traditionally used procedures.
Major
components of the changing labour market are the influence of technology on different
occupational choices and on the profession of career counselling; changing
demographics, with the current student population facing competition with the large
baby-boom generation ahead of them but over next ten years will be decreasing their
involvement in the labour force as they reach retirement age; the expanding global labour
market in which many students are preparing to make geographical moves for
employment and are being employed in companies which are part of or conduct business
on an international scale; and the changing form of employment which is now often
offered in the form of contract work or require the graduate to consider seriously the
option of self-employment (Bridges, 1994; Foot, 1996).
Importance of Career Counselling in Post-Secondary Education
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Several studies have cited the importance students place on the "job preparation"
dimension of post-secondary education (Alexitch, 1994; Astin, 1985; Haskell & Wiener,
1992; Keierleber & Hansen, 1992; Page & Remigio, 1991). Keierleber and Hansen
(1992) indicate that "adults seek further education primarily for career reasons" (p. 315).
This is not to say that other goals are not also critical, such as learning about life and
work, developing a sense of personal satisfaction, solving personal and world problems,
sharing knowledge and developing new relationships (Lewis, 1988; Schlossberg, Lynch,
& Chickering, 1989). If career preparation is a critical goal of post-secondary students
then providing excellent services, programs, and courses in this area will be a determining
factor in student satisfaction with their post-secondary experience. A primary role of the
career counsellor is to assist the student with the translation of his/her educational
experience and its relevance to the world of work. It is critical that students learn how
educational and career information relates to their own personal life goals.
Students
with clearly defined career goals often are more motivated with their studies and have a
higher rate of retention (Shertzer, 1985). Obviously, alumni of an institution who are
placed in satisfactory employment which relates to their education are more likely to be
benefactors of their home institution, placing a value on their education and maintain a
relationship with their alma mater.
Post-secondary institutions are experiencing pressures of fiscal restraint and
demands for accountability to justify programs and services. Career counsellors have a
dual responsibility to provide effective interventions to the clients and to provide the most
cost-effective service possible to the institution.
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SUBSECTION: MAJOR CAREER COUNSELLING THEORIES: THE RELEVANCE
OF THEORY TO PRACTICE
Counsellors who specialize in career choice and development need to be well
grounded in the theory which forms the foundation of their practice. Career
development theory has been heavily influenced by the body of knowledge gathered from
psychology,
sociology, and a number of other disciplines which have all made a contribution to the
understanding of the dynamic complexity of career counselling.
Although there is considerable convergence and compatibility between and
amongst these theories, career theory has not yet progressed to the point of one unified
system of thought for all people in all situations (Savickas & Lent, 1994). It is the
counsellor's professional obligation to choose from among these theories which are
consistent with their personal beliefs and style of counselling. A counsellor's theoretical
stance reflects his/her conceptual framework for understanding and examining factors
which influence career choice(s) and career development, how and why people make the
choices they do, how and why they react to changes, as well as the when and how to
provide meaningful interventions. Thoughtful, consistent selection of theory allows the
counsellor to make assessments and choose interventions in an informed and purposeful
manner. The following is an overview of the major contributors to the field as well as a
look at what holds promise in shaping our understanding into the next century.
The first conceptual framework was written by Frank Parsons, who is generally
considered to be the "father of the field". In his text, Choosing A Vocation, Parsons
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(1909) wrote, "In the wise choice of a vocation there are three broad factors (1) clear
understanding of yourself... (2) knowledge of requirements... and (3) true reasoning on
the relations of these two groups of facts." (p.5). The Trait and Factor framework is
considered to be a straightforward assessment of the client's personal traits which are then
matched to the results of an analysis of the factors within each job title. The impact of
the Trait and Factor approach led to the development of psychological tests to measure
traits and to occupational analyses to identify factors resulting in the American Dictionary
of Occupational Titles (DOT).
Another researcher, John Holland, is considered to be a modified trait and factor
theorist or structuralist, who also looks at the links between personality and work
(Holland, 1987; Spokane, 1996). Holland views both personalities and work
environments as characterized by one or more of six types. Therefore, an occupational
choice is considered to be an expression of a person's personality. Through a
satisfactory match with similarly typed work environments, people use their preferred
skills and abilities, express their attitudes and values, and can take on agreeable problems
and roles. Thus career choice is an expression of how a person perceives oneself.
Holland's work provides the counsellor with both concepts and concrete
strategies. He has offered explanations and thought-provoking assertions about job
satisfaction and
dissatisfaction through such concepts as:
congruence (the match between the
personality type and environment), consistency and inconsistency (the compatibility of
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types), and causes of maladaptive vocational development (insufficient experiences,
negative perceptions of self, insufficient work-related learning experiences, ambiguous or
conflicting information about self or work environment, lack of information, or lack of
confidence). Holland's work has had a major impact on the development of career
education tools and assessment instruments such as the Strong Interest Inventory,
Self-Directed Search, Job Finder, Vocational Preference Inventory, My Vocational
Situation, and the Dictionary of Holland's Occupational Codes.
Ann Roe (Roe & Lunneborg, 1990), a clinical psychologist who studied the early
environmental influences of highly regarded artists and scientists, is a personality-based
theorist. She was influenced by Maslow and is occasionally referred to as the
"godmother" of vocational development.
Through retrospective studies, Roe examined
the factors that shape personality as a result of parent and child relationships. Like
Holland, Roe recognized the importance of personality in career choice, but focused on
the role that parental style played as an influencing factor. Childhood frustrations and
satisfactions combined with genetics and environmental experiences, create needs.
The impact of Roe's work can also be seen on assessment instruments such as the
Career Occupational Preference System (COPS) and the Computerized Vocational
Information System (CVIS). Criticizing the Dictionary of Occupational Titles as
elaborate, inconsistent, and without psychological basis, she developed a system of
classification
which made occupational analysis much more accessible. More recently the National
Occupational Classification Matrix (NOC) is reminiscent of her work.
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As Osipow (1983) clearly notes, psychoanalytical/psychodynamic thought takes a
different view of career choice. Ranging from Brill (1949), who saw work as an outlet
for sublimated wishes and impulses, and choice as an expression of mastery and control;
to
Bordin (1990), who gives greater attention to ego development and sees the
participation of personality in work and career as rooted in play. An example of the
contribution psychodynamic theory makes to career counselling can be found in the
seventh proposition of Bordin's theory which states, "One source of perplexity and
paralysis at career decision points will be found in doubts in and dissatisfactions with
current resolutions of self." (p. 117).
Psychoanalytic theory and trait and factor approaches focus on occupational
choice. Both Roe and Holland, to differing degrees, examine early events and later
actions but neither recognized a developmental process. Ginzberg and his colleagues
(1951) were among the first to suggest that the developmental process was crucial to
occupational choice - a radical departure from other approaches.
The most influential developmental theorist was Donald Super (1957, 1980, 1990;
Super et al. 1996). Like Ginzberg, he also drew from the developmental work of
Buehler (1933), but was more comprehensive incorporating many disciplines and
theories. Super's basic premise was that an individual selects an occupation which
permits the implementation of the self-concept.
Heavily influenced by the work of Carl
Rogers (1951), Super viewed the process of career counselling as the interweaving of
information and personal therapy, assisting the client across the life span. Super's work
continues to have a profound impact on career counselling and career education.
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Counsellors influenced by Super's theory often work from a developmental assessment
model. They examine the key constructs and concepts of career maturity, work salience,
self-concept, life role salience, and self-efficacy; counsel in the development of readiness
for choice, and guide clients through developmental stages and tasks.
Mitchell and Krumboltz (1990, 1996) were influenced by the behavioral
perspective as reflected in the Social Learning Theory of Career Development.
This
theory examines the influences that expand or limit options, such as: genetic endowment
(gender, talents), environmental conditions and events (education, economy), individual
learning experiences (instrumental, associative, vicarious), and task approach skills
(performance standards, cognitive processes). The interaction of these factors leads to
self-observation generalizations (self-statement), world-view generalizations (predicting
future and other environments), and task-approach skills (projecting into the future),
which subsequently leads to actions and choices. A counsellor influenced by this theory
would have a cognitive behavioral approach. The counsellor would facilitate clients to
assess their cognition through the examination of assumptions and presuppositions.
Counselling would be a combination of interventions including direct instruction, thought
monitoring and feedback, paradoxical intentions, and reality testing. The client and
counsellor work toward the goal of restructuring thinking and developing accurate beliefs
and adaptive decision making.
The constructivist approaches offer new perspectives in the field of career
counselling, and complement many perspectives as its roots are in many systems of
thought.
It is not a specific form of counselling with recommended techniques and
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interventions. Rather, constructivist counselling is an organizing philosophical stance
drawing on the work of theorists such as Kelly (1955), Kegan (1982), and Mahoney
(1991). Miller-Tiedeman and Tiedeman (1990); Cochran (1990); Young, Valach, &
Collin (1996); and Peavy (1992) have developed constructivist career counselling
frameworks based on these theories. The counsellor influenced by the constructivist
philosophy assists the client through the examination of themes, patterns, intentions and
stories to find central organizing meaning and purpose in both the examination and
resolution of issues.
At this point, career research is just beginning to develop knowledge and theory
about the career development of specific populations. Our understanding of the career
development of women, for example, has only recently been addressed by some of the
established theorists. A number of researchers (Fitzgerald & Weitzman, 1992; Osipow
& Fitzgerald, 1996; Walsh & Osipow, 1994) have increased our awareness of the issues
confronting women, such as: gender role and occupational stereotypes; role conflict,
complementary, and overload; gender biases in education, psychology, and counselling;
external and internalized discrimination; barriers to education occupational choice, and
career advancement; to name a few. A counsellor who has studied the unique needs of
women has also examined the external and individual facilitators to women's career
growth and thus, is better equipped to design successful interventions at either the
interpersonal level or structural level.
In a similar manner, career research and career
counselling strategies are developing for numerous special populations such as ethnic,
personÕs with disabilities, disadvantaged, and different sexual orientations. A
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counsellor working with the career development needs of these groups should be well
versed in this literature.
The future holds great promise for a deeper understanding of career development
as there is increasing recognition that our established theories contain more similarities
than differences. An increasing understanding of the complexity of career development
is emerging with the recognition of the need to address issues which affect both process
and outcome. As the controversy continues to grow around the dichotomous separation
of career counselling from personal counselling, there is an increasing recognition that the
two are very intertwined and that there is a need to deal with the "whole" individual in
career counselling (Burlew, 1992; Dorn, 1992).
As writers and researchers continue to develop their work and apply their concepts
to career interventions, our knowledge of the impact of employment and unemployment
continues to grow. Accordingly, as our understanding of the role of issues such as loss,
trauma, gender roles, dual careers, self-esteem, self-concept, change, transition, and self
as meaning-maker deepen, the expectations for the practice of career counselling continue
to rise. The practitioner who is constructing a framework from which to view career
counselling has a rich body of literature to draw from and to look forward to as our
understanding of career development continues.
SUBSECTION:
MODES OF CAREER SERVICE
Modes of Career Service
The scope of career development services within post secondary institutions is
broad, multi-level, often developmental and not confined only to the counselling office
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(Dean & Meadows, 1995; Herr & Cramer, 1992). Today, career counsellors offer direct
service delivery such as: counselling individuals, designing and delivering workshops on
a wide range of career and employment topics, teaching credit and non-credit courses,
offering lectures within academic programs, writing educational articles and books which
may be utilized in a self-help process.
The following is a more in-depth review of some
of the more common modes of career counselling service delivery. This is not meant to
be an exhaustive list of all modes of delivery.
Individual Career Counselling
Scheduled individual appointments for the purpose of career counselling has been
a cornerstone of counselling centres in colleges and universities across Canada. However,
due to budget reductions across post-secondary institutions and to counselling/career
services specifically, it is questionable if such services will be readily available for the
majority of students in the future. In an effort to offer accessible individual counselling to
the most students, some services have adopted various measures such as creating waiting
lists (which may become lengthy at times); restricting the number of sessions that
students may attend for individual counselling in an academic year (whether it be for
educational, career, or personal concerns); or including a fee-for-service option. Many
institutions do not see prospective students or alumni, or may do so only at times of the
year when there is less demand or again on a fee paying basis.
The limiting of individual counselling services means that career counsellors need
to make professional judgments as to which clients are best served by this mode of
delivery and to offer alternative forms of career counselling suitable for other clients.
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Some of the factors that counsellors may wish to consider in making this judgment could
include the severity of emotional distress of the client; other presenting personal concerns
such as low self-esteem, depression, suicidal ideation, or divorce; ability of the client to
function utilizing other modes of service delivery such as group or an independent,
self-study situation; or the client's level of indecisiveness, "a generally dysfunctional
personality orientation which may cause such choice anxiety than an individual is
rendered incapable of making a decision" (Herr & Cramer, 1992, p. 610).
Group Counselling
Group counselling is a very common form of service delivery which offers the
advantages of cost and time efficiency, students connecting with other individuals
experiencing similar concerns, networking, and resource sharing opportunities for
participants.
Group counselling programs can be designed to meet the career
development issues of students during their post-secondary education (Crozier, 1989 ).
For example, programs can be designed for beginning or prospective students who are
facing the choice of an educational program or for students who are nearing graduation to
consider the occupational alternatives they would like to focus their job search process
on. For graduating students, students seeking summer, part-time, or co-operative
education work experience employment, programs can be offered on job search strategies,
resume writing, and interviewing techniques. Some of the more frequent topics
addressed in group career counselling include: self-assessment; educational, occupational
and career exploration;
career test interpretation; decision-making styles and strategies;
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labour market information; career trends; job search strategies; resume and covering letter
writing; interview techniques; and applying for graduate education programs; to name
only a few.
Psycho-educational presentations represent one specialized form of group
counselling. These are usually more didactic, focused to a particular group or topic
(such as resume writing for technology students or occupational alternatives for education
majors), short-term (is often a single presentation), and may be offered to larger
audiences. Psycho-educational presentations provide career counsellors with an
opportunity to become known to the wider campus, to present critical information to
students which can encourage students to do further career exploration, and to focus
presentations which may need to be more generalized when dealing with a heterogeneous
audience.
Integrating Career Development into Academic Courses
The integration of career development into the curriculum for academic credit is
increasing in a number of post-secondary institutions. This has been occurring in
different ways with career counsellors being invited into courses to present and facilitate
students development in this area. Giving lectures on resume writing in a
communications or technical writing course is one example. Career counsellors at some
Canadian institutions, such as the University of Calgary or Sir Wilfred Laurier, have been
successful in offering career development courses for full academic credit.
Resource Libraries and Self-Study Information
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Books, pamphlets, audiotapes, videos, software programs, CD-Roms, Internet
access all provide additional means for the presentation of information and for the
engagement of students in a career development process. The resource center is a vital
resource to the career counsellor as it offers adjunct information that students can utilized
during the career counselling process.
Counsellors need to make informed decisions
regarding the content of the material included in a career resource library and this is often
done in conjunction with other trained paraprofessionals such as a career resource
librarian. The career resource librarian keeps up-to-date with the mass of information
being produced in this area and is also aware of student needs and requests. The career
resource center may be the first link between the student and career development
professional. Even simple requests for information can be used as a point of further
exploration which often can lead the student into a more in-depth career planning process,
if appropriate.
Technology Applications as a Means of Service Delivery
Technological applications will likely constitute a major development in the
delivery of career services in post-secondary counselling centers in the next century.
The manner in which services are offered may be radically different in a few short years.
This type of perceived change is embraced by some career practitioners and feared by
others. There are amazing new delivery methods but also limitations with this new
technology which must be considered as counsellors strive to provide effective and
ethical career counselling while integrating these new technologies into their practice.
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One of the most significant technologies which will impact career service delivery
is the Internet and Intranet systems (i.e. closed, secured systems within Institutions). It
is predicted that this type of technology application will be at the forefront of educational
design. Internet, and specifically the World Wide Web with it graphical interface, is
now being used by many post-secondary counselling services. The most basic use of the
Internet is for the advertisement of services such as individual career counselling,
workshops, programs, and career resource centers.
The following are typical services and technology applications provided on web
sites for career counselling services:
*
Name, address, phone numbers for the counselling service; professional staff
information; and career counselling services information.
*
"Frequently Asked Questions" provides useful information for typical career
counselling information-based questions.
*
Career reference materials placed on-line for viewing or downloading.
*
e-mail forms that allow for questions to be sent to a career counsellor.
*
Links to other career-related sites and referrals to appropriate listserve groups.
*
On-line registrations.
*
Sound bytes may be included in more advanced systems used in the
introduction as well as "help screens" on the systems.
*
Web-based career guidance modules, which are accessed by students either
through the Internet or an internal Intranet system.
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Rapid advances are also occurring in the development of classroom technology
which could be utilized effectively in providing credit courses in career development,
interfacing career development in existing academic programs, and, offering career
workshops or presentations. Technology and software such as PowerPoint software
with audio, video and animation capability; HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) for the
development of computerized career guidance modules; CD Rom technology; and color
overhead projectors. Computer Mediated Communication allow for a number of
individuals to be on-line at the same time in a discussion forum. This technology is
allowing for the provision of distance learning and may be utilized for offering distance
career guidance programs.
The Internet and the use of technology as a tool is not an end-point in itself. Any
powerful tool can be used for both positive and negative purposes. One of the obvious
benefits is that the use of the Internet can offer a much wider exposure to the student
population which can contribute to increased knowledge and awareness of career related
services. This technology can allow counsellors to reach specific populations that are
mobility or geographically restricted such as some students with disabilities, distance
learners, or students unable to access resources during regular office hours due to other
work and life role commitments. Career counsellors are now exploring the many uses of
the Internet as well as other new technologies in offering career services to students with
consideration given to the limitations and ethical considerations of this new form of
service delivery.
Systemic and Community Based Delivery
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Systemic level interventions include administrative and management tasks,
engaging in career-relevant research regarding post secondary student population and on
behalf of their respective institutions, designing and supervising programs which are
delivered by paraprofessional helpers, and consulting with faculty and other staff about
advising practices that intersect with career development issues. Community-based
interventions involve liaison with the employment community, participation in policy
development, advocacy for disadvantaged groups, and lobbying activities for workplace
improvements.
SUBSECTION: DELIVERY OF CAREER SERVICES
Delivery of career services involves the context of the service and the role of
career counsellors and other career development professionals and paraprofessionals.
Context
Career counselling services are provided in diverse contexts within post-secondary
institutions. Historically, career counselling has been offered from within personal
counselling units and has reflected a view that it is a specialty of personal counselling
(Wine, 1985). In some institutions, career counselling is present within employment
and/or cooperative education services. Career advising or course/educational planning is
often offered within academic departments.
It is important to recognize that the context
from which the service is offered, can color the way in which the service is
conceptualized and this has important implications for the work of career counsellors
(Wessel, 1996). At times the "home" of the career services bears no logical connection
to career development as it may have been placed within the institutional structure due to
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 23
either political or financial considerations. Locating career counselling services within
personal counselling may lead to a stronger emphasis on therapy and individual
counselling at times to the detriment of broader-scale interventions and strong
connections with employers and workplace trends. On the other hand, locating career
counselling services closer to employers may potentially have a detrimental effect by
placing the focus on employment while minimizing the significance of developing career
management and decision-making skills along with an awareness of the personal process
dimensions in career development and the uses of psychologically-based interventions.
Career counsellors can and should help to inform strategic decisions related to the
best positioning of the services by considering the advantages and disadvantages to both
the client population and the institution. For example, an argument could be made that
career counselling services appropriately reside within the academic domain of the
institution when career interventions are offered within the curriculum (Seligman, 1994).
Increasingly career counsellors are working in cross-functional teams involving other
career development professionals, paraprofessionals, academics and employment
partners.
Role
The work of career counsellors, regardless of their institutional home, is
fundamentally a complex domain. In the 1992 Canadian University and College
Counselling Association (CUCCA), Guidelines for College and University Counselling
Centres, there is recognition that "counselling centres are generally built on a broad base
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 24
of (1) career/life planning programs, (2) learning enhancement and academic support, (3)
personal and social development" (p.3). Under the Counselling Centre Personnel
section, it states the following qualifications for all professional staff, regardless of the
type of counselling which is being offered:
*
The minimal qualification for a professional staff is a master's
*
Documentation of supervised experience at the graduate level in
the
degree in a related discipli
counselling of college or university students must be
provided.
*
Professional staff must have had appropriate course work and
training in psychological a
*
Professional staff must demonstrate knowledge of principles of
program development, con
*
Professional staff should have the personal attributes which
facilitate
effective interpersonal relations and enhance the ability to communicate with a wide
*
In cases where part of a staff member's responsibility is the
supervision of other professional staff members or of graduate
student trainees, the staff m
These guidelines apply to career counselling professional staff offering one-to-one
career counselling or group career development interventions. There has been generally
consistent agreement that competent career counselling is based on a foundation of
effective general counselling skills.
Both the 1982 National Vocational Guidance
Association (NVGA) and the 1991 National Career Development Association (NCDA)
Standards Committee endorse the position that career counselling competencies begin
with general counselling skills.
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 25
In addition to general counselling skills, counsellors who specialize in career
development require specialized knowledge, expertise, and skills unique to this field. In
the 1991, NCDA competencies for career counsellors 42% of the competencies involved
general counselling skills, whereas 58% of the items covered specialized career
counselling knowledge and skills (Engels et. al., 1995). NCDA (1994) outlines
important competencies in ten designated areas for career counsellors as follows:
1. career development theory;
2. individual and group counselling skills;
3. individual and group assessment, in the area of career development
4.
specifically;
information/resources related to career planning, career decision-making,
and labour market knowledge;
5. program management and implementation, skills to develop, plan,
implement, manage and evaluate career development programs;
6. consultation, skills to impact individuals and institutions effectively in the
career counselling and career development process;
7. special populations, understanding the qualities, needs and process specific
to the career development of various populations;
8. supervision, skills in developing and assessing career counselling
professionals;
9. ethical/legal issues, knowledge of and application of standards for the
10. research/evaluation, knowledge and skills to understand and conduct
career
development research and evaluation.
ethical and legal pr
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 26
Krumboltz (1994) states, "Career counseling requires all the skills of every other type of
counseling, plus the skills in career assessment, a knowledge of the world of work, and a
command of employment resources. How is it possible that we would allow people
with the least training to engage in an activity that requires the highest level of skill?"
(p.14).
It is important to clarify and articulate the contributions which professional career
counsellors can and should make within their respective institutions to complement the
activities of others. Career counsellors participate in activities such as: counsel both
individuals and groups; interpret career inventories to promote individual assessment;
facilitate exploratory activities to increase student self, educational, occupational and
career knowledge; provide knowledge of career development theory and practice; utilize
career planning models/theories and occupational information; teach and foster
decision-making skills; develop individualized career plans; teach job search strategies
including successful resume writing, effective interviewing, and job hunting techniques;
increase understanding of the integration of work with other life roles, and offer support
to individuals experiencing personal distress due to career transition, conflict, or
indecision (NCDA, 1994). Table 1 below offers an alternative way of considering the
different levels of involvement that would be appropriate for post secondary career
counsellors within various systemic levels.
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 27
Table 1
Career Counselling Levels of Involvement
Community
System
Individual
Participation in business,
Proactive suggestions to
Through needs assessment,
institutional, and
assist administrative
empirical research, and
government forums
decision makers, in the
evaluation data, develop a
to develop public policy
design and management of
range of individual and group
related to career
the institutional response to
interventions to meet the career
development, and to
career development and
development needs of
advocate on behalf
conduct related research
mandated groups from an
of disadvantaged
to inform such decisions.
ethical and professional
groups, offering research
Advocate regarding
perspective.
and education regarding
student career development
career concerns.
needs.
Other, more generic activities, such as evaluation, research, instructional design,
marketing, and employment coaching might be shared with other professionals and
paraprofessionals.
Career counsellors working in post-secondary settings need to recognize the
necessity for multi-disciplinary relationships both within and outside of student services
to accomplish broad goals of fostering student career development by guiding and
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 28
preparing students for the world of work and life beyond. The role of the career
counsellor has been changing as new contributors have been added to the career services
offered in post-secondary institutions. The collective responsibility for life and career
development is shared with students themselves, parents, educators, employers, and
leaders in the public and private sectors (Engels et al., 1995). These career development
professionals and paraprofessionals come with various backgrounds, titles, credentials,
and levels of expertise.
Other professionals and paraprofessionals may be involved in the offering of
career related services at post-secondary institutions. Job placement specialists and
co-operative education advisors assist students to find work term placements as well as
full and part-time employment. Academic advisors, who may be either faculty or staff
facilitate students educational decision-making. Human resource specialists or
employee assistance counsellors offer career planning services to staff but some staff are
at the same time students within their own institution. Career resource librarians operate
in specialized career centers on campuses while general librarians are in charge of career
resource materials within central post secondary libraries. Librarians assist students
with finding appropriate career, employer and work force information.
Interns,
practicum students, and peer advisors offer service under the supervision of career
counsellors. Within our respective institutions it is important to dialogue with other
career service providers to arrive at an overall perspective of the different roles and tasks
associated with the institution's career development program.
SUBSECTION: ETHICS
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 29
Professional associations which certify, charter, or register members, such as
counsellors, psychologists, or social workers, have a Code of Ethics and often Guidelines
which govern the professional practice of their members. A Code of Ethics is a set of
principles which guide the ethical behaviour of its' members. Guidelines and Standards
of Practice are the behavioural statements for each of the principles which instruct
members and clearly define the minimum acceptable attitudes and behaviours of a
member of the profession.
CUCCA (Coniglio, 1996) has instructed its members to adhere to the professional
Code of Ethics for which they are a member or most closely aligned with so as to provide
protection for counsellors, clients, and employers who abide by a consistent standard of
ethical practice. Furthermore, whether the counsellors with a career specialty belongs to
a professional association or not, they should be aware that they could be judged by the
standards set out by the most appropriate professional association and should familiarize
themselves with the principles outlined in various Codes of Ethics applicable to their
practice. Clients have the right to lodge complaints about a service provider to a
professional association, an employer, or through the legal system which can result in
disciplinary or judicial action (Stewart, 1997, p. 74). Counsellors too are protected by
these Codes of Ethics which guide their behaviour when facing "moral, ethical, and legal
dilemmas in counselling" and give rationale for their decisions and actions (Schultz,
1994, p. 5). It is recommended that career counsellors determine the legal liability
coverage provided by their institution and consider carrying their own personal liability
insurance.
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 30
There is a consistency among the ethical codes of the various professional
associations which govern counsellors engaged in career counselling. Overlap and
consistency exists between the codes because the professions have similar principles and
ethicists exchange ideas and writings, thus contributing to each other's professional
growth and development.
Generally the Code of Ethics for most Canadian associations
are written broadly to govern general counselling practice and every specialty within
counselling, including career counselling. The Code of Ethics for the Canadian
Guidance and Counselling Association (1989) provides sixty-three guidelines in the
following five broad areas: professional behaviour, individual and group counselling
relationships, testing, research and publication, consulting and private practice, and
counsellor preparation and standards. The Code of Ethics of the Canadian
Psychological Association (1991) addresses four broad principles of ethical behaviour
including respect for the dignity of persons, responsible caring, integrity of relationships,
and responsibility to society. Similarly, the Canadian Association of Social Workers
(1994) Code of Ethics outlines the ethical duties, obligations, and responsibilities for
social workers in ten broad areas including the primary professional obligation; integrity
and objectivity; competence in the provision of social work services; limits on the
professional relationship; confidential information; outside interests; ethical
responsibilities to the workplace, profession and for social change. The National Board
for Certified Counsellors has developed a specialized Code of Ethics for both National
Certified Career Counsellors (National Career Development Association, 1981) and for a
paraprofessional level of Career Development Facilitator (The Council for Credentialing
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 31
and Education, 1997). Schultz (1996) developed a draft of "Career and Employment
Counsellors' Ethics" from the Canadian Guidance and Counselling Association Code of
Ethics focusing on the ethical practice of career counsellors. In addition the Canadian
Psychological Association has developed the Standards for Employment of
Paraprofessionals and Psychological Assistants (1982) which could be a useful resource
for career centers utilizing the services of paraprofessionals in the offering of career
assistance.
Reprinting these ethical codes, guidelines and standards of practice is beyond the
scope of this paper, the following principles have been selected for their particular
relevance for career counsellors who work at universities and colleges.
1. Professional Competence
Counsellors recognize the need and responsibility for high standards of
professional competency and conduct.
Counsellors need to have specialized knowledge,
expertise, and have had supervised practice in the areas where they offer service.
Specifically then, counsellors offering career counselling require specific knowledge and
expertise in the realm of career counselling (as outlined in the Subsection: Delivery of
Career Services) and need to have had supervision of their career counselling practice
either during their formal professional training or while practicing in a counselling
service. Competent practice also requires that counsellors recognize when a client's
needs and issues exceed the counsellor's boundaries of competence and professional
qualifications; counsellors refer in a timely and ethical manner. While CUCCA cannot
guide the practice of non-career counsellors, it is recommended that all those with roles in
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 32
career development intervention have professional responsibility to know their areas of
competency and an obligation to avoid practicing in areas for which they have not had
appropriate training and supervision. A recent report has drawn attention to the fact that
unsatisfactory career intervention outcomes may relate to inadequate training and
standards in providers (Conger, Hiebert & Hong-Farrell, 1994). Career counsellors
recognize that they need to continue to seek education and professional development to
ensure competent service.
2. Relationships
Counsellors respect the dignity of clients and promote their welfare, in both
individual and group counselling. This includes providing a confidential service with
informed consent as to the limits of confidentiality (in conditions such as suspected child
abuse, imminent danger to self or others, legal requirements for disclosure), disclosure
about consultation procedures and record keeping, the avoidance of dual relationships, the
possibility of referral, and dealing appropriately with the issues surrounding a client's
current involvement with another counsellor. The counsellor must take responsibility
for the confidential protection of the storage of all data related to a clients career
counselling which includes case notes, testing data, correspondence, audio or visual tape
recordings, and electronically stored data on computerized programs.
In group
counselling, the counsellor sets the norm for respecting the confidentiality of information
shared in the group.
The nature of the counselling relationship also requires the
counsellor to ensure the avoidance of stereotyping or discrimination, sexual harassment,
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 33
or counsellor's personal needs being met through inappropriate relationships with his/her
clients.
3.
Testing and Utilizing of Published/Computerized Information
Counsellors are responsible to ensure that the information they provide to clients
is accurate, unbiased, factual, and objective. When computerized software is used, the
career counsellor needs to decide the appropriateness of the program for the client's needs
and to ensure that adequate utilization and follow up procedures are provided.
Counsellors need to recognize the impact that career inventory test scores can
have in the career counselling context.
Therefore appropriate use of career inventories
requires rigorous adherence to ethical selection, administration, and interpretation
practices. Testing must be placed in the proper perspective which recognizes and
informs the client about the purpose, reliability, and validity. The counsellor also needs
to discuss the inventories strengths and limitations as they relate to meeting the client's
goals.
The Canadian Psychological Association has produced specific Guidelines for
Educational and Psychological Testing (1987) which can assist counsellors in the proper
use of testing within counselling process.
In evaluating which instrument(s) best suits the needs of a particular client
population, the career counsellor needs to consider socio-economic and ethnic factors as
well as cultural and gender biases. Again, the Illustration and Interpretation of the CPA
Guidelines for Assessment of Sex Bias and Sex Fairness in Career Inventories (CPA,
1978) could be a useful resource for career counsellors.
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 34
Ethical practice also requires that the career counsellor has achieved an acceptable
level of training to meet the professional standards for administering and interpreting the
test that is assigned to clients.
Counsellors have a responsibility to safeguard the use of
all testing materials, even if administered by a paraprofessional under the supervision of
the counsellor, and to ensure that procedures, as described in the test manuals, are
followed.
4. Research and Publication
When conducting research, ethical practices must be followed including the
voluntary, confidential participation of subjects who have informed consent.
The
reporting of this research requires a full account of the variables and conditions,
assurance of the anonymity of the participants, appropriate crediting of colleagues, and
adherence to general ethical guidelines regarding submission for publication. Most
universities and colleges will require an ethical review of any research conducted with
human subjects.
Institutions often have ethical review boards which counsellor should
seek approval from prior to beginning a research project.
5. Consulting and Private Practice
When a counsellor works for an institution and also has a private practice, it is
unethical for the counsellor to use his/her institutional affiliation to recruit clients or to
imply inaccurate sponsorship.
A counsellor's advertising for outside professional
practice must not contain false or misleading statements.
6. Internet Usage
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 35
There are a number of ethical issues surrounding the use of the Internet in
counselling (Sampson, Kolodinsky, and Greeno, 1997). The issues are multiple and
complex and only a few will be highlighted here for counsellors to consider in the use of
this technology. Confidentiality is a major concern. Even with higher levels of
encryption, there remains no guarantee of confidentiality. The sophistication regarding
software encryption (virtually unbreakable security and encoding) is not yet at a level that
most counsellors are willing to risk sensitive client information being intercepted on the
Internet.
Counsellors need to be aware of the limitations of their qualifications across
jurisdictional lines, such as provincial boundaries and national boundaries, and the ethical
provision of service within those boundaries. Clients need to become critical consumers
of career counselling services and information offered on the Internet, as no standards
have been established which govern the provision of these services. Clearly, there is an
urgent need for the development of principles, guidelines and, perhaps regulations for
providers of career counselling services using new forms of technology, such as the
Internet.
Meeting this need would both guide professional practice as well as protect
clients, employers, and individual career counsellors.
SUBSECTION: CONCLUSION
Post secondary institutions and Counselling Centres therein are experiencing a
continuing emphasis on outcome measures (Stone and Archer 1990, Johnsen, 1994).
There is a demand to demonstrate the efficacy of program interventions and counselling
services (Steenbarger & Smith, 1996). It is therefore imperative to design, implement
and follow through with measures that will capture the data required. While surveys and
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 36
statistical analysis will be required, it will be important to include other methodologies.
Specifically, it is critical to put a human face on the descriptive statistical analysis. This
can be effectively conveyed by sharing the narratives and stories of individuals whose
lives have been shaped and impacted by the interventions and the process inherent in
effective career development work. Career counselling makes a difference each day in
the lives of the students we serve. Hopefully, in the future career counselling will
continue to be a valued activity within post secondary institutions.
CUCCA
Career Counselling Position Paper, Page 37
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