Basic Principles in
Science Research
Jessamyn Marie O. Yazon
OIC, PSHS Main Campus
Edited by: Shellah Marie Tabayoyong- Cruz
Materials Science Topics
• Testing the stiffness, strength, and other properties of
materials such as wood, metal, and wire
• Analyzing and comparing different kinds of cleaning or
filtering products (for instance, the most effective
antibacterial solution)
• Testing the flammability of different textiles, such as
fabrics or construction materials
• Investigating viscosity or lubricating properties of fluids
• Learn how to make metals stronger
• Combination of materials that can make a strong paper
bag
• Fishing line strength
Materials Science Topics
• Hygrometer for hair
• Tower out of pasta
• Bacterial resistant materials and the best
disinfectant
• How can straw make a sturdy building
• Anti-magnets
• Mosquito mats
• Materials for sound barriers
• Biodegradable plastics
Some Areas/Topics for Research
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Nutrition and food production
Control of environmental pollution
Non-conventional sources of energy
Process technology
Microbiology
Natural pesticides/ insecticides
Agricultural productivity
Aquaculture
Health and medicine
Basic research
Scientific Writing
 Nature
It is a form of writing called expository
It involves a reporting and an interpretation of
facts
 Purpose
To inform or communicate new findings or
discoveries
To allow readers to perceive what the author
had in mind and be persuaded that the
interpretation presented is the correct one
Style in Scientific Writing
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Accurate
Brief
Clear
Objective
Honest
Direct
Confident
Efficient
Style in Scientific Writing
• Honest: Successes, as well as failures and
mistakes are reported
• Direct: explicit mention of what is
important and expected, no room for
various interpretations or meanings
• Confident: the writer is an authority on the
subject since he is the one who has
carried it out
• Efficient: through the use of a standard
style and format
Style in Scientific Writing
• Accurate: the facts are given without
distortion
• Brief: writer omits unnecessary words
• Clear: easily understood, no ambiguities,
misdirection or wandering
• Objective: the discussion and evaluation of
findings is made without bias
Research Paper
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•
•
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•
•
•
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Title
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Introduction
Review of Related Literature
Materials and Methods
Results and Discussion
Summary and Conclusion
Recommendations
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
PRIMARY SOURCES
(original object or document, a raw
material & first-hand information)
• historical documents
• legal documents
• eyewitness accounts
• results of experiments or
empirical studies
•statistical data found in scholarly
articles or conference papers
•interviews
•field work
•questionnaires
•surveys
SECONDARY SOURCES
(interpretation, an analysis,
comment, discourse or summary of
the original material/primary
source)
•Articles in newspapers or popular
magazines
•Documentaries
•Book or movie reviews
•Articles found in scholarly journals
that discuss/evaluate someone else’s
original study
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
TERTIARY SOURCES
(compilations or digests of factual
material, commonly understood as
reference sources)
Note: There is no clear distinction
between primary & secondary
sources.
A secondary source may be a
primary source depending on how
or why it is being used.
• almanacs
• databases and indexes
• dictionaries
•Directories
•Encyclopedias
•Websites of general interest
•Book of abstracts that belong to
this category
Tertiary sources are NOT
considered to be acceptable
material for academic researches.
Research Paper
• Title
Must reflect the factual content of the paper
Brief, accurate, and complete
• Abstract
Overviews of facts, results, conclusions and
recommendations of an article
May be written in 100 to 200 words
Research Paper
• Introduction




Background of the Study
Statement of the Problem
Significance
Scope and Limitations
 Provides the theoretical / historical background
 States how work is different to those previously done
Background of the Study
• Provides a GENERAL overview of the topic of study (1st
paragraph) to introduce the main idea(s)
• Includes clear, focused, accurate and detailed
information to understand the science investigated
during the study in the middle paragraph(s)
• Provides cited support from external resources
• Previews the experiment in the last paragraph by
summarizing the purpose and method for data collection
NOTE: 3 to 4 paragraphs; 1st paragraph(broad & general look), then
getting increasingly more specific to your own experiment in the 2 nd,
3rd or 4th paragraph. Remember NOT to use “I”, “we” “our”...
EFFECTIVENESS OF GARLIC IN FIGHTING BACTERIA
Herbs and spices have traditionally been used in
cooking as they add flavor to our food. These herbs and
spices have also been known to many cultures for their
medicinal properties. The oils that are extracted from
these spices and herbs are found to be effective in killing
bacteria and viruses. (general view of herbs& spices)
Garlic is known to have the ability to fight bacteria
and viruses. It is known to be affective against a wide
range of bacteria and also has the ability to combat the
common cold. The antimicrobial substance in garlic is
called allicin. Allicin consists of approximately 0.3% 0.5% of the garlic. To maintain the antibacterial
properties of garlic, it must be consumed or applied as
raw garlic because cooking will destroy the allicin.
(studies about garlic)
Frequent use of antibiotics causes the microbes to
develop resistance against the drugs. Studies have
shown that garlic has proven its ability to fight against
bacteria that has developed resistance to antibiotics. The
use of garlic along with other forms medication has been
also known to enhance the effectiveness of these drugs.
(studies about antibiotics)
This project was done to find out if garlic is effective
in killing bacteria. This will help us understand the
effectiveness of home remedies such as the use of
natural herbs (including garlic) for medicinal purposes.
(your own experiment)
EFFECTIVENESS OF GARLIC IN FIGHTING BACTERIA
• STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
This study aims to answer the questions:
1) Can garlic be effective in eliminating or
killing bacteria?
2) Can it prevent the further growth of
bacteria?
• HYPOTHESIS
Garlic will kill bacteria and prevent its further growth
SIGNIFICANCE OF THE
STUDY
• Creates a perspective for looking at the
problem
• Points out how your study relates to the
larger issues
• Questions:
Why is your study important?
To whom is it important?
What benefit(s) will occur if your study is done?
EFFECTIVENESS OF GARLIC IN FIGHTING BACTERIA
• This study was done to find out if garlic is
effective in killing bacteria. This will further
help one understand the effectiveness of
home remedies such as the use of natural
herbs (including garlic) for medicinal
purposes.
SCOPE and
LIMITATIONS/DELIMITATIONS
•
•
•
•
•
Includes the specific variables of the study
the location of the study
the samples
the respondents
weaknesses of the study which are
beyond the control of the researcher
Note: defines where and when the study is conducted and
who the subjects are
EFFECTIVENESS OF GARLIC IN FIGHTING BACTERIA
This study focused on the utilization of
the extract from garlic as anti-bacterial
agent on the Escherichia Coli (E. Coli)
bacteria. Experimentation was done in the
school laboratory. Safety precautions were
taken into consideration like pouring some
bleach into the petri dishes to kill all the
bacteria.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Antimicrobial – capable of destroying or inhibiting the
growth of disease-causing microorganisms
• Antibiotics – a medicine (such as penicillin or its
derivatives) that inhibits the growth of or destroys
microorganisms
• Microbe – a microorganism, especially a bacterium
causing disease or fermentation
• Bacteria – a member of a large group of unicellular
microorganisms lacking organelles and an organized
nucleus, including some that can cause disease.
DEFINITION OF TERMS
• Virus – an infective agent that typically
consists of a nucleic acid molecule in a
protein coat is too small to be seen by light
microscopy.
• Petri dish – a shallow, circular, transparent
dish with a flat lid, used for the culture of
microorganisms
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
PRIMARY SOURCES
(original object or document, a raw
material & first-hand information)
• historical documents
• legal documents
• eyewitness accounts
• results of experiments or
empirical studies
•statistical data found in scholarly
articles or conference papers
•interviews
•field work
•questionnaires
•surveys
SECONDARY SOURCES
(interpretation, an analysis,
comment, discourse or summary of
the original material/primary
source)
•Articles in newspapers or popular
magazines
•Documentaries
•Book or movie reviews
•Articles found in scholarly journals
that discuss/evaluate someone else’s
original study
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
TERTIARY SOURCES
(compilations or digests of factual
material, commonly understood as
reference sources)
Note: There is no clear distinction
between primary & secondary
sources.
A secondary source may be a
primary source depending on how
or why it is being used.
• almanacs
• databases and indexes
• dictionaries
•Directories
•Encyclopedias
•Websites of general interest
•Book of abstracts that belong to
this category
Tertiary sources are NOT
considered to be acceptable
material for academic researches.
Research Paper
• Review of Related Literature
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
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
Serves to review scientific literature
Explain choice of materials or methodology
Show rationale for investigation
Simply a compilation of results of studies on the SAME SUBJECT
MATTER as your research or subjects which is relevant to your topic.
MAIN PURPOSE: 1) analyze scientific works
2) find out how much research has been
done
3) justify the need for more studies on the topic
4) fill-in existing gaps
5) substantiate existing acts
6) get new ideas and approaches
Research Paper
• Review of Related Literature
Key to well written review of related literature: effective
NOTE TAKING
• Read one source at a time highlighting the important parts
• Use 5 x 8 index card (color-coded) *optional
• Paraphrase all information in order not to commit
plagiarism
• Avoid using abbreviations; take the information word for
word
• Each note record the following: author’s name, title of
reference (book, article, interview, etc), publication information
(publisher, place, date of publication, volume number, issue number), page
number, personal comments
Research Paper (RRL)
CITATIONS (based on the Publication Manual of
American Psychological Association – APA)
• APA-style uses the parenthetical author-year
method of citation
Research Paper (RRL)
Author’s surname followed by
the year of publication in
parenthesis is included in the
quotation or sentence.
• According to Montefalcon
(2011), the compressive
strength of hollow blocks
using green mussel shell
as partial substitute for
sand aggregate is not
directly proportional to
curing time.
Author’s
name
is
not
included in the sentence.
Author’s name followed by
the year of publication
enclosed in parenthesis is
written AFTER the sentence.
• The comprehensive
strength of hollow blocks
using mussel shelll as
partial substitute for sand
aggregate is not directly
proportional to curing
time (Montefalcon 2011)
Research Paper (RRL)
• The same format may be used if there are at
most five authors using the connective “and”
and the ampersand for the first and second
case, respectively.
Ex. The study conducted by Rustom, Badarnah, and
Barahma (2007) showed the possibility of utilizing the
recycled crushed aggregates of the construction and
demolition wastes in engineering applications in Gaza
Strip.
Research Paper (RRL)
• If the work will be cited again, them mention
only the surname of the first author followed by
the word et.al.
Ex. The study conducted by Rustom et al (2007) showed
the possibility of utilizing the recycled crushed
aggregates of the construction and demolition wastes in
engineering applications in Gaza Strip.
Research Paper (RRL)
• If the information is a DIRECT QUOTATION,
the page number must be indicated. Quotation
marks must also be used.
Ex. According to Montefalcon (2011), “the compressive
strength of hollow blocks using green mussel shell as
partial substitute for sand aggregate is not directly
proportional to curing time”. (p.25)
Note: Longer direct quotations exceeding 40 words must
be written double spaced in a free standing block
without quotation marks with the first line indented five
spaces.
EFFECTIVENESS OF GARLIC IN FIGHTING
BACTERIA
• Garlic has been used for medicinal purposes
since ancient times, all over the world. Many
cultures such as the Egyptians and the Chinese
have used garlic for these purposes. Recently,
many worldwide studies have confirmed that
garlic can reduce blood cholesterol levels. Other
studies have proven that it can shrink tumors
from cancer with diallyl disulfide (DADS), an
element found in garlic.
EFFECTIVENESS OF GARLIC IN FIGHTING
BACTERIA
•
The substance in garlic that kills the bacteria is allicin. Allicin is made up of
about 0.3% - 0.5% of the garlic. In particular, allicin destroys the growth of
microorganisms that cause disease. These are called pathogenic
microorganisms. Garlic (Allium sativum Linn.) is one of those plants that
was seriously investigated over the years. It has been used for centuries to
fight infections (Onyeagba et al.,2006). The early Egyptians used it to treat
diarrhoea, the ancient Greeks used it to treat intestinal and extraintestinal
diseases, while the ancient Japanese and Chinese used it to treat
headache, flu, sore throat and fever. In Africa, particularly in Nigeria, it is
used to treat abdominal discomfort, diarrhoea, otitis media and respiratory
tract infections (Ankri and Mirelman, 1999; Jaber and Al-Mossawi, 2007).
The phytochemical constituents of garlic have been established in previous
studies (Farbman, et al., 1993; Cavallito and Bailey, 1994; Ankri and
Mirelman, 1999; Prados-Rosales et al., 2003). The antimicrobial properties
of garlic were first described by Pasteur in 1958, and since then, research
had demonstrated its effectiveness against bacteria, protozoa, fungi and
some viruses (Jaber and Al-Mossawi, 2007)
EFFECTIVENESS OF GARLIC IN FIGHTING
BACTERIA
• Previous studies have also indicated that garlic has antineoplastic,cardiovascular,
immuno-stimulatory
and
hypoglycaemic properties (Sato and Miyata, 1999). The
development of resistance to most of the antimicrobial
agents, the emergence of newer diseases and the
resurgence of older diseases thought to be brought
under control necessitate the search for newer agents.
However, in spite of the volumes of literature describing
the usefulness of garlic in treating infections, there is
little or no work done to assess the usefulness of garlic
to fight hospital based infections. The aim of this work
was to study the effecttiveness of garlic against some
microorganisms that frequently cause nosocomial
infections in the 750-bed referral hospital.
EFFECTIVENESS OF GARLIC IN FIGHTING BACTERIA
•
Many studies have implicated Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia
coli, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa as
leading causative agents of both community and hospital acquired
infections (Amita et al.,2003; Branger et al., 2005; Oteo et al., 2005).
E. coli is found in the intestines of humans and animals. It takes a
long time to recover if one gets sick from these bacteria. Millions of
children in the world have died from persistent diarrhea due to
bacterial infections such as E. coli. Food can be infected with E. coli
due to unclean water. Many people get sick from contaminated food.
Typically, bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics. However,
numerous bacteria are becoming resistant to antibiotics. As a result,
“superbugs” are being created. A superbug is a pathogenic
bacterium that has mutated, and develops resistance to antibiotics.
In order to prevent this from happening, nutritional supplementation
might assist in battling bacteria. This study was conducted to see if
garlic could prove to be beneficial when fighting E. coli bacteria.
Research Paper
• Materials and Methods
Presentation must be in chronological order
Provide all needed details especially if new,
allows others to use your methodology
Methodology
PROCEDURE
For this experiment, the independent variable is the
composition of the test specimen. The dependent
variable is the growth of the bacteria colony. This is
determined by measuring the size of the growth using a
ruler. The constants (control variables) are the room
temperature, the amount of sunlight and the ingredients
in the petri dish agar. The petri dish prepared with blood
agar must be stored in the refrigerator. Before the start
of the experiment, remove the petri dish from the
refrigerator to allow it to reach room temperature.
Methodology
Three test specimens are made and labelled as described
below:
Specimen A – 100 ml milk is measured using the
measuring cup and poured into test tube
A. With the marker pen, label this test
tube A.
Specimen B - 100 ml milk is measured using the
measuring cup and poured into test tube
B. With the marker pen, label this test
tube B. Using a toothpick, add a small
amount of E. Coli specimen to test tube
B. Shake the test tube to mix the
specimen thoroughly.
Methodology
• Method of Research: Pure research (experimental)
• Materials
The materials required for this experiment:
3 agar petri dishes prepared with blood agar
300 ml milk
1 measurement cup (100 ml)
5 pieces garlic ground and juice extracted
(approx 5 ml)
3 test tubes
4 syringes
Escherichia coli (E. Coli) specimen
2 toothpicks
1 permanent marker pen
Methodology
Specimen C – 100 ml milk is measured using
measuring cup and poured into test
tube C. With the marker pen, label
this test tube C. Using a toothpick
add a small amount of E. Coli
specimen to test tube C. Next, add
the extracted garlic juice to test tube
C. The test tube is shaken to mix
the specimen.
The specimens in test tubes A, B and C are allowed to
incubate for 2 hours. Mark the 3 petri dishes – A, B and
C. Remove the lid and using the syringe, extract 10 ml
of the sample mixture from test tube A and place it in the
center of petri dish A.
Methodology
Use a new syringe to extract 10 ml sample from test tube
B and place it in dish B and repeat for test tube C/dish C.
Replace the petri dish lids and store the petri dishes in a
cool and shaded place. The diameter of the E. Coli
colony is measured everyday for 5 days and recorded.
Research Paper
• Results
Presentation of overall description or
summary of the experiments are their results
Data can be organized into: tables,
photographs, drawings, or graphs
Research Paper
• Discussion
Say what the results mean
Emphasize interpretation of the data
Present the principles, relationships and
generalizations shown by the results
Point out any exceptions or lack of correlation
and to try to explain these observations
Show how work agrees/does not agree with
previous work
Effect of Garlic in Killing E. Coli
bacteria
Chapter IV: Analysis and Interpretation of Data
Legend:
A – 100 ml milk
B – 100 ml milk & E. Coli
C – 100 ml milk, E. Coli & garlic extract
Graph
Interpretation of Data
• The results show that test tube B with milk
& E. Coli specimen had the largest colony
of bacterial growth whereas test tube C
with milk, the E. Coli specimen and garlic
extract did not show any signs of bacterial
growth. Test tube A showed some small
signs of contamination probably due to
contamination during the incubation
period.
Research Paper
• Summary and Conclusion
Recaps the important highlights of the study
Describes the important findings
Links the findings to the objectives of the
study (I.e. Did you achieve your goals? Did
you answer your problem?)
Conclusion
The hypothesis that the presence of garlic will kill
bacteria and prevent its growth is proven to be
true.
The antimicrobial properties of herbs and spices
are useful for medicinal purpose and also for the
preservation of food. However, it is also true
that different spices are effective in providing
resistance and protection against different types
of microbes.
Research Paper
• Recommendations
Describes how the research study can be
further improved
Discusses other related studies that can be
done in the future
A TIP:
• The secret to good writing…
is in the RE-WRITING!
Recommendation
The researchers would recommend the
following to those who would want to
repeat the experiment:
a) Boil the garlic before extracting the
garlic juice. Observe the differences
in your results.
b) Try to repeat the experiment using
onions instead of garlic
Used Cooking Oil as an Additive
Component of Candle
Abstract
The study aims to produce a low-priced, highquality candle by using used cooking oil as a
major component. The following candle
compositions were used: 100 percent paraffin
wax; 90 percent paraffin and 10 percent oil; 80
percent paraffin and 20 percent oil; 70 percent
paraffin and 30 percent oil; 60 percent paraffin
and 40 percent oil; 50 percent paraffin and 50
percent oil. The firmness, texture, and light
intensity of the candles were tested and
compared.
Used Cooking Oil as an Additive
Component of Candle
Results of the tests showed that the candle made
from 100 percent paraffin wax had the lowest
melting rate, lowest amount of melted candle,
and a light intensity of 100 candelas (cd). The
90:10 preparation had the next lowest melting
rate and amount of melted candle. The other
preparations ranked according to the proportion
of used cooking oil in the candle, with the 50:50
preparation performing least comparably with the
100 percent paraffin wax candle.
Writing the Bibliography
• Entries in the bibliography are typed
double-spaced and arrange alphabetically
according to authors’ surnames.
• Subsequent lines should be indented five
spaces from the margin.
• Each entry is separated by a double space
from the next entry.
Formats for common types of
sources of information
PRINTED SOURCES
BOOK
FORMAT
Author’s last name, first
initial. (Year of
publication). Title of
work:Capital letter also
for subtitle. (edition).
Location:Publisher
Author’s last name, first
initial., Author’s last
JOURNAL/PERIODICAL name, first initial &
Author’s last name, first
initial. (Year). Title of
article. Title of Periodical,
volume number (issue
number), pages
EXAMPLE
Silverio, A.A. (2011).
Exploring Life Through
Science:Physics. (2nd
ed.) Quezon City:
Phoenix Publishing
House.
Bogert, L.W.J. and van
Lieshout, J.J. (2005).
Non-invasive pulsatile
arterial pressure and
stroke volume changes
from the human finger.
Experimental Physiology,
90, 437-446.
Formats for common types of
sources of information
PRINTED SOURCES
ENCYCLOPEDIA/
DICTIONARY
UNPUBLISHED
DISSERTATION
FORMAT
EXAMPLE
Author’s last name, first
intial. (Date). Title of
Article. In Title of
Encyclopedia (Volume,
pages). City of
publication: Publishing
company.
Bodash, L.C. (1993).
Atom. In Grolier
Encyclopedia (2, 304310). Connecticut: Grolier
Incorporated.
Author’s last name, first
initial (Year). Title of
dissertation.
(Unpublished doctoral
dissertation.) Name of
Intstitution, Location.
Montefalcon, K. (2011). A
preliminary study on the use
of Perna Viridis (Philippine
green mussel) waste as
aggregate for non-load
bearing hollow blocks.
(Unpublished undergraduate
thesis). University of Santo
Tomas, Philippines.
Formats for common types of sources of
information
ONLINE SOURCES
e BOOK
PERIODICAL/
JOURNAL
FORMAT
EXAMPLE
Author’s last name, first
initial., (Date of
publication). Title of work.
Retrieved from full URL.
Jarell, M.A. (2001). A course
in solid state physics.
Retrieved from
http://www.phys.lsu.edu/˜jarr
el/COURSES/SOLID_STAT
E_HTML/course_solid.html
Author’s name. (Date of
publication). Title of articl.
Title of Periodical, volume
number, Retrieved month
day, year from full URL
Rustom, R., Taha, S.,
Badarnah, A., & Barahma,
H. (2007). Properties of
recycled aggregate in
concrete and road pavement
applications. The Islamic
University Journal. (Series of
Natural Sciences and
Engineering), 1 5 (2),
Retrieved from
http://www.iugaza.edu.ps/ara
/research/
Preparations for the Science Fair
Preparations for the Science Fair
• Know contest rules (e.g. poster size,
time limit for presentation, etc.) and
deadlines
• Plan and prepare poster exhibit
• Prepare and practice oral presentation
– Anticipate answers to questions
• Be ready to accept and incorporate
constructive criticisms
Tips on Poster Presentation
References
Burns R. 2000. Introduction to research methods. London. Sage
Publications.
Cruz, J. M. 1999. Scientific writing. Philippine Science High School.
Cruz, J. M and A. Chupungco. 2001. Science and technology research
manual. Philippine Science High School.
UP NISMED and DOST-SEI. 2005. Course notes in Training of trainors
in science and mathematics investigations. October 24 – 29, 2005,
UP NISMED, Diliman, Quezon City.
Silverio, A. 2011. Physics Investigatory Project. Exploring Life Through
Science. Second Edition.
Acknowledgement
Ms. Karen U. Hipol