Letting The Radio Station Work for You
MCOM 150 - Introduction to Radio
Study Guide
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Study Guide for
The Radio Station, 5th ed.
by Michael C. Keith
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: State of the Fifth Estate………………………………………………
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Chapter 2: Station Management………………………………………………….
13
Chapter 3: Programming………………………………………………………….
17
Chapter 4: Sales……………………………………………………………………
21
Chapter 5: News……………………………………………………………………
26
Chapter 6: Research………………………………………………………………..
30
Chapter 7: Promotion……………………………………………………………… 32
Chapter 8: Traffic and Billing……………………………………………………..
35
Chapter 9: Production……………………………………………………………… 36
Chapter 10: Engineering…………………………………………………………… 41
Chapter 11: Consultants and Syndicators…………………………………………. 44
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Chapter 1: State of the Fifth Estate
IN THE AIR – EVERYWHERE
1. radio most pervasive medium on earth
a. nearly a billion working radios in U.S.
b. average adult listens to radio 2.25 hours each day
c. number of receivers in U.S. up by more than 50% since 1970
2. radio’s universal appeal
a. source of entertainment, companionship, info
A HOUSEHOLD UTILITY
1. radio relatively recent invention
2. “father of radio” debate
a. candidates include Maxwell, Hertz, Marconi, Tesla, DeForest, Fleming,
Fessenden, Sarnoff
b. Guglielmo Marconi devised “wireless telegraphy”
c. David Sarnoff’s “radio music box” memo supposedly suggested mass-producing
radio receivers for home use
A TOLL ON RADIO
1. Dept. of Commerce sets aside 2 frequencies for radio – 1922
2. first station owners were receiver manufacturers, department stores, newspapers,
colleges
3. first paid announcement aired on WEAF in New York
4. age of commercial radio launched
BIRTH OF THE NETWORKS
1. radio stations begin chain broadcasting – 1922
2. first network RCA’s National Broadcasting Company (NBC) – 1926
3. Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) – 1928
4. Mutual Broadcasting System – 1934
5. American Broadcasting Company (ABC) – 1945
6. today most radio networks owned by major corporations (GE, Disney, Westinghouse,
Westwood One)
CONFLICT IN THE AIR
1. radio’s growth, with lack of sufficient regulations & inadequate broadcast band, led to
overlapping signals & widespread interference
2. National Radio Conferences (1922-1925) asked for limitations
3. Radio Act of 1927
a. formed Federal Radio Commission (FRC)
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i. issue station licenses
ii. allocate frequency bands
iii. assign frequencies to individual stations
iv. dictate station power & hours of operation
b. FRC established Standard Broadcast band (500-1500 kc)
RADIO PROSPERS DURING THE DEPRESSION
1. escapist fare
2. provided free to the listener
3. “Amos ‘n’ Andy” most popular radio show in history
4. President Roosevelt’s “fireside chats”
5. Communications Act of 1934
a. established Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
RADIO DURING WORLD WAR II
1. FCC imposed wartime freeze on construction of new broadcast outlets
2. existing AM stations prospered
3. programs centered on War concerns
TELEVISION APPEARS
1. TV initiated after World War II
2. TV #1 entertainment medium by 1950
3. radio profits declined, networks lost prominence
A NEW DIRECTION
1. Bell Laboratory scientists invent the transistor – 1948
a. miniature portable receivers enhance radio’s mobility
2. prerecorded music became radio’s mainstay
RADIO ROCKS AND ROARS
1. deejay Alan Freed coins term “rock ‘n’ roll” – mid-1950s
2. Top 40 format synonymous with rock music & teens
3. rock stations led most competitors by 1960
FM’S ASCENT
1. Edwin Armstrong develops static-free alternative to AM – 1938
2. construction on FM stations begins – 1946
3. FCC authorizes stereo broadcasting on FM – 1961
4. FCC limits AM/FM simulcasting – 1965
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5. FM’s audience appeal evolved
a. classical & soft music – 1950s-early 1960s
b. Gordon McLendon’s Beautiful Music first popular format
c. progressive format focused on album cuts
6. FM achieves parity with AM – 1979
7. FM attracts 80% of audience – late 1980s
AM STEREO
1. FCC authorizes AM stereocasting – early 1980s
2. FCC doesn’t declare technical standard, resulting in slow conversion
3. FCC declares Motorola industry standard – early 1990s
NONCOMMERCIAL RADIO
1. more than 1,500 stations operate without direct advertiser support
2. 88-92 MHz reserved on FM band for noncommercial facilities
3. Corporation for Public Broadcasting established – 1967
4. National Public Radio (NPR)
a. provides funding & programming to member stations
b. more than 12 million listeners
5. categories of “noncom” stations
a. public
b. educational/college (holding more than 800 licenses)
c. community
d. religious
PROLIFERATION AND FRAG-OUT
1. specialized programming (narrowcasting) salvaged radio – early 1950s
2. today more than 100 format variations
3. frag-out refers to fragmentation of audience due to numerous formats
PROFITS IN THE AIR
1. radio garners 7% of all advertising revenue
2. 70% of radio’s revenues come from local spot sales
3. AM daytimers least profitable
ECONOMICS AND SURVIVAL
1. economic downturn – early 1990s
a. highly leveraged transactions (HLTs)
b. radio property values down
c. cash flow problems, budget cuts
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2. local marketing agreements (LMAs) provided broadcasters a means for functioning in
joint operating ventures
CONSOLIDATION AND DOWNSIZING
1. economic upturn – by mid-1990s
2. FCC relaxed ownership caps & duopoly rules
3. consolidation of operations reduced expenses
4. concerns about downsizing
a. fewer jobs available
b. more generalization, less specialization
c. fear a loss of programming diversity
BUYING AND SELLING
1. brokerage firms handle the sale of many radio stations
a. brokers receive 7-8% commission
2. auctions seen by some as last resort to get rid of profitless stations
3. active trading of stations, some prices exceeding several million dollars
DAB REVOLUTION
1. radio soon to be broadcast digitally
2. digital audio broadcasting makes AM/FM outmoded systems
3. DAB first proposed on L-Band, then on S-Band
4. U.S. favors in-band on-channel (IBOC) to retain local nature of radio
5. DAB provides significant improvement in signal quality
CABLE AND SATELLITE RADIO
1. radio broadcasters have wary eye on cable & satellite audio services
a. direct-to-consumer alternative
b. already available in digital sound
2. subscriber music services diverse, commercial-free
INTERNET RADIO
1. Internet radio hot new medium, potential revenue stream
2. thousands of radio stations have Web sites
a. listeners access programming, interact with station
3. many stations streaming audio over Internet
4. wide-area datacasting foreseen
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MICRO-RADIO
1. low-power stations may become another radio service
RADIO AND GOVERNMENT REGULATIONS
1. radio as unique instrument for public good
2. first communication for ships at sea
a. sinking Titanic’s distress signal picked up – 1912
3. Radio Act of 1912 to license wireless stations & operators
4. Radio Act of 1927 first approached radio as mass medium
5. Communications Act of 1934 to ensure efficient use of airways
6. FCC establishes Fairness Doctrine for opposing viewpoints – 1949
7. significant deregulation under President Reagan
8. FCC eliminates Fairness Doctrine – 1987
9. Telecommunications Act of 1996 all but eliminated ownership caps
JOBS AND EQUALITY IN RADIO
1. radio industry employs more than 90,000 people
2. opportunities for women & minorities greater than ever
a. men outnumbered women 4 to 1 in 1975, but changed today
3. proper training & education needed to go into field
4. practical, hands-on experience valuable
5. entry-level positions have dues-paying period to learn the ropes
Chapter 2: Station Management
NATURE OF THE BUSINESS
1. station manager must deal with broad mix of people
a. frequent turnover of on-air personnel
b. sales dept. may experience some turnover
c. administrative & technical staffs fairly stable
2. manager’s concern for compliance with government rules & regulations
3. station must adapt to audience’s changing needs & tastes
THE MANAGER AS CHIEF COLLABORATOR
1. theories of management style
a. manager as sole authority
b. manager as collaborator or senior advisor
c. manager as both coach & team player, or chief collaborator
i. broadcast managers tend to favor this hybrid approach
ii. Christian, Bongarten quotes
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2. need to establish connectedness among employees
3. establish authority, then serve as collaborator
4. direct as well as seek input
WHAT MAKES A MANAGER
1. formal education plus practical experience
a. college degree in communications or business
b. experience in all areas of station operation, especially sales
2. most managers advance from sales, fewer from programming
THE MANAGER’S DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
1. station manager’s primary objectives
a. operate in a manner that generates the most profit
b. maintain positive & productive attitude among station employees
2. Campbell: “...make the customer happy, get your people involved, and get rid of
departmental waste and unnecessary expenditures. A station should be a lean and
healthy organism.”
3. roughly 90% of radio stations are owned by companies or corporations to which the
manager must answer
4. key managerial functions
a. formulate & implement station policy
b. hire & retain good people
c. control station’s finances
d. ensure quality, competitive air product
e. stay informed, anticipate future trends
5. Bremkamp: “Protect the license and turn a profit.”
ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE
1. clustering & consolidation change personnel landscape, as radio groups often
concentrate operation of several stations in one center
2. operations manager
a. second to general manager in authority
b. operations manager duties
i. supervise administrative staff
ii. help formulate & implement station policy
iii. handle departmental budgeting
iv. keep abreast of government rules & regulations
v. act as community liaison, maintain station’s “good guy” image
3. program director duties
a. develop & execute format
b. hire & manage air staff
c. schedule airshifts
d. monitor station to ensure consistent, quality air product
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e. keep abreast of competition, trends affecting programming
f. maintain music library
g. comply with FCC rules & regulations
h. direct the efforts of news & public affairs areas
4. sales manager duties
a. direct the sale of commercial airtime to generate station income
b. supervise sales staff
c. work with rep company to attract national advertisers
d. assign account lists to salespeople
e. establish sales quotas
f. coordinate on-air & in-store sales promotions
g. develop sales materials, rate cards
5. chief engineer duties
a. operate station within FCC technical parameters
b. purchase, repair, maintain equipment
c. monitor signal fidelity
d. adapt studios for programming needs
e. set up remote broadcasts
f. work closely with programming dept.
HUMAN RESOURCES
1. management of station personnel one of manager’s greatest challenges
2. today concerns include sexual harassment; job discrimination; hostile work
environment; disabilities acts; race, religion, gender issues
3. get attorney’s help with rules & laws
a. have employee manual written to establish policies
b. review with management staff & all employees
c. document everything regarding an employee complaint
WHOM MANAGERS HIRE
1. consider education, work experience, personality
2. seek qualities such as ambition, positive attitude, stability & reliability, humility,
honesty & candor, self-respect, patience, enthusiasm, discipline, creativity, logic,
compassion
3. Shank quote on prima donnas
THE MANAGER AND THE PROFIT MOTIVE
1. radio provides entertainment to the public; in turn, sells the audience it attracts to
advertisers
2. manager answerable to station’s owner, listeners, sponsors
3. Shane: “The new radio paradigm is ‘manager as financial expert.’”
4. pursuit of profit requires using best-selling format
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5. dilemma: produce high quality & profit simultaneously
THE MANAGER AND THE COMMUNITY
1. 1980s deregulation reduced ascertainment requirements
2. smaller market stations must still keep community ties
3. importance of goodwill, civic-minded image
a. manager actively involved in community
b. devotes airtime to community issues & events
THE MANAGER AND THE GOVERNMENT
1. protecting the license means adhering to FCC regulations
2. manager delegates responsibility to appropriate dept. heads, but remains ultimately
responsible for compliance
3. Title 47, Part 73, of Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) contains all rules &
regulations pertaining to radio broadcast operations
a. CFR published annually
b. Federal Register consulted monthly for CFR changes
4. FCC may inspect a radio station any time during normal business hours
THE PUBLIC FILE
1. FCC requires radio stations to maintain Public File of info pertaining to how station
has conducted itself during a license period
a. readily available to public & FCC
b. kept up-to-date
THE MANAGER AND UNIONS
1. most active unions in radio
a. American Federation of Television & Radio Artists (AFTRA)
b. National Assoc. of Broadcast Employees & Technicians (NABET)
c. International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers (IBEW)
2. shop steward acts as liaison between union (employees) & management
3. unions most prevalent in major markets
THE MANAGER AND INDUSTRY ASSOCIATIONS
1. National Association of Broadcasters (NAB)
a. largest broadcast industry trade organization
b. originally conceived to improve operating conditions – 1920s
c. supports & promotes industry stability & development
d. annual conferences & seminars
2. Radio Advertising Bureau (RAB)
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a. founded in 1951
b. sales & marketing arm of commercial radio
3. Broadcasting Yearbook definitive industry directory
BUYING OR BUILDING A RADIO STATION
1. FCC checks would-be station owner’s background
a. must be U.S. citizen
b. no criminal record
c. financially stable
d. solid personal & professional history
2. purchaser should employ broker or attorney
3. due diligence process to “obtain information that will (a) influence the decision of
whether or not to proceed with the acquisition; and (b) have an effect on the purchase
price or working capital adjustment”
4. construction permit (CP) application required to build a new station
APPENDIX: CODE OF FEDERAL REGULATIONS INDEX
NORMAN FEUER, WARD QUAAL, PAUL FIDDICK FEATURE BOXES
Chapter 3: Programming
PROGRAM FORMATS
1. aim: to air popular format to attract enough audience to satisfy advertisers
2. most popular formats
a. Adult Contemporary (A/C)
i. strong in 25 to 49 age group, especially among women
ii. demographic group with disposable income attracts advertisers
iii. current (since 1970s) pop standards with some ballads & easy listening; no
hard rock
iv. mostly music, in 10- to 12-minute sweeps/blocks
v. clustered commercials
b. Contemporary Hit Radio (CHR)/Top 40
i. only current, fast-selling hits
ii. narrow playlist draws teens, young adults
iii. swift pace, decreased deejay presence
iv. minimal news
v. promotions, contests popular
vi. some have redirected playlists to create Modern Hits sound
c. Country
i. most popular, fastest growing format
ii. more prevalent in South & Midwest
iii. attracts broad listening demographic
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d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
iv. several variations within the format
v. more than 2,600 stations air some form of country music
Easy Listening
i. evolved from Beautiful Music stations of 1960s & 1970s
ii. “wall-to-wall” instrumentals & soft vocals of established songs
iii. minimal talk, except news & info during drivetime
iv. many stations automated, use prepackaged programming
v. primary audience over age 50
vi. following dwindled in recent years due to softer A/C formats
Album-Oriented Rock (AOR)/Modern Rock
i. stations began in mid-1960s to counter Top 40
ii. nonchart rock album cuts in sweeps; large airplay library
iii. attracts males 18 to 34, but not many female listeners
iv. minimal news
v. promotions relevant to listeners’ interests, attitudes
vi. Alternative, Classic rock stations have cut into AOR numbers
News and/or Talk
i. All-News
(1) rotates blocks of local, regional, national news & features
(2) requires 3 to 4 times the staff & budget of music operations
ii. All-Talk
(1) combines discussion & call-in shows
(2) primarily medium & major market format
(3) popular with a broad audience
(a) large following among blue-collar workers & retirees
iii. News/Talk hybrid format popular
iv. primarily on AM, but nonmusic formats increasing on FM
v. All-Sports format has boosted popularity of nonmusic radio
FM Talk
i. primary audience age 25 to 44, younger than AM talk
ii. personality driven (Howard Stern, for example)
iii. minimal news, main focus is entertainment
iv. short segments covering variety of issues
v. youthful sound from “bumper music” played to intro segments
Classic/Oldies/Nostalgia
i. music from years gone by
ii. Nostalgia/Big Band
(1) tunes popular as far back as 1940s & pre-rock 1950s
(2) highly syndicated
(3) mostly on AM, since most of the music predates stereo
(4) music sweeps, low-profile deejays
(5) audience tends to be over age 50
iii. Oldies
(1) pop tunes of late 1950s & 1960s
(2) listeners age 30 to 50
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i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
(3) few automated outlets, most originate own programming
(4) air personalities play key role
(5) commercials randomly placed, songs spaced for deejay patter
iv. Classic/Vintage
(1) Classic Rock concentrates on tunes featured by AOR stations over past 2
decades
(2) Classic Hit fills gap between Oldies & CHR with playlists drawn from
1970s & 1980s Top 40
Urban Contemporary (UC)
i. “melting pot” format attracts Hispanic, Black, white listeners
ii. stations usually located in metropolitan areas
iii. upbeat, danceable sound with hip, friendly, energetic deejays
iv. music sweeps, long cuts, remixes
v. target audience age 18 to 34
vi. contests, promotions important program elements
Classical
i. fewer than 3 dozen full-time commercial Classical outlets in U.S.
ii. first & foremost an FM format
iii. loyal, upscale audience
(1) 25 to 49 years old
(2) higher income
(3) college-educated
iv. longer news blocks
v. conservative, straightforward air sound; little announcer presence
Religious
i. on radio since inception of medium
ii. typically follows 1 of 2 programming approaches
(1) includes life-affirming, Christian contemporary music
(2) instead of music, concentrates on inspirational features, complementary
talk & informational shows
iii. most prevalent on AM
Ethnic (Black & Hispanic)
i. more than 300 Black-oriented stations
(1) today some efforts to broaden demographic base
(2) old line R&B, gospel stations still exist mostly in South
ii. Hispanic/Spanish-language stations
(1) mostly in cities with large Latin populations
(2) anticipated growth on AM band
iii. broadcasts for other minority groups, including American Indians, Eskimos &
Asians, as well as foreign-language programming
Middle-of-the-Road (MOR)
i. “not too anything” format tries to be “all things to all people”
ii. dwindling appeal due to rise of more specialized formats
iii. predominantly over-40 age demographic
iv. home of the on-air personality
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v. lengthy blocks of news & sports during drivetime
vi. with few exceptions, an AM format
n. Niche Formats
i. rise in Alternatives focused on narrower demographic segments
ii. All-Children’s Radio one of more successful niches
THE PROGRAMMER
1. most program directors (PDs) evolve from deejays with music/ production/ news
experience
2. Murphy quote about PD qualifications
3. Cortese quote about value of formal education
THE PROGRAM DIRECTOR’S DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
1. PD responsible for everything that is aired
2. often hired to match predetermined format
3. duties
a. establish programming & format policy, oversee execution
b. hire & supervise on-air, music, production personnel
c. plan various schedules
d. handle programming budget
e. develop promotions
f. monitor station & competitors
g. assess research
h. accountable for news, public affairs, sports delegated to news director
i. may even pull an air shift
4. effectiveness measured by ratings in large markets, sales in small markets
a. Fatherly quote on PD’s vulnerability to ratings
ELEMENTS OF PROGRAMMING
1. PD ensures effective, strategic presentation of on-air ingredients (music,
commercials, news, promos, weather, etc.)
2. determines content of each sound hour to enhance flow, optimize impact
3. program wheels/clocks guide air people (see samples in textbook)
a. clocks set up with competition, market factors in mind
b. even News/Talk stations need program clocks
c. Mitchell quote on fluctuating importance of deejays
THE PROGRAM DIRECTOR AND THE AUDIENCE
1. purpose of format: to win a desirable segment of radio audience
2. demographics refer to audience traits (age, sex, income, etc.)
a. cells are particular areas of strength (such as females over age 30)
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3. PD must adjust programming to lifestyle activities of target audience
a. survey info & research data
i. psychographic research
b. develop a feel for day-to-day life in the area
THE PROGRAM DIRECTOR AND THE MUSIC
1. PD ultimately responsible for music aired, even if there is a music director
2. stations seldom pay for music; get demos
3. must pay annual licensing fees for privilege of airing recorded music
a. ASCAP (American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers)
b. BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc.)
c. SESAC (Society of European Stage Authors and Composers)
4. all music is screened
a. if appropriate, categorized & indexed in music library
b. at computerized stations, airplay frequency or rotation also entered
THE PROGRAM DIRECTOR AND THE FCC
1. FCC on-air rules govern program content & certain features
a. station ID once an hour with call letters, authorized broadcast location
b. off-color language, lyrics
c. political messages, editorials
d. contests, promotions
e. advertising accuracy
f. no false, misleading, deceptive statements
2. PD concerns relative to government regulations
a. abide by license renewal programming promises
b. help maintain station’s Emergency Alert System (EAS)
c. instruct personnel in proper procedures for on-air phone conversations
d. check Station Log, program log, operator permit postings, sometimes Public File
e. adhere to equal employment opportunity & affirmative action rules
THE PROGRAM DIRECTOR AND UPPER MANAGEMENT
1. job depends on satisfying audience, government, air staff, management
2. Fatherly quote on GM-PD relationship problems
Chapter 4: Sales
COMMERCIALIZATION: A RETROSPECTIVE
1. selling commercials keeps radio stations on the air
2. most radio outlets sold airtime by mid-1920s
3. program sponsorships were most popular early form of advertising
4. television replaced radio as top entertainment source – early 1950s
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a. advertisers jumped to TV; radio sales down
b. radio revamped programming; more localized
5. thousands of new radio outlets – 1950-1970
a. increased competition for advertisers
b. specialized programming attracted different advertisers
6. today ad dollars spent on spots aired during specific dayparts & on stations that attract
type of audience advertiser wants to reach
SELLING AIRTIME
1. radio auditory only; newspaper & magazine visual; TV audiovisual
2. an effective radio commercial makes a strong & lasting impression on the mind of the
listener
3. Friedman quote on airtime as intangible
4. results of a good radio advertising campaign offset intangibility
BECOMING AN ACCOUNT EXECUTIVE
1. must salesperson have an innate gift to sell?
2. studies show 70-73% of salespeople hired leave business in 1-3 years
3. majority of new account execs have college education
a. understanding of research methods, marketing, finance is important
b. Bremkamp quote on need for college training
4. Turley quote on need to understand medium being sold
5. Friedman quote on benefit of sales experience
6. characteristics of successful salespeople
a. ambition, confidence, energy, determination, honesty, intelligence, good
grooming
b. Etheridge quote on ambition as cornerstone of success
c. Friedman quote on people orientation
7. today many on-air &programming people shift to sales as avenue to station
management
a. advantage of programming people in sales: they have a practical under-standing
of product being sold
b. sales background still most preferred
8. salespeople can be among best-paid at station
THE SALES MANAGER
1. responsible for selling of spot & feature schedules to advertisers
2. duties
a. direct account executives
b. establish sales dept. policies
c. develop sales plans & materials
d. conceive campaigns & promotions
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3.
4.
5.
6.
e. set quotas
f. also may sell
reports directly to general manager
works closely with program director to develop salable features
deals with rep company to secure national advertisers
must keep abreast of local, national sales & marketing trends
RADIO SALES TOOLS
1. rate card (see samples in textbook)
a. lists fees for airtime
i. depend on size of station’s listenership (share of market)
ii. unit cost affected by quantity of airtime purchased
iii. rates affected by daypart purchased & by rotations
(1) dayparts range from highest-costing AAA (typically 6:00 to 10:00 a.m.
weekdays) to C (usually midnight to 6:00 a.m.)
(2) fixed-position drivetime spots among most expensive
(3) rotation means “orbiting” announcements within time periods to reach
different listeners, a wider audience
b. typically also addresses other topics affecting a sale
i. terms of payment, commission
ii. nature of copy, when due at station
iii. frequency discounting
iv. rate protection
v. feature & spot rates
c. many stations use grid structure allowing for rate flexibility
i. inventory-sensitive; station remains viable when business is slow
2. spot schedule plans
a. run-of-station (ROS) or best-time-available (BTA)
i. mixed airtime, no guarantee as to when spots aired
ii. lower rates
b. total audience plan (TAP)
i. distribute spots throughout day for maximum audience penetration
ii. rate is average cost for time classifications used
c. time in flights is an on-and-off pattern of spot scheduling
POINTS OF THE PITCH
1. first call: to introduce station, determine advertiser’s needs
2. follow-up calls: to offset reservations, improve proposal
a. perseverance is essential
3. closing: to finalize the sale
4. Do (suggestions conducive to positive sales experience)
a. Research advertiser. Be prepared. Have a relevant plan in mind.
b. Be enthusiastic. Think positive.
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c. Display self-confidence. Believe in self & product.
d. Smile. Exude friendliness, warmth, sincerity.
e. Listen. Be polite, sympathetic, interested.
f. Tell of station’s successes. Provide testimonial material.
g. Think creatively.
h. Know your competition.
i. Maintain integrity, poise.
j. Look your best. Check your appearance.
k. Be objective, keep proper perspective.
l. Pitch the decision maker.
m. Ask for the order that will do the job.
n. Service account after the sale.
5. Don’t (things that will have negative or counterproductive effect)
a. Pitch without a plan.
b. Criticize, demean client’s previous advertising efforts.
c. Argue with client. This just creates greater resistance.
d. Badmouth competition.
e. Talk too much.
f. Brag, be overly aggressive.
g. Lie, exaggerate, make unrealistic promises.
h. Smoke, chew gum in front of client.
i. Procrastinate, put things off.
j. Be intimidated, kept waiting an unreasonable amount of time.
k. Make presentation unless you have client’s undivided attention.
l. Lose your temper.
m. Ask for too little. Never undersell a client.
n. Fail to follow up.
o. Accept a “no” as final.
LEVELS OF SALES
1. retail
a. more than 70% of industry sales
b. direct contact with individual advertisers within signal area
2. local
a. advertising agencies representing businesses in market area
b. top billers often get best agencies
c. lower commission percentage, but larger buys than retail
3. national
a. station’s rep company
b. usually covered by general sales manager
c. buys from advertising agencies that handle national accounts
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SPEC TAPES
1. fully produced hypothetical commercial used as a selling tool
a. break down client resistance on callbacks
b. reactivate interest of former clients
c. motivate clients to increase spot schedules
2. should directly appeal to needs, perceptions of would-be advertiser
OBJECTIVES OF THE BUY
1. frequency & consistency of spots determine results
2. sufficient commercials, placed properly, so advertiser achieves objectives
3. underselling as self-defeating as overselling
4. Piro quote on getting the order that will do the job
PROSPECTING AND LIST BUILDING
1. new salespeople often given inactive/dormant account list
2. list building sources to prospect for new business
a. in-person calls, presentations
b. newspapers
c. Yellow Pages
d. television stations
e. competing radio outlets
f. Internet, e-mail
g. newly opened businesses
3. “open” accounts (those not already “declared” by another rep at station) can be added
to list with sales manager’s approval
PLANNING THE SALES DAY
1. 75 to 100 in-person calls per week
2. daily call sheet must be carefully planned, organized
a. logically sequence, centralize businesses to be contacted
b. Gregory quote on sticking to itinerary
3. Friedman quote on using telephone to avoid wasted time
SELLING WITH AND WITHOUT NUMBERS
1. small market salespeople rely on station reputation, not ratings
2. easy to sell top-rated station through numbers
3. without ratings numbers, more personal appeal needed
a. “work the street” focusing on direct business
b. develop programming to attract targeted clients
c. Gregory quote on selling without numbers
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ADVERTISING AGENCIES
1. agencies annually account for hundreds of millions in radio ad dollars
2. today nearly 2,000 agencies use radio advertising
3. media buyers at national agencies deal with station & network reps rather than
directly with stations
4. basically 3 types of agencies
a. full-service agencies provide complete range of research, marketing, production
services
b. modular agencies provide specific services
c. in-house agencies handle advertising needs for own business
REP COMPANIES
1. industry’s middlemen, extension of sales dept.
2. convince national media buyers to advertise on stations they represent
3. sales manager must keep rep informed about station & market
4. approximately 100 reps handle more than 9,000 U.S. commercial stations
5. reps have expanded into additional services such as programming & management
consultancy
CO-OP SALES
1. more than $600 million in radio revenue from co-op advertising
2. retailer & manufacturer share promotion expenses
TRADE-OUTS
1. exchange of advertising airtime for a merchant’s goods or services
a. rather than pay for needed items
b. to obtain something of value for unsold airtime
RALPH GUILD FEATURE BOX
Chapter 5: News
NEWS FROM THE START
1. rebroadcast of Titanic’s distress message in 1912 made public aware of wireless
telegraphy
2. 1920 broadcast of Harding-Cox election results was historical benchmark
3. broadcast journalism evolved slowly in 1920s
4. fearing competition, newspapers imposed a blackout on selling news to radio outlets
in 1932; radio forced to provide its own news sources
26
5. United Press (UP), International News Services (INS), Associated Press (AP) agreed
to sell news to radio in late 1934, ending blackout
6. after advent of TV, radio stations shifted to local news emphasis
a. less reliance on news networks
b. creation of station news dept.
7. radio still first outlet for up-to-the-minute news
NEWS AND TODAY’S RADIO
1. although most listen primarily for music, many also rely on radio for news
2. more than TV or newspapers, radio is first morning news source for 2/3 of working
women & more than 50% of young adults
THE NEWSROOM
1. size of news staff varies by station size & format
2. “rip ‘n’ read” means relying on wire service for news copy, a common practice at
small stations with no newspeople
3. large news staffs may consist of newscasters, writers, street reporters, tech people,
stringers, interns
4. drivetimes primarily news blocks because audience at maximum
THE ALL-NEWS STATION
1. All-News format arrived in mid-1960s
2. primarily metro market endeavor because of high operating cost
3. prevalent on AM
THE ELECTRONIC NEWSROOM
1. newsroom computerization began in 1980
2. links to wire & info services to access primary & background data
3. newscasters read from video display terminals (VDTs)
4. copy composed, stored on desktop computers
THE NEWS DIRECTOR
1. duties
a. develop & implement news policies
b. supervise news staff
c. handle budget
d. get news out rapidly & accurately
e. gathering local news is most time-consuming task
f. often responsible for public affairs programming
2. needs college education, several years’ experience
27
3. works under program director
WHAT MAKES A NEWSPERSON
1. broadcasting, journalism, or liberal arts degree a definite asset
2. experience may be even more valuable than education
a. Jewett, Smith quotes
b. news experience more difficult to gain than deejay experience
c. work in news at high school, college station
d. intern at commercial station
3. other assets
a. enthusiasm, aggressiveness, energy, inquisitiveness
b. typing, computer skills
c. firm command of English language, writing ability
d. knowledge of local area
e. good announcing abilities
PREPARING THE NEWS STORY
1. clean copy is imperative; news stories must be legible, intelligible, designed for
effortless reading
2. Do’s for copy preparation
a. Type neatly.
b. Use UPPERCASE throughout.
c. Double space between lines.
d. Use 1" margins.
e. Avoid abbreviations except for those meant to be read as such.
f. Write out numbers less than 10; use numerals for 10 to 999; spell out thousand,
million, etc.
g. Use phonetic spelling for words that are difficult to pronounce, underline the
stressed syllable.
h. Punctuate properly.
i. When in doubt, consult a style guide or newswriting handbook.
3. radio writing more conversational, informal than when printed
a. immediately comprehensible
b. simple, direct, concise
c. well structured, organized
i. journalists’ 5 W’s – who, what, when, where, why
4. proper attribution for quotes is essential
ORGANIZING THE NEWSCAST
1. news commonly presented in 5-minute blocks aired at top or bottom of hour
2. stories arranged in order of importance, most significant first
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3. actualities (on-the-scene voicers) taped from news service feeds or recorded by
station personnel at the scene
4. newspeople should read copy before going on air
THE WIRE SERVICES
1. radio stations rely on wire services for national, international news
2. Associated Press (AP), United Press International (UPI) largest
a. today serve more than 7,500 broadcast outlets
b. around-the-clock coverage
c. more than 100,000 stringers furnish stories
RADIO NETWORK NEWS
1. by mid-1960s, majority of stations used 1 of 4 major networks (ABC, MBS, NBC,
CBS) for news programming
2. ABC provides 4 distinct formats to match station programming
3. MBS launched 2 minority news networks (Black & Spanish) in 1971
4. MBS went off the air in 1999 due to financial difficulties
5. ABC, NBC, CBS continue to dominate
RADIO SPORTSCASTS
1. sports most commonly reported as element within newscast
2. adult-oriented (especially MOR) stations offer more sports
3. Colletto quote about good sportscaster as participant
4. sports frequently delivered in casual, even opinionated manner
5. stories often contain colorful colloquialisms, slang
6. sportscasters are personalities
RADIO NEWS AND THE FCC
1. greater government control of broadcast media than print
2. FCC expects broadcasters to operate in the public interest, reporting news factually &
in balanced, impartial manner
3. although protected under First Amendment, broadcasters making reckless or false
statements are subject to both civil libel suits & FCC charges
NEWS ETHICS
1. dangers of trying to be first with the story at all costs
2. accuracy is newsperson’s first criterion
3. reporters must exercise discretion & sensitivity in newsroom, on the scene
4. objectivity is the cornerstone of good reporting
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TRAFFIC REPORTS
1. integral part of drivetime news programming at many metro radio stations
a. strengthen station’s community service image
b. generate substantial revenue
NEWS IN MUSIC RADIO
1. FCC no longer requires all stations to broadcast news & public affairs
2. industry expert quotes debating decline of news programming
Mid-Semester Exam covers material in Chapters 1 through 5.
Chapter 6: Research
WHO IS LISTENING
1. surveys conducted to determine most popular radio stations, programs with various
audience groupings
2. Cooperative Analysis of Broadcasting (CAB) conducted first audience survey by
telephone – 1929
3. C.E. Hooper, Inc. used “coincidental” telephone method to reach actual listeners –
1938
4. The Pulse conducted face-to-face interviews
5. Office of Radio Research (ORR) established – 1937
a. funded by Rockefeller Foundation
b. published reports on audience research findings & methodology, public attitude
toward radio
6. Arbitron Ratings began diary system to analyze listening habits – 1965
7. Statistical Research, Inc. introduced Radio’s All Dimension Audience Research
(RADAR) – 1968
a. gathered info for networks through telephone interviews to more than 6,000
households
8. Birch/Scarborough debuted in late 1970s; went out of business in 1991
9. Broadcast Rating Council established – 1963
a. to monitor, audit, accredit ratings companies
b. renamed Electronic Media Planning Council in 1982 to reflect involve-ment with
cable TV ratings
THE RATINGS AND SURVEY SERVICES
1. ratings & survey services estimate where stations stand in the market
2. Arbitron currently leading ratings service
a. covers more than 250 markets, with 2,700 clients
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b. survey follows elaborate procedure to ensure accuracy
i.
parameters of survey area established
(1) Metro Survey Area (MSA) - city/urban center
(2) Total Survey Area (TSA) - surrounding communities
(3) Areas of Dominant Influence (ADI) - primary listening locations
ii. sample base of individuals randomly selected
(1) samples change weekly during 3- to 4-week survey period
iii. preplacement letter sent to solicit participation
iv. follow-up call by interviewer to get go-ahead
(1) describe purpose of survey
(2) find out how many household residents age 12+
v.
7-day diary mailed (see samples in textbook)
vi. respondees log listening habits
(1) time (day/part) tuned to station
(2) station call letters or program name
(3) AM or FM
(4) where listening occurred (car, home, work, elsewhere)
(5) age, sex, area of residence
vii. more follow-up calls/letters to assure system is working
viii. completed diaries mailed to central location in Beltsville, MD for processing
& computation
(1) 65% of returned diaries usable
3. Birch/Scarborough was rival to Arbitron from late 1970s to 1991
a. called equal numbers of male & female listeners age 12+ to gather data
b. offered 7 report formats, including computerized data retrieval system
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE DATA
1. as stations proliferate, more detailed data needed
2. advertisers & agencies less comfortable buying just ratings numbers, look for
audience qualities
3. lifestyles, values, attitudes, behavior are key data in addition to age, sex
IN-HOUSE RESEARCH TECHNIQUES
1. stations conduct own audience surveys to reduce cost of ratings services
2. combine telephone, computer/e-mail, face-to-face, mail techniques
a. telephone most popular, expedient, less costly
3. major market outlets often employ research director
RESEARCH DEFICITS
1. ratings stats are only estimates of listening audience
2. sampling methods questioned
a. minorities more often nontelephone households
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b. survey techniques adjusted to avoid “missed” audiences
3. ratings data should only direct, not dictate, what a station does
a. Porter, Ridgeway, Ozman, Bremkamp quotes on placing too much emphasis on
ratings reports
HOW AGENCIES BUY RADIO
1. media buyers use ratings to determine most cost-effective buy for clients
a. cost per point (CPP)
i. most common method
ii. Price quote explaining CPP
b. cost per thousand (CPM)
i. cost to reach 1,000 listeners at given station
ii. divide number of people reached into cost of commercial
CAREERS IN RESEARCH
1. increase in number of media research companies (today more than 150 research
houses nationwide) has created growing job market
2. college degree essential to work in research
a. Porter, Balon, Noonan, Hagen quotes on formal training
b. courses in communications, research methods, statistics, marketing, computers,
business are useful
3. research experience, radio background are valuable assets
4. researchers need inquisitiveness, objectivity, perceptiveness, people skills
THE FUTURE OF RESEARCH IN RADIO
1. experts agree demand for research will continue to grow
a. demographic targets, formats continue to splinter
b. more competition in already overcrowded markets
2. technology will encourage in-house methods & improve nature, quality of research
APPENDIX 6A: RAB’S RADIO RESEARCH GLOSSARY
APPENDIX 6B: ARBITRON’S GLOSSARY OF TERMS
TED BOLTON FEATURE BOX
Chapter 7: Promotion
PAST AND PURPOSE
1. radio stations advertise themselves to keep listeners interested & tuned
2. small station promotions counter other media, especially local newspaper
3. large market promotions help station differentiate itself from other stations
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4. radio recognized value of promotion early, using print media, remote broadcasts,
billboards, placards to reach public
5. ratings prove importance of effective promotions
6. Morriss quote on making a station salable
7. competition makes today’s stations promote themselves continually
PROMOTIONS PRACTICAL AND BIZARRE
1. idea is to achieve “top-of-the-mind awareness” in listeners
2. bizarre promotions gone awry can tarnish station’s image
3. cash & other prizes spark audience interest
4. low-budget giveaways also useful
THE PROMOTION DIRECTOR’S/MANAGER’S JOB
1. not always a full-time job at smaller stations, where promotional duties may be
assumed by PD/GM
2. needed skills
a. knowledge, understanding of station’s audience
b. background in research & marketing
c. writing, conceptual skills
d. versatility
e. familiarity with graphic art
f. knowledge of FCC regulations covering promotions
3. ideas can be “borrowed” from trades, other stations & adapted
4. prizes acquired through trade or purchase
WHOM PRODUCTION DIRECTORS HIRE
1. college education important
2. experience is golden
3. familiarity with programming an asset
4. wit, imagination helpful
TYPES OF PROMOTION
1. station promotions try to retain & expand listenership
2. on-air promotions most common form
a. call letters convey station’s personality
i. slogans frequently linked to call letters in on-air ID
ii. bookend: call letters before & after all breaks between music
iii. graft: call letters with all informational announcements
b. contests
i. easy to understand, with clear rules
ii. entertainment value for players & nonplayers alike
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iii. compatible with station’s sound
iv. timely, relevant to audience lifestyles, prizes attractive to audience
v. challenge listener’s imagination
(1) Morriss quote on contest creativity
c. promos highlighting programs, personalities, special features & events
3. off-air promotions to attract new listeners (see samples in textbook)
a. billboards must be eye-catching, simple, well-placed
b. bus cards, benches, transit shelters in cities
c. newspapers most frequently used method
d. television costly but effective
e. bumper stickers
i. primarily to increase call letter awareness
ii. often tied in with on-air promotions
f. giveaway items bearing logo, call letters (T-shirts, key chains, etc.)
g. discount cards
h. sponsoring special activities (fairs, sporting events, concerts, etc.)
i. personal appearances by station personalities
j. remote broadcasts
k. direct mail, faxing, telemarketing
SALES PROMOTION
1. promotion director works with sales to recruit advertisers to underwrite the
sometimes substantial cost of promotions
2. share both expenses & attention gained
RESEARCH AND PLANNING
1. need thorough knowledge of station, audience, objective of promotion
2. understanding of product, consumer, competition essential
a. compatible with station’s sound, format
b. relevant to audience lifestyle
c. fresh enough idea to attract, sustain interest
3. simplicity: if it takes a long time to explain, it’s not appropriate for radio
4. plan before implementing a promotion to avoid disaster
a. Lima quote on making projections
5. WSUB’s “Night Out” promo as a model of sound planning, financing
BUDGETING PROMOTIONS
1. cost projections included in promotion planning
2. promotion a station does is commensurate with level of competition
3. Taylor quote on no need to expend large sums
4. trade-outs often defray some costs of promotions
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PROMOTIONS AND THE FCC
1. broadcasters obligated to operate in the public interest
2. Section 73.1216 of FCC regulations governs promotions
a. can’t assume form of a lottery, where contestants pay to play
b. can’t endanger life or property
c. must disclose material terms of all contests & promotions
d. can’t mislead listeners concerning nature of prizes
e. rigging contests can result in substantial penalty or license revocation
3. prizes valued at $600 or more require filing IRS form 1099-MISC
BROADCAST PROMOTION AND MARKETING EXECUTIVES
1. BPME provides info, services to station promotion directors worldwide
Chapter 8: Traffic and Billing
THE AIR SUPPLY
1. each commercial slot on a station is called an availability
2. availabilities constitute station’s salable inventory
a. size of inventory depends on the amount of airtime allocated for commercial
matter
3. full-time station must fill more than 10,000 minutes every week
a. about 3,000 minutes of commercials per week
b. slightly fewer commercials on “more music-less talk” stations
4. most spots sold are 30 or 60 seconds long
a. 3,000 to 6,000 commercial slots/availabilities to be sold each week
5. traffic manager controls & is accountable for broadcast time inventory
THE TRAFFIC MANAGER
1. prepares daily log
a. schedule of programming elements (commercials, features, PSAs)
b. tells on-air operators what to broadcast & at what time
c. record of what was actually aired, for billing purposes
2. must log each ad order as specified
3. make sure each client is treated fairly & equitably
a. rotate spot to as many quarter-hour segments of daypart as possible over the run
of the commercial
b. maintain record of when client’s spots are aired
c. keep adequate space between spots of competitors
4. make sure copy & production tapes arrive at station on time
5. Hildreth quote on added pressures of fourth-quarter traffic management
6. traffic works closely with programming & sales depts.
35
a. programming depends on logs to guide on-air personnel
b. sales depends on traffic to inform them of existing availabilities & process ad
orders onto the air
THE TRAFFIC MANAGER’S CREDENTIALS
1. need patience, eye for detail, ability to work under pressure, people skills, typing
skills, computer familiarity
2. many trained in-house, coming from administrative or clerical ranks
3. position traditionally filled more often by women
DIRECTING TRAFFIC
1. most traffic depts. computerized to enhance speed & efficiency
2. consolidation can eliminate individual station traffic & billing depts.
BILLING
1. advertisers billed after a portion or all spots they purchased have run
2. Rozanski quote on billing process, missed spots
3. billing dept. sends invoices weekly or biweekly to each client
a. based on spots aired, as recorded & verified by traffic dept.
b. invoices notarized for clients with co-op contracts
THE FCC AND TRAFFIC
1. FCC eliminated program log requirements – early 1980s
2. stations keep logs designed to serve their needs effectively & efficiently
a. inform programming personnel of what is scheduled for broadcast
b. provide necessary info for traffic & billing depts.
Chapter 9: Production
A SPOT RETROSPECTIVE
1. first radio commercials aired in 1922
2. early commercials were broadcast live due to limited recording technology
a. no music, sound effects, singing
3. Wheaties cereal first radio jingle – 1926
4. mundane commercial production for radio’s first decade
5. dialogue spots using comedy & drama to sell product evolved – 1930
a. orchestras, actors, lavishly constructed sound effects
6. creation of vinyl discs in 1940s allowed prerecorded sound effects
7. live spots remained a mainstay until 1950s innovations shifted emphasis to
prerecorded commercial messages
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a. magnetic recording tape
b. 33 1/3 rpm LPs
8. commercials became more sophisticated sounding
FORMATTED SPOTS
1. radio adopted formats to survive & prosper – 1950s
2. each format has distinct sound; commercials must match station’s format to avoid
audience tuneout
3. copy, delivery, mixdown for 5 key formats (see quotes in textbook)
THE PRODUCTION ROOM
1. full-time production director (chief, manager) at larger stations
a. records voice-tracks; mixes commercials & PSAs
b. maintains bed music & special effects libraries
c. mixdown of promotional material, special programs
d. basic editing chores
2. smaller stations divide production work among on-air staff, often under program
director
3. most production directors recruited from on-air ranks
a. needs studio dexterity, mixdown skills
b. solid knowledge of editing essential
c. works closely with & usually answers to program director
d. ensures spot sound matches station image
e. also works closely with copywriter, traffic dept.
THE STUDIOS
1. on-air & production studios similarly designed & equipped
2. usually U-shaped for ease of movement, accessibility
3. standard equipment (see illustrations in textbook)
a. audio console/the “board”
i. the very heart of the radio station
ii. console designs vary, but basic components the same
(1) inputs permit audio energy to enter the console
(2) outputs feed audio energy to other locations
(3) VU meters measure sound levels
(4) pots (faders) control quantity (gain) of sound
(a) linear/slide faders replacing rotary faders
(5) monitor gains control in-studio volume
(6) master gains control general output levels
iii. cue mode lets the operator listen to low-power amplified sound from various
sources without channeling it through an output
b. reel-to-reel tape machines
37
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
i. a production studio workhorse
ii. especially designed for editing
iii. 3 magnetic heads for exchange of electrical & magnetic energy
(1) record sound
(2) play back sound
(3) erase magnetic impressions
iv. can record at 2 or 3 speeds
(1) 3 3/4, 7½, 15 IPS (inches per second)
(2) 7½ IPS most frequently used
(3) high-speed 15 IPS provides better sound quality, easier editing
v. available in monaural, stereo, multitrack
(1) multitrack allows sound-on-sound recording (overdubbing)
cart (cartridge tape) machines
i. came into use late 1950s
ii. simplified recording & playback process
iii. a continuous loop of 1/4" magnetic tape in a plastic container (cart)
(1) more compact, convenient than reels of tape
(2) come in various lengths, depending on need
iv. magnetic pulse allows tape to recue itself
mini-disc machines
i. gradually replacing standard analog cart decks
ii. digitally mix & archive up to 74 minutes of audio on 2.5" reusable discs
cassette tape machines
i. adopted mid-1960s
ii. small tape cassettes do not require rethreading, rewinding
(1) employ 1/8" tape moved at 1 7/8 IPS
(2) hold up to 3 hours of recorded material
iii. although not integral to mixdown process, cassettes often used for airchecks &
actualities
audio tape (magnetic tape)
i. chemically treated for preservation
(1) acetate & polyester backings for greater durability
ii. thickness & width of tape varies depending on use
(1) most commonly used 1.5 mm thick & 1/4" wide
iii. oxide particles from tape leave residue on machine heads
(1) residue plus dust & dirt cause diminished sound quality
(2) heads must be cleaned frequently with cotton swab & liquid head
cleaner (often isopropyl alcohol)
compact discs (CDs)
i. 1980s innovation
ii. superior sound quality
iii. use a laser beam to decode disc’s surface
(1) eliminates stylus & turntable noises, distortion, record damage
iv. CD players light & compact
(1) CD 4.7" in diameter, 1.2 mm thick
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h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
v. recordable CDs in use, but can only be encoded once
digital audio tape (DAT)
i. technology first introduced in 1970s, made impact in 1990s
ii. digital recording converts audio signals into coded pulses (numbers) that are
read by computer sound processor; sounds are quantified
iii. improved sound reproduction with re-recording capability
iv. DAT cassette about half the size of an ordinary analog cassette
turntables
i. once a staple of control rooms, being replaced by carts & CDs
ii. still needed in production rooms
iii. designed for cueing purposes, to allow record to reach proper speed before
sound portion is engaged
(1) dead-rolling: LP cued in backtracked position & activated from turntable
stop position
(2) slip-cueing: LP held in place & released as turntable rotates
compressors, equalizers, audio processing
i. compressors alter amplitude
(1) enhance loudness
(2) eliminate ambient noise
ii. equalizers (EQs) boost and/or cut frequency
(1) create parity between different elements
(2) useful in creating special effects
iii. audio processors create wide range of effects (reverb, echo, flange)
iv. use of samplers, synthesizers, MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) on
the rise to enhance production studio’s product
patch panel
i. routing device with rows of inputs & outputs
ii. connects devices not directly wired into audio console
microphones
i. pickup patterns to accommodate different functions
(1) omnidirectional: sound from all directions (360 degrees)
(2) bidirectional: sound from 2 directions (180 degrees)
(3) unidirectional: sound from 1 path (90 degrees)
ii. off-mike means being outside the path of a microphone’s pickup
EDITING
1. from simple repairs to complicated rearrangements of sound elements
2. splicing tape to add or delete material (see process illustrated in textbook)
3. today conventional razor cut approach losing ground to “nondestructive” digital &
multitrack methods
4. digital editing uses computer & special software
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COPYWRITING
1. radio listener must be able to imagine (visualize) whatever sounds convey
2. copywriter responsible for writing commercials, promos, PSAs
3. must possess complete understanding of medium, audience, product
4. station format, programming approach influence style of writing
5. mechanics of copy preparation must be observed
a. typed in UPPERCASE, double-spaced for ease of reading
b. 1" left & right margins
c. sound effects noted in parentheses
d. proper punctuation, grammar vital
e. uncomplicated sentence structure, conversational style
f. piece must be timed accurately
g. phonetic spelling for unusual, uncommon words
h. avoid complex directions, excessive numbers
ANNOUNCING TIPS
1. Morin quote on paying dues as an announcer
2. must be able to effectively read copy aloud
a. proper enunciation, inflection
b. naturally resonant, pleasant-sounding voice without a regional accent
c. unstrained, relaxed voice; enhanced by proper breathing
i.
Read copy aloud before going on air.
ii. Take several deep breaths & slowly exhale, keeping eyes closed.
iii. Sit still for a couple of moments, arms limp at sides. Tune out. Conjure
pleasant images.
iv. Stand & slowly move upper torso in circular motion for a minute or so.
Flex shoulders & arms. Stretch.
v.
When seated, check posture. Don’t slump. Sit erect, not stiffly.
vi. Hum. Vibration helps relax throat muscles & vocal cords.
vii. Give ample time to settle in before going on air.
THE SOUND LIBRARY
1. bed: music used in a radio commercial
a. demo CDs provide unfamiliar music
b. movie soundtracks
i. provide variety of music, some bizarre
ii. source of special audio effects
c. on-air CDs provide unaired music cuts
d. bed music libraries can be purchased
e. catalogued by assigned account, either on index cards or computer
2. sound effects from purchased packages, seldom produced in-house
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Chapter 10: Engineering
PIONEER ENGINEERS
1. Guglielmo Marconi first used electromagnetic (radio) waves to send a message –
1890s
a. helped by earlier findings of James Clerk Maxwell & Heinrich Hertz
2. J. Ambrose Fleming developed diode tube – 1904
3. Lee DeForest created triode tube called the Audion – 1906
4. Reginald Fessenden transmitted voice over wireless – 1906
5. Edwin Armstrong developed regenerative & superheterodyne circuits
a. vastly improved receiver efficiency
b. first demonstrated static-free FM broadcast signal – 1933
RADIO TECHNOLOGY
1. radio signals are transmitted on low frequency end of electromagnetic spectrum
2. transmitter generates & shapes radio wave to assigned frequency
3. audio current sent from control room to transmitter
4. current modulates carrier wave to authorized frequency
5. antenna radiates radio frequency
6. receivers pick up transmissions, converting incoming radio frequency into sound
waves
AM/FM
1. AM station frequencies 535 to 1705 kHz on Standard Broadcast band
a. 10 kc (kilocycles) separate AM frequencies
2. FM station frequencies 88.1 to 107.9 MHz on FM band
a. 200 kc separate FM frequencies
b. 30 kc used for over-the-air transmissions
i. larger channel width allows FM listeners to fine-tune
ii. FM immune to low-frequency emissions that cause AM static
3. signal propagation
a. ground waves create AM’s primary service area
i. signal travels along earth’s surface, can be blocked by irregular topography
ii. night atmospheric reflection of signal creates skywaves that carry signal
considerably farther than during daytime
iii. may reach listeners hundreds of miles away during the day, thousands of
miles away at night
b. FM propagates signal in direct or line-of-sight pattern
i. not affected by day/night changes in atmosphere
ii. reach listeners in 80- to 100-mile radius
iii. high antenna needed to make signal carry farther
4. skywave interference
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a. because AM signals carry farther at night, station-to-station inter-ference becomes
a problem
i. more than 2,000 AM stations cease operation at sunset
ii. others make major transmission adjustments (decrease power)
iii. sometimes directional antennas are needed
5. station classifications
a. FCC established to guarantee efficient use of broadcast spectrum, minimize
interference among the 10,000 radio outlets
b. AM classifications
i.
Class A: clear channel stations under 50 kW, protected from interference for
up to 750 miles
ii. Class B: 250 watts to 50 kW, must adjust signal at sunset to protect Class I
stations
iii. Class D: 5 kW regional, serve local & adjacent areas only
iv. Class C: 1 kW & under local channels, often must sign off at sunset, found
at upper end of AM frequencies
v.
AM band will expand (1605 to 1705 kHz)
c. FM classifications
i.
Class C: most powerful, up to 100 kW & 2,000' tower, waves carry about 70
miles
ii. Class B: up to 50 kW & 500' tower, serve 40- to 50-mile radius
iii. Class A: up to 3 kW & 328' tower, signal carries 10 to 20 miles
iv. Class D: noncommercial stations up to 10 watts
v.
Class C1: up to 100 kW & 984' tower, reach about 50 miles
vi. Class C2: close to Class B, up to 50 kW & 492' tower, reach approximately
35 miles
vii. Class C3: typically exceed 6 kW with shorter tower
viii. Class B1: same tower height as Class A with more power, at least 25 kW &
328' tower, signal carries 25 to 30 miles
ix. also subclassifications
DIGITAL AUDIO BROADCASTING (DAB)
1. analog being replaced by digital audio
2. DAB provides superior frequency response, greater dynamic range
3. new spectrum space may be allocated to accommodate digital service
4. new receivers will be introduced to consumers
SMART RECEIVERS
1. receivers will do more than simply tune frequencies
2. format scans, emergency alerts, traffic announcements, ads & promos, other info
services possible via a built-in LCD display panel
3. RDS or RBDS (radio broadcast data system) technology uses special signaling codes
generated by stations
4. “sight radio” still in infancy, but market expected to grow
42
BECOMING AN ENGINEER
1. experience with basic broadcast electronics most important
a. McNamara, Puriez quotes on value of experience
2. need knowledge of FCC regulations affecting station technical operations
3. good interpersonal skills necessary
THE ENGINEER’S DUTIES
1. chief operator responsible for station’s technical operations
a. repair & adjust equipment
b. perform weekly inspections, calibrations
c. duties may include installing new equipment, training techs, monitoring radiation
levels, planning maintenance schedules, handling budget
2. Proof of Performance involves checking frequency response, harmonic distortion, FM
& AM noise levels, stereo separation, crosstalk & sub-carrier suppression to ensure
station meets technical performance level
STATION LOG
1. FCC dispensed with maintenance & operating log requirements – 1983
2. Station Log still must be maintained
a. info about tower light malfunctions, Emergency Alert System tests, AM
directional antenna systems
b. kept on file for 2 years
THE EMERGENCY ALERT SYSTEM
(FORMERLY THE EMERGENCY BROADCAST SYSTEM)
1. EBS implemented following World War II, revamped as EAS in 1994
2. for government to notify the public in the event of a major emergency
3. latest rules in Code of Federal Regulations, Part 73
4. after an Emergency Action Notification (EAN), many stations must cease operations
to keep the airwaves clear
5. those stations designated to remain on the air after an EAN broadcast info from
nation’s base of operations, following rigid instructions
6. all stations required to conduct weekly tests of EAS system, airing both
announcement & attention signal
AUTOMATION
1. automation programming emphasizes music, minimizes chatter
2. today more than 1/4 of commercial stations automated to some degree
3. prevalent on FM, but stereo AM generating more use
4. saves station money by reducing staffing costs
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5.
6.
7.
high initial equipment investment required
uses reel-to-reel tape decks & cartridge units (carousels or stack racks)
programming elements aired when trip mechanism is activated by a cue tone, which
is impressed on all program material
8. remote switches allow on-air studio to go live when necessary
9. operator or computer can maintain programming chain
10. satellite program services use computers (at both uplink & downlink sites) to
control station automation systems
11. direct satellite fed stations need little equipment since programming originates at
syndicator’s studios
POSTING LICENSES AND PERMITS
1. FCC requires station license & operators’ permits to be accessible in station area
APPENDIX 10A: FEDERAL COMMUNICATIONS COMMISSION FACT SHEET
ALLEN MYERS FEATURE BOX
Chapter 11: Consultants and Syndicators
RADIO AID
1. causes for the rise of radio consultants
a. more stations - from 2,000 in 1950s to 12,000 in 2000
b. more formats - from half a dozen to several dozen
2. by 1970s more than 1/3 of stations used consultant services
3. Burns quote on role of radio consultants
4. Jacobs, Scott, Halper, Hunter quotes on station uses of consultants
5. more than 50 broadcast consultants in U.S. specialize in radio
6. some program directors, station rep companies offer consultancy services
CONSULTANT SERVICES
1. hired to improve or strengthen standing in ratings surveys
2. client determines how much control the consultant has to make changes
a. Halper quote on degree of involvement
3. services include market research, programming & format design, hiring & training of
staff, staff motivation, advertising & PR campaigns, news & public affairs
restructuring, technical evaluation
4. diagnose the problems that impair a station’s growth & then prescribe a plan of action
designed to effect a remedy
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CONSULTANT QUALIFICATIONS
1. many begin as broadcasters; radio experience very helpful
2. Scott quote on solid educational preparation needed
3. need strong people skills & objectivity
CONSULTANTS: PROS AND CONS
1. arguments against using consultants
a. local flavor lost when an outsider takes control
i. a strong PD can work with consultant to retain local identity
b. station becomes clone of other successful stations
c. consultant cost may not justify gains
d. can become too dependent on consultant
i. once station on the mend, consultant needed only periodically
2. most stations using consultants experience improved ratings
PROGRAM SUPPLIERS
1. programming syndication prompted by increased use of automation
2. nearly half of radio outlets purchase some syndicated programs
3. syndicated programs generally cost-effective, of high quality, reliable
a. Ellis quote on time & cost savings
b. station gets high-quality programming & engineering
c. even small station with limited resources can have metro station sound
SYNDICATOR SERVICES
1. syndicators market a variety of distinctive, fully packaged radio formats (from
Country to Top 40 to Religious)
2. each format fully tested before marketed
a. Stockman quote on consumer-oriented product
b. Scott quote on tailoring for client station
c. audience & market research conducted before implementing format
3. format programming packages by seasoned metro market announcers
a. include hundreds of hours of music
b. also breaks, promos, customized IDs
4. programming routinely updated
5. format usually leased for at least 2 years
a. similar format won’t be leased to another station in same market
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
1. syndicated programming designed for automated equipment
a. Scott list of minimum required automation equipment
2. more than 3/4 of stations receive some satellite programming
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a. number of syndicators using satellite feeds is at an all-time high
b. many deliver programming only via satellite
SYNDICATOR FIDELITY
1. syndicators very particular about sound quality
2. periodic airchecks of subscriber stations analyzed for deficiencies
APPENDIX: STATION CRITIQUE
Final Exam covers material in Chapters 1 through 11.
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