The Struggle for Political Power in Ancient Rome
Between 616 and 509 B.C.E., Etruscan (pronounced eh-TRUSS-ken)
kings from northern Italy ruled the city of Rome. During this time, Roman
society came to be divided into two classes of citizens by birth. The upper
class of citizens was a small group of wealthy land owners who believed their
ancestors had been the first to settle Rome. They were called patricians-from the Latin word patres, which means father—because they chose the
“father of the state,” or the officials who advised the king. Patricians
claimed to have noble status in Roman society because they controlled the
most valuable land and held key military and religious offices. The lower
class of Roman citizens were called plebeians—from the Latin word plebs,
which means many. Plebeians, who made up about 95% of the population,
were mostly peasants, laborers, artisans, and shopkeepers. They had far
fewer privileges than patricians and had very little say in government
matters. Nonetheless, plebeians were required to pay taxes and serve in the
Roman Army.
Over time, patricians began to resent Etruscan rule and began to
demand more political power in the government. In 509 B.C.E., they led a
rebellion against the Etruscan Monarchy (kingdom), and overthrew the last
king, Tarquinius Superbus, also known as Tarquinious the Proud. Patricians
then established a new form of government, known as a republic, whose
primary purpose was to serve the people. The word republic is derived from
the Latin term res publica, which translates as “the affairs of the people.”
They also divided the state’s power to prevent any single person from
abusing it. Instead of a king, a body of 300 men, called the Senate, was
elected to run the country. Senators served for life and were expected to
make laws, appoint officials, and serve as judges. The Senate also selected
two leaders, or Consuls, to command the army and run the day-to-day
affairs of Rome.
Although Roman society was more democratic under the Republic than it
had been under the Etruscan monarchy, it was controlled completely by
patricians. Only patricians were allowed to become consuls and senators.
Moreover, since laws were not written down anywhere, patricians often
changed and interpreted them to serve their own interests. This meant that
patricians, who made up only 5 percent of the population, held most of the
political power in Rome. As a result, a struggle known as the Conflict in
Orders began, in which plebeians demanded more political rights for
themselves.
The conflict between patricians and plebeians became particularly intense
during times of war. Plebeians resented having to serve in the military and
to pay heavy taxes, while patricians denied them any decision-making power
in the government. They wanted to create an assembly of their own that
would protect their rights and interests. In 494 B.C.E., the plebeians took a
dramatic action: they moved away from Rome and refused to work or serve
in the military unless their demands were met. Livy, a famous Roman
historian, wrote the following description of the state of Rome after the
plebeians had left the city: “There was great panic in the city, and through
mutual fear, all was suspense. The people left in the city dreaded (feared)
the violence of the senators; the senators dreaded the people remaining in
the city, uncertain whether they should prefer to stay or to depart; but how
would the multitude (crowd) which had seceded (left) remain quiet? What
were to be consequences then, it, in the meantime, any foreign war would
break out?”
The patricians, who heavily relied on the plebeians for military service,
became alarmed. They realized that the welfare of the Republic depended on
the plebeians’ return, and they decided to make a compromise. They allowed
the plebeians to elect 10 officials, called Tribunes of the Plebs, to represent
plebeian interests to the Senate. These officials protected plebeians’ rights
by saying “veto,” which means “I forbid,” to any law they felt was unjust to
plebeians. In addition, they created the Council of Plebs, which was made
up of elected plebeians. The Council could pass laws that affected all
Roman plebeians, but not patricians.
Over the next 200 years, plebeians used a series of protests to gain
important political rights in the Roman Republic. First, they demanded that
the laws be written down so patricians could no longer change them at will.
In the middle of the fifth century B.C.E., the patricians chose 10 officials to
standardize the laws and put them in writing. The resulting code of law,
which was set up in public on 12 wooden tables, became known as The
Twelve Tables. Second, plebeians sought greater power in government.
Because of their demands, a law was passed in 367 B.C.E. requiring that one
of the two consuls be a plebeian. In addition, since ex-consuls often held
seats in the Senate, this law made it possible for plebeians to become
senators. Finally, in 287 B.C.E., the Council of Plebs, which was later
incorporated into the Citizens’ Assemblies, gained the right to pass laws that
affected the entire society, instead of just the plebeians.
As the political rights of the plebeians increased over the years, the
Roman Republic became a more democratic form of government. The
interests of both patricians and plebeians came to be represented in each
branch of government. The power of each branch of government was also
balanced by the actions of the other branches. The Citizens’ Assemblies,
which was made up of all adult Roman male citizens, nominated the consuls,
member of the Senate, and the tribunes of the Plebs. The senators and the
tribunes advised the consuls and were able to pass and veto laws. Their
powers were kept in check by the Assembly, which was allowed to approve
or reject new laws.
The Rise of Carthage
Like Rome, Carthage began as a small, unremarkable town with little hint
of the superpower it would become. Phoenician traders established Carthage
on the shores of Tunisia in North Africa in the mid-eighth century B.C.E. The
Phoenicians, who also established several city-states in the eastern
Mediterranean, were master shipbuilders and successful merchants. Their
powerful warships called biremes were propelled by two banks of oars and
contained a wooden ram on the bow for making holes in enemy ships. From
their most prosperous city-state of Tyre, (pronounced TIRE), the Phoenicians
used their powerful ships to set up profitable trading colonies on islands
throughout the Mediterranean. They also established colonies, such as
Carthage in Spain and North Africa.
The Phoenicians were attracted to Carthage because of its key
geographic position. Carthage was located at the narrowest part of the
Mediterranean Sea and contained two excellent harbors. By establishing a
trading colony in Carthage, the Phoenicians were able to prevent others from
sailing into the western half of the Mediterranean, and to gain complete
control of the area. As a result, they also had access to Carthage’s valuable
trade goods, such as lead, ivory, salt, and slaves.
For several decades, Phoenician leaders in Tyre dominated the affairs of
Carthage. However, beginning in the 600s B.C.E., invaders from surrounding
areas conquered Tyre. Weakened by the defeat the Phoenicians were no
longer able to protect the colonies they once held. Soon, other seafaring
nations made plans to seize the former Phoenician colonies, including
Carthage, which was the largest.
After the collapse of the Phoenician power, Carthage was able to take
advantage of its prime geographic location to protect itself from outside
invaders. Using technologies they learned from the Phoenicians, Carthage
built up a strong navy and began to expand into the old Phoenician colonies.
After securing safe passage, Carthage reestablished the old Phoenician
trading routes. Soon, Carthage was the dominating power in the
Mediterranean Sea.
Te First Punic War
As Carthage’s power in the Mediterranean grew, Rome began to look for
ways to limit its rival’s expansion. Eventually, competition for control over
the western Mediterranean between the two powers erupted into the First
Punic War in 264 B.C.E. The incident that sparked the fighting took place in
Sicily, when a group or rebellious Sicilian soldiers called Mamertines seized
the town of Messina. Messina was located next to a narrow channel, or
strait, between the ‘toe’ of the Italian peninsula and Sicily. At first the
Mamertines turned to a local Carthaginian fleet to help them secure control
of Messina. However, when it appeared the Carthaginians might use their
involvement as an opportunity to conquer all of Sicily, the Mamertines
appealed to the Romans for help.
The request from the Mamertines presented an excellent opportunity for
the Romans to stop Carthaginian expansion. The Romans believed that by
assisting the Mamertines, the Carthaginians had broken a treaty signed by
the two nations in the sixth century B.C.E. In the treaty, Italy belonged to
the Romans, while the western Mediterranean belonged to Carthage---Sicily
was considered territory for both Roman and Carthaginian merchants.
Roman leaders accused Carthage of violating this agreement and declared
war in 264 B.C.E.
After declaring war, Roman leaders recognized that they faced series
challenges in a conflict with Carthage. Carthage had a strong navy that
provided supplies to its army in Sicily. Carthage could also use its navy to
blockage Sicilian ports, and thus prevent food and equipment from reaching
Roman soldiers. In contrast, the Romans did not have a strong navy and did
not know how to build warships. Moreover, they had no experience with
training sailors. However, despite these disadvantages, the Romans did
have armies of well trained men who were dependable in battle.
In order to counter balance Carthage’s tremendous advantages in navel
battle, the Roman arm created two ingenious tactics. First, because the
Roman arm was so well quipped, the Romans needed to turn a naval battle
into hand to hand combat. They did this by sailing as close to the
Carthaginian’s ships as possible, then by throwing a plank with a hook on it
to create a bridge allowing the Roman army to rush the Carthaginian ships.
The Carthaginian sailors were no match for the Roman army. Secondly,
once the Romans captured a Carthaginian ship, they copied its design and
incorporated it into their navy. This allowed the Romans to, over time, build
a navy as strong as Carthage’s.
The Beginning of the Second Punic War
During the 20 years following the end of the First Punic War, both Rome
and Carthage worked to increase their power and influence. Rome continued
its expansion by conquering the Po Valley in northern Italy and Illyria, a
region on the eastern shore of the Adriatic Sea. Carthage, too, increased its
strength through the efforts of Hamilcar Barca. Hamilcar believed that if he
created a strong Carthaginian colony in Spain, he would have a place from
which to attack Rome and avenge the humiliating defeat his country had
suffered during the First Punic War. In 237 B.C.E. he organized an army and
prepared to conquer the Spanish peninsula. Accompanying him on his
expedition was his teenage son Hannibal, who shared his father’s hatred of
Rome and his desire for revenge.
Shortly after Hamilcar drowned in an accident in 229 B.C.E., Hannibal—
although only 26 years old—took command of the Carthaginian forces in
Spain. The troops were devoted to Hannibal. Even after he became a
general, Hannibal ate with his men, dressed like them, and slept on the
same hard ground at night. He had a combination of reckless bravery and
wise judgment. According to the Roman historian Livy, “he was the first to
enter battle and the last to leave it.”
Hannibal was determined to draw the Romans into was so he could repay
them for the way they had treated Carthage. In 218 B.C.E., he attacked
Saguntum, a city in Spain that was a Roman ally. After an eight-month
siege, the city fell. When the Romans heard of the defeat of Saguntum, they
declared was on Carthage and prepared to send a fleet to capture Hannibal.
This action marked the beginning of the Second Punic War. Rather than
defend Saguntum, Hannibal decided that his best chances to defeat the
Romans would be to attack Italy itself. Hannibal believed that, once in Italy,
he could encourage and lead a rebellion the various Italian peoples Rome
had conquered. Such an attack on their homeland would catch the Romans
completely by surprise, since the Romans knew Hannibal had no fleet with
which to transport his soldiers from Spain to Rome.
This time it was Carthage who came up with an ingenious military tactic
which brought Rome to its knees, inflicting staggering losses in Rome.
Hannibal’s primary challenge was getting his massive army across the Alps
mountain range. He needed a way to transport his supplies and troops
without exhausting his troops and supplies. Because Carthage was located in
Africa, Hannibal and his men had access to animals the Romans had never
seen or heard of before. Hannibal gathered a caravan of elephants to
transport his army. When his army arrived in the Italian peninsula, the
Roman army was terrified by the gigantic creatures ridden by the
Carthaginian army.
The End of the Second Punic War
For 15 years, Hannibal marched up and down the Italian peninsula
inflicting staggering losses upon the Romans. During one series of battles
the Romans lost 65,000 men. These were the worst military defeats in
Roman history. Nevertheless, Hannibal never attacked Rome itself;
capturing the city seemed impossible. He had no siege weapons, and
Carthaginian leaders refused to send reinforcements because they were
more concerned with protecting their settlements in Spain. Also, to his
disappointment, almost none of the people Rome had conquered joined him.
Thus, he did not have a safe base from which he could launch an attack on
Rome. Despite these setbacks, no Roman general was able to defeat
Hannibal’s forces in battle.
After years of humiliating losses and terrible casualties, Rome finally
found a leader who was equal to Hannibal in courage and intelligence. The
new Roman leader Publius Caornelius Scipio was respected for his bravery,
cleverness, and religious devotion. When Scipio was 25, the Senate made
him commander of the Roman forces in Spain. Scipio greatly admired
Hannibal’s military leadership and studied the Carthaginian general’s tactics
carefully. Using what he learned, Scipio drove the Carthaginians from Spain
and brought the region under Roman control in 207 B.C.E.
Following his victory in Spain, Scipio obtained permission from the
Roman Senate to sail to Africa to attack Carthage directly. Upon landing in
Carthage the Roman army began plundering the area around Carthage, and
Carthaginian leaders ordered Hannibal to return home from Italy to defend
the city. For Hannibal, this return was a bitter disappointment. He felt that
the Carthaginian leaders’ unwillingness to reinforce him when victory was
near could lead to defeat in the Second Punic War. Nevertheless, he obeyed
the order and sailed for Rome.
When Hannibal arrived in Carthage, he was faced with an entirely
different army than he had battled in Italy. Scipio’s troops were well
disciplined and well trained. While Hannibal’s men were war wiry and tired.
Scipio delivered one crushing defeat after the next to his one time idol.
Carthage was forced to sign a humiliating peace agreement, conceding all of
its Mediterranean territories to Rome. Furthermore, Carthage could not
assemble an army, and had to pay Rome large reparations for Hannibal’s
war in Italy.
The Third Punic War
In the decades following the Second Punic War, Rome continued to
expand its territories throughout the Mediterranean region. Meanwhile,
Carthage carefully honored the treaty it had signed with Rome and did not
acquire any new territories. Carthage did not build new warships, paid the
fine to Rome and declared no wars. Having lost much of their military power,
the Carthaginians watched as the Mediterranean Sea became a “Roman
lake.”
Despite Carthage’s decline in power and status, some Roman leaders still
felt that it had not been punished severely enough. They demanded
vengeance. The ability of the Carthaginians to rebuild their trade and to
increase their wealth especially angered the Romans. Hostile feelings
increased in 153 B.C.E. when Roman ambassadors returned from Carthage
reporting that the city was larger and more beautiful than Rome. Following
this report ,one Roman leader made it a practice t end each of his speeches
with the words, “Carthage must be destroyed!”
Consumed by hatred and mistrust, Roman leaders began to antagonize
Carthage, hoping to provoke another war. When neighboring Numidians
attacked Carthaginian towns, the Romans refused to let the Carthaginians
take defensive action. In addition, the Romans sent ambassadors to Numidia
and secretly encouraged additional attacks. Finally in 149 B.C.E. the
Carthaginians decided to take action and fought back against the Numidians
Recognizing that this attack violated their treaty with Rome, Carthaginian
leaders quickly prepared to make amends to the Roman Senate. They sent a
group of ambassadors to Rome, hoping to re-establish peace with Rome.
However, the Roman Senate refused to talk to these representatives and
instead declared war on Carthage, starting the Third Punic War.
Because of Rome’s far superior military power, Carthage did not stand a
chance against them. The goal of the Romans was not to defeat Carthage in
battle, but to utterly destroy them. Roman leaders felt that Carthage
needed to be wiped off the face of the earth in order to avoid any future
conflicts with them. Several Senators believed that as long as Carthage
existed, it posed a threat to Rome. Roman forces arrived in Carthage and
completely destroyed the city, burning every building to the ground. They
killed or captured and enslaved every citizen of Carthage. In order to ensure
that nobody would ever inhabit Carthage again, the Romans covered the
surrounding fields with salt, guaranteeing that nobody could ever raise crops
or livestock again. Even today, archaeologists find very little evidence of the
existence of Carthage. Rome accomplished its goals, and succeeded in
completely destroying Carthage forever.