SSS100.1911
Professor: Vetrivel Adhimoolam
Student: Oscar Carvalho-Neto
Section 1. Introduction
The United States of America has always been known around the world as the land of freedom and
opportunities. Since the "discovery" of the so-called "New World", millions of people have come to
America for a number of reasons: some were escaping religious persecution, such as French Huguenots,
German Calvinists and European Jews; many others were fleeing poor lands, hunger and economic
difficulties such as Italians and Slavs in the past and today's Hispanic immigrants. Still others came to
America unwilingly, brought as slaves to work in the plantations. To those, the very ideals of freedom and
opportunity represented here were denied. According to Philip L. Martin in "Controlling Immigration: A
Global Perspective" (2004), 66 million people have come to the USA since 1820, when immigration
records were first established. That number, thus, excludes illegal immigrants who come to America
through "the back door" by either crossing the U.S-Mexico border or by overstaying their visas. The
invisible faces and those numbers that are not counted officially will be the focus of this paper and will
further be mentioned in detail.
The principles and ideals found in this country is what has led to multiculturalism. Even though the
meaning of multiculturalism has been widely used in recent years, its idea has been part of America's history
for a long time. In fact, the United States' motto from 1789 until 1956: E pluribus unum, which in Latin
means "Out of many, one" clearly emphasizes the concept of multiculturalism. In other words, the word
"many" present in the motto can acquire different meanings: many cultures, many ethnicities, many
religions. Out of these multifaceted aspects of American society, each individual stands out to become part
of the fabric that constitutes this country.
It is worth noting that the idea of ethnic and cultural diversity is subject to different interpretations
and approaches. One of the views regarding diversity advocates the "melting pot"structure, in which
individuals from different backgrounds, traditions and beliefs should "blend" and mix in order to form a
new identity, the American identity. Another view encourages the creation of the "salad bowl", where
different groups work together for the benefit of society while maintaining their own values and beliefs.
These two views are conflicting in the sense that they see immigration differently. Assimilationists, who are
in favor of the "melting pot" approach, argue that immigration can be beneficial if those that come here
embrace their "host" country, its culture and language. In general, those who support the "melting pot" tend
to be in favor of a stricter immigration policy and advocate for English-only education in American schools
in order to support national identity and unity. They view the "salad bowl" approach as a threat to America's
identity, claiming that people that maintain their culture and do not "fully" embrace American ideals are not
willing to be full contributors to American society. On the other hand, those who oppose the "melting pot"
view it as a form of domination, where people give up the ties to their home country in order to conform to
the rules of the majority. In other words, the unique character of a certain group is lost through cultural
assimilation, which in turn, leads to homogeinity. According to such view, the "melting pot" is a form of
discrimination against those who do not share cultural norms and values of the majority.
Although these two ideals of ethnic diversity seem contradictory, both of them are part of the
history of immigration in the United States. It is often believed that immigrants from the past, mainly
Europeans, have assimilated into American society, since it can be argued that most Americans of German
or Italian descent, for instance, speak English only whereas today's immigrants, such as Hispanics tend to
pass on their language and culture for generations, making them not assimilated to some.
Of course, when comparing the structure of immigration from the past versus today's pattern of
immigration, the assimilation issue becomes much more complex. For instance, it can be argued that
Germans and Italians from the past easily became what is generally perceived to be "American" because
they were from the same continent and had the same skin color of the "founders" of this country whereas
today's immigrants are "different" from "mainstream" America, making them feel less welcome, which in
turn, makes them more reluctant to embrace the culture of the majority and more likely to remain in
"ghetto" areas, socializing solely with people from their own culture.
Issues such as the notion of multiculturalism and assimilation are extremely important when
analyzing illegal immigration since these two concepts are very much part of today's debate surrounding
illegal immigration.
This paper will analyze immigration in several aspects, including the historical development of
immigration in the United States. History is essential to getting a further insight about immigration, since
studying the history of immigration in this country helps one understand central issues that surround
immigration today, such as ethnic and national identity. I will contrast how immigration patterns have
changed from mostly European immigrants in the past to today's immigrants from Latin America, Asia and
Africa.
I will then provide a view of illegal immigration in America that includes numerical datas and the
means that illegal immigrants use in order to reach American soil. Before addressing the debate surrounding
illegal immigration, I will explain the impact of the 1986 Amnesty Program and how it influenced the
increase of illegal aliens living in America.
The following section, called "The debate" will focus on the conflicting arguments regarding
illegal immigration. Important questions and views will be posed in this section. Are illegal immigrants
beneficial or harmful to the American economy? To what extent have public institutions, such as Medicaid,
been affected by illegal immigration? Is the idea of multiculturalism threatening the notion of what is
"American"?
Finally, after discussing immigration through history, illegal immigration and the controversial
views surrounding it, I will provide a conclusion on the subject stating America's important role as the
world's only superpower and how such "title" affects the ideal of what America should represent to the rest
of the world.
Section 2. History of Immigration in the United States.
As a country built on immigration, America's history of immigration is as old as the country itself.
Understanding patterns and waves of immigration that affects the United States is necessary, since different
waves of immigration had distinct characteristics and was led by different ethnic groups. Despite being
different in character, these waves share something in common: they all brought groups that were first
feared by the majority to be "unfit" to become a part of American culture.
What exactly constitutes American culture? What aspects of society are considered to be
American? While it is true that much of what America has become is based on its founder's culture and
institutions, such as the English language, the United States has been influenced, in varying degrees, by
several cultures around the world, which means that what is perceived to be "American" varies according to
your background. In other words, what is "American" to a German-American may not be seen as
"American" by an African-American and so on.
In terms of historical data, immigration to the United States is divided in five categories, according
to David M. Heer in the book "Immigration in America's Future" (1996):
1) "Unrestricted Entry - 1789 to 1874": According to Heer, this period was characterized by a lack of law in
terms of immigration restriction and preference categories although certain historical events did have an
impact on the nature of immigration during this period, such as the legislation in 1808 that made the slave
trade illegal. That fact has started the indenture service in the British colonies that brought immigrants from
Europe. Most of the immigrants to America in this period came from Northwestern Europe, mainly English,
Welsh, Scots, Germans and Dutch.
Even though no laws concerning immigration quotas existed at that time, issues surrounding
immigration did. According to Heer: "The resulting Naturalization Act of 1790 decreed that free white
immigrants must be resident for only two years in the United States before being granted citizenship. In
opposing the bill, however, several members of Congress urged for a much longer period of residence
before citizenship could be granted" (Heer 1996, 32).
In the last decades of this period, a new immigrant group was coming to America, along with
Northwestern Europeans. They were the Chinese, that started coming to the United States in large numbers
to work in the transcontinental railroad after the discovery of gold in California. That led to a strong antiChinese movement that did not allow people of Chinese origin to become Amrican citizens.
2) "Initial Restriction - 1875 to 1917": This period is considered to be one of the most significant in the
history of immigration in the United States because it is in this period that America has received its largest
influx of immigrants in its history. Another important aspect of this period is the shift of the immigrants'
nationalities. While in the past most of the immigrants were Protestants from Northwestern Europe, this
period saw a huge influx of Southern as well as Eastern Europeans, most of whom were Catholics and some
were Jewish. These immigrants from Southern and Eastern Europe were feared by nativists, who regarded
them as being inferior, thus constituting a threat to Protestant values brought to America by previous
immigrants.
One of the most important aspects of this period, which saw the beginning of restrictions on
immigration, was the creation of a bill in 1915 that required a literacy tests for immigrants. The anti-asiatic
sentiment, which started in the previous years against Chinese immigrants, was further strengthened in the
Immigration Act of 1917: "No person could be admitted as a legal immigrant to the United States who came
from an area including India, Indochina, Afghanistan, Arabia, the East Indies and other smaller Asian
countries" (Heer 1996, 42). This period represents the beginning of immigrant classification in either legal
or illegal status.
3) "Maximum Restriction - 1917 to 1941": This period was characterized by the use of the quota system to
control immigration after the failure of literacy tests. Immigration from Southern and Eastern Europeans
remained high and continued to "pose a threat" to the ideal of what America should be: a country with a
Nordic population and Protestant values. The quota system, which became a part of the Immigration Act of
1921 established the immigration of 358,000 immigrants from the Eastern Hemisphere yearly, to be divided
as follows: 200,000 to Northwestern Europeans, 155,000 to Southern and Eastern Europeans and only
3,000 to other Eastern Hemisphere countries (Heer 1996).
Many were the factors that resulted in higher restriction towards immigration, the most important
of which was the economic recession in the late 20's, the Great Depression. The number of immigrants
admitted to the United States decreased drastically, from over 4 million in the 1920's to about 500,000 in
the 1930's. Illegal immigration was starting to become a national concern, with Mexican immigrants
crossing the borders as well as European immigrants arriving illegally through Canada. World War I also
had a major impact on immigration during this period. A stronger effort to ensure border security through
passports and visas came into being. According to John Torpey in "The Invention of the Passport"(2000), "
The Immigration Act of 1924 provided that American consuls abroad be charged with the task of keeping
control of the quotas themselves and distributing immigration visas accordingly. At the same time, various
other qualifications - including police checks, medical inspections, financial responsibility, determinations
and political interviews -could be established long before the intending immigrant reached the country"
(Torpey 2000, 120). In other words, immigration restriction took place even before the immigrant reached
America - a practice that continues to this day.
4) "Liberalization - December 1941 to April 1980": As the United States was establishing itself as the
world's superpower against the Soviet Union in the Cold War, the immigration pattern in America changed.
Many immigrants started coming as refugees, such as the Jewish survivors from the Holocaust as well as
refugees from Communist countries like Cuba. One of the main aspects of this period is the termination of
quotas based on nationality. Rather, quotas were now assigned uniformily for certain countries. Later on,
the Immigration Act of 1976 had a major impact, with the quotas from Western Hemisphere countries being
equaled to those from the Eastern Hemisphere, causing an increase in immigration from Latin American
countries, particularly Mexico.
5) "Concern With Illegal Immigration - April 1980 to present": The recent aspect concerning immigration
today is the impact of illegal immigration in America. The amnesty program of 1986 that legalized millions
of immigrants in the United States has led to massive illegal immigration that continues to this day. It is
estimated that 3 to 6 million people live in the United States illegally (Bischoff 2002). Although the number
of illegal immigrants living in the U.S is hard to estimate, they have had tremendous impact on several
institutions throughout the country, such as schools having to provide English as a second language
education, welfare programs such as Medicaid being given to illegals immigrant with no proper
documentation and the burden of hundreds of thousands of fake Social Security Cards. It is important to
note that 9/11 has brought another aspect to the immigration issue: to protect the borders not just for the
sake of illegal immigration, but also to protect America from terrorism.
These and other aspects involving today's debate, such as exploitation of illegal immigrants, lower
wages, non-assimiliation, the role of corporate America and how it encourages illegal immigration will be
further discussed in the section called "The Debate."
Section 3. Illegal Immigration
There is no question that illegal immigration has become a major issue in America today. From
politicians to citizens, everyone has an opinion about illegal immigrants and their impact on American
society. However, before discussing the debate that surrounds illegal immigration, it is important to
understand the concept and reasons that lead to people entering the United States illegally.
An illegal immigrant is a person who enters the United States and stays, works and lives here when
he or she has no permission to do so. There are two common ways in which individuals "become" illegal:
either by overstaying their visas or entering through the Canadian or, most commonly, the Mexican border.
According to Jeffrey Passel, director of the Program for Research Policy at the Urban Institute in
Washington D.C, there is an "annual increase of 120,000 to 150,000 illegal aliens a year" (Bischoff 2002,
289). A large proportion of them are Mexican immigrants that enter by crossing the border. Some of the
illegal immigrants come in order to escape religious, ideological and political persecution. Most, however,
come here because of economic reasons. Poverty, unemployment and low wages lead people to take
desperate measures to come to America.
One of these desperate measures is paying a "coyote" or "professional smugglers"in order to reach
the United States. Most that cross the U.S-Mexico border pay fees as high as US$ 5,000 (Bischoff 2002).
For somebody from a country like Mexico, where according to the website worldbank.org, half of the
population live in poverty that can mean years of saving money in order to pay a smuggler. Although there
is a high cost to being smuggled to the United States, a growing number or immigrants are coming that way,
which has prompted the American Border Patrol to increase the number of agents securing the borders as
well as the use of modern technology and tools to prevent illegal immigrants from entering the U.S. After
9/11 one major issue is now involving border security: terrorism. Nowadays, border patrol agents have to,
besides dealing with immigrants that come for economic opportunities, ensure that the U.S is protected from
individuals involved in terrorists organizations that come to attack America.
Crossing the border or overstaying a visa, although the two most common ways to become an
illegal alien, are not the only ones. Cubans and Haitians, for instance, may reach the Florida shore by boat.
According to Henry Bischoff in "Immigration Issues" (2002): "Other undocumented aliens, a considerable
number of whom are Chinese, have been smuggled into the United States amid the cargo in large freighters"
(292).
It can be argued that the United States, being a vast and ethnic diverse country, absorbs illegal
immigrants very easily. In other words, individuals may live here for decades without having their illegal
status known. Once an illegal immigrant reaches America, he or she can simply "disappear" in the vastness
of this country and be in underground worlds of ethnic enclaves. Some of these illegal immigrants have
relatives or friends already living in the United States. These connections ease their transition in America,
by helping them find jobs and start a "new" life. Once here, they may have children in American soil,
making these children American citizens or "anchor babies".
One of the most significant moments in the history of illegal immigration in America was the
Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, an amnesty program that legalized over 2 million people that
were living in the United States illegally. Although such amnesty was seen as a solution in the immigration
reform, its effect has been disastrous in many respects. It is argued that since the amnesty, illegal
immigration in the United States has "skyrocketed" as millions have come since then in hopes to benefit
from a future amnesty program like the one in 1986, although that has never happened. Many blame the
1986 amnesty program for the alarming levels of illegal immigration seen today. In the next section, called
"The Debate", different views concerning illegal immigrants will be discussed.
Section 4. The debate
As mentioned before, the issue of illegal immigration has been in the limelight of discussions
regarding America's economy, politics and human rights. Whether illegal imigration is beneficial or not to
the United States is a divise issue. While some view illegal immigrants as needed because they perform jobs
that American citizens and legal aliens do not, others believe that illegal immigration are a drain to
America's economy.
One of the issues surrounding illegal immigration is that of ethnicity and culture. Throughout
history, every immigrant group has been received with suspicion and resentment by the population. That has
been true for German, Italians, Greeks and Eastern Europeans in the past. However, as the following
generations acquired proficiency in English and financial stability, they have taken on an "American"
identity. In other words, although they remained loyal to their culture and its traditions thay have also
assimilated into American society and started perceiving themselves primarily as "Americans".
Nowadays, however, it is argued that assimilation is at stake due to illegal immigration.
Immigrants that enter the United States illegally are excluded from American society, and therefore cannot
and do not want to be part of a society that does not fully accept them. Those who are against illegal
immigration argue that political correctness also prevents assimilation. As a number of public institutions
provide services in several languages, some immigrants may not feel the need to learn the English language.
The existence of ethnic enclaves may also delay cultural assimilation, as some immigrant groups distance
themselves from the general American society by forming their own communities, where they speak their
own language and maintain their traditions. Nevertheless, ethnic enclaves have always been a part of
American society, such as the Jewish enclave in the Lower East Side, in Manhattan and Little Italy in cities
in the Northeast. In other words, the existence of ethnic enclaves as a barrier to cultural assimilation can be
questioned.
The most important aspect of the current debate is definitely the economic impact of illegal
immigration. In a city like New York, for instance, illegal immigrants are very much a part of our everyday
lives. From restaurants to construction sites, illegal aliens are an important and needed source of labor. The
opposing views concerning illegal immigrants and their economic impact is illustrated in "Immigration
Issues" by Henry Bischoff (2002): "Disagreement also exists about the cost of services for undocumented
immigrants. Some of those who want to clamp down on illegal immigration believe that these newcomers
work heavily in an underground cash economy and thus avoid paying income tax and social security tax, but
they use public health services, send their children to public schools, and, through fraudulent documents,
get on welfare roles (...). On the other side, are those who have maintained that the undocumented pay sales
taxes, through rent contribute to property taxes, and, some, who use false documents, find that they are
required to pay income and social security taxes" (Bischoff 2002, 269).
Public services are without a doubt affected by the influx of illegals. As mentioned by Bischoff,
institutions such as Medicaid are heavily overloaded with the necessity to provide medical care to illegals
who do not have health insurance. The educational system has been severely transformed in certain areas
because of illegal immigrants. Some school districts have to use a large portion of their resources investing
in English as a second language education to foreign children. There is a concern that taxpayers' money is
used to provide and care for those who do not contribute to American society. As the influx of illegal
continues, Americans have been more supportive of a more restrictive immigration policy, which is
illustrated by David Heer in "Immigration in America's future" (1996): "(...) the American public believes
that current levels of immigration are too high and that illegal immigration is a serious problem" (Heer
1996)
Section 5. Conclusion
The United States,as the world's richest and most powerful democracy, is a haven for people from
countries plagued by poverty, religious and ideological intolerance. As such, this country represents an
ideal, a dream of a new life for millions of people. It has been that way in the past and it will continue being
so in the future. Unfortunately, in order to pursue the American dream, some have to come illegally. Once
an illegal alien, one is subject to exploitation and discrimination, receiving low wages and working long
hours. Nevertheless, it is a fact that their financial situation improves when compared to the lives they leave
behind before coming to America. Unfortunately, their access to the American dream is not whole since
they cannot enjoy all the benefits reserved for American-born and naturalized citizens.
Illegal immigration is one of the most complex issues facing America today. Therefore, it is
difficult to state a clear position whether ilegal immigration is a positive or negative influence in American
society. In other words, this is not a one dimensional subject. On the one hand, illegals do contribute to
America's growth, particularly in the agricultural sector, where most of the workers, especially in the
California area, are illegal aliens. Despite the issue of illegality, immigrants are also consumers. Some may
not pay taxes but at the same time, they do consume American products and goods, meaning that they do
contribute and give money back to society one way or another.
Nevertheless, control of the American borders is necessary. Without control, America may suffer
disastrous effects economically and politically. Overcrowded schools that have to provide English as a
second language would not be able to handle large numbers of children that speak little to no English.
Programs such as Medicaid might collapse by providing medical care to millions of illegal aliens. In other
words, the United States cannot afford to have open borders. The United States has to continue being a land
that receives people with open arms. The poem "The New Colossus" by Emma Lazarus engraved inside the
Statue of the Liberty Museum is an accurate representation of what the United States, as the world's
superpower, ought to be:
"Give me your tired, your poor.
Your huddled masses yearning to breathe free,
The wretched refuse of your teeming shore.
Send these, the homeless, the tempest-tos to me,
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!"
That does not mean, however, that the United States should be open to anyone and everyone. A
fair system, that provides the opportunity for one to live and work here, has to be based on several factors,
such as family ties, potential contribution to American society and so on. On the other hand, an immigrant
that comes to America should be expected to learn the English language and contribute to society like any
other citizen, by paying taxes. Also, preference must be given to those who come to America through legal
ways. There is no question that such approach to immigration reform, mentioned recently by president
George W. Bush on a national TV announcement sounds easier to implement on paper than in "real life."
Implementing such reforms would be a daunting task that would take many years to be effective, even if
that. For such reason, illegal immigration and immigration reform are likely to continue being divise issues
for years to come.
References:
Bischoff, Henry. Immigration Issues. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002.
Cornelius, Wayne et al. Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective. 2nd ed. Stanford: Stanford UP,
2004.
Heer, David M. Immigration in America's Future. Boulder: Westview Press, 1996.
Torpey, John. The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship and the State. Cambridge: Press
Syndicate of the University of Cambridge, 2000.
The Word Bank Group. The World Bank. 2006. 2 June 2006.
<http://www.worldbank.org>