Writing a Scientific Paper
Adapted from Cox (1990)
http://biology.luther.edu/paper.htm
Although reviewing the scientific literature and writing a research paper is hard work, if well done the
experience may be one of the most satisfying accomplishments that you have as a biology student. A well
written scientific paper must fulfill two objectives. First, it must clearly and completely describe the
procedures that were followed and the results that were obtained. Second, it must place these results in
perspective by relating them to the existing state of knowledge and by interpreting their significance for
future study.
To place your research in perspective requires:
1.
2.
3.
4.
summarizing the state of knowledge on the general topic
relating your work to general body of knowledge on the topic
stating the critical hypotheses toward which the study is addressed
interpreting the results of the study in relation to these hypotheses and to the general state of
knowledge
5. identifying the scientific questions and procedural weaknesses that need to be addressed in the
future.
While you need to do all of this, you also need to write clearly and as concisely as possible. Superfluous
verbiage is a hindrance to the reader. Some examples of unclear and excessive writing include "The rats,
numbering six, were...", "It can be noted that fewer...", or "The tapeworm, when in adulthood, can,...".
These should simply be "Six rats were...", "Fewer...", or "The adult tapeworm can....". When editing, read
your paper out loud, making sure your grammar is complete and your statements make sense!
PAPER FORMAT
Scientific papers usually include the following major sections, each clearly labeled:
1) Introduction
2) Procedure (or Materials and Methods)
3) Results
4) Discussion
5) Acknowledgments
6) Literature Cited
This is not an absolute structure as some papers will be variations of this model. A brief outline of
each section is given below.
Title: Use the fewest possible words to adequately describe the contents of the paper.
Introduction: explain exactly what the objectives of the study are, and why it's a worthwhile
effort. In the end you should be able to defend each sentence if I ask "why did you include this
information?"
The introduction should address the following questions:
1
1) why did you undertake this study?
2) what is the state of existing knowledge?
3) what specifically are you going to do (clearly state your hypotheses and/or objectives)
Procedure or Materials and Methods: answers all basic questions about how the study was done
so that another scientist could repeat your experiment. Basically answer the questions where,
when, and how. Be as specific and as concise as possible. I don't need to know you used a #2 pencil,
but I do need to know if (for example) you made observations of some animal behavior, or where
you obtained your test organisms.
Be careful with terms. If you say you randomly sampled a site, make sure it was, in fact, a random
sample and not a subjectively selected sample. Any statistical methods used to analyze your data
should also be described here, citing a source for the use of the statistical tests, perhaps a
statistics book.
Results: should clearly describe what was found, and not require the reader to interpret data from
figures and tables. Generally, results include only summarized data and observations obtained in
the study. Do not present raw data. If you want to include actual data sheets these are an
appendix to the paper. In addition, all figures and tables included in your paper must be cited in
the results description. Most importantly, the results section should be free of interpretation of
the data.
If a figure can be used to show the data, use the figure (e.g. a graph) instead of a table. Most
people understand graphs more quickly than tables. Don't present the same data in several ways,
choose the one best way. While tables are good for presenting some kinds of data, consider the
options. Do not present tables in text form! Both tables and figures should be clearly labeled
Figure 1 or Table 1 in order of being referred to in the text, and should include a descriptive
caption so they "stand alone" without needing reference to the text of the results section. Table
captions are always above a table, while figure captions are placed below a graph, picture, or
sketch. Each table or figure should be on a separate page, inserted in order immediately following
the text page it is first cited on.
Combine statements about the significance of differences examined by statistical tests with a
precise indication of the test used and the probability level chosen. For example "the difference
between the means was highly significant (t-test; t = 4.5; d.f. = 12; P < 0.01). Means (averages)
should always be followed by an indication of the variation around that mean (25.4 ± 2.7, n=5), and
the number of data points used to determine the mean should also be included.
Discussion: is the interpretation of the data in relation to the original objectives or hypotheses.
Relate your findings to the present state of knowledge and future needs for research. Make sure
this is genuinely interpretive, not just a restatement of the introduction or results sections.
In your discussion, address the following:
1) reach conclusions about the initial hypotheses and/or objectives
2) compare how your conclusions agree or contrast with previously published works
3) identify sources of error and inadequacies of your research
4) speculate upon broader meaning of the conclusions
2
5) identify needed next steps in research on the problem
Acknowledgments: (optional, depending on the study) give credit to those who helped in your
research through advice, work, permission, technical advice, monetary support, etc.
Literature Cited: contains, in alphabetical order, only those items specifically referred to within
the text. Items you read but did not specifically cite in the text of your paper should not be
included. The following format should be used:
To cite a journal article with one author:
Howe, H.F. 1995. Succession and fire season in experimental prairie plantings. Ecology 76: 19171925.
(this is the author, date, title of an article in the journal Ecology. The volume is 76 and the page
numbers 1917-1925.)
with two authors:
Larsen, K.J. & R.E. Lee. 1994. Cold tolerance including rapid cold-hardening and inoculative freezing
of all migrant Monarch butterflies in Ohio. Journal of Insect Physiology 40: 859-864.
with three (or more) authors:
Larsen, K.J., S.E. Heady & L.R. Nault. 1992. Influence of ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) on
honeydew excretion and escape behaviors in a myrmecophile, Dalbulus quinquenotatus (Homoptera:
Cicadellidae), and its congeners. Journal of Insect Behavior 5: 109-122.
To cite a book:
Southwood, T.R.E. 1984. Ecological Methods with Particular Reference to the Study of Insect
Populations, second edition. Chapman & Hall, New York.
To cite an article in an edited volume (book):
Loreau, M. 1986. Niche differentiation and community organization in forest carabid beetles,
pp. 465-487. In: Carabid Beetles, their Adaptations and Dynamics,, P.J. den Boer, M. Luff, D.
Mossakowski & F. Weber (eds). Gustav Fisher, Stuttgart, Germany.
Text citations: In the text of your paper, do not use footnotes or quotes. Instead, cite relevant
information from the literature in your own words and acknowledge the source using author and
date format as shown in the following examples:
As discussed by Howe (1995), few projects studying the effect of fire.....
Wet monarchs are significantly more susceptible to rapid freezing than dry monarchs
(Larsen & Lee 1994).
3
If there are more than two authors of a source, cite the reference by the first author name and
et al. along with the date. For example:
(Larsen et al. 1992) or Larsen et al. (1992) for information from the paper on leafhopper
behavior listed above written by Larsen, Heady & Nault in 1992.
FINAL THOUGHTS
If you're unsure how your paper should be assembled, ask your instructor! Be sure to double space,
number all pages, and use a single staple in the upper left-hand corner.
Scientific writing involves lots of peer review and constructive criticism. The attached scientific
paper evaluation form will be used to help determine your grade for this project. Take red marks
as opportunities, not personal attacks. Therefore, an opportunity may be given on this assignment
to rewrite your paper if you so desire and the final grade for the assignment will be an average of
the two grades.
Bibliography
Cox, G.W. 1990. Laboratory Manual of General Ecology, sixth edition. Wm. C. Brown Publishers,
Dubuque, Iowa
Name _______________________________
Scientific Paper Evaluation Form
Score (2 = always, 1 = sometimes, 0 = rarely or never)
Score Title:
Comments
descriptive and appropriate
Introduction:
sufficient background information so purpose of study
is clear?
hypothesis and/or objective(s) of study clearly stated
Procedure or Materials and Methods:
are methods clearly described?
research design is appropriate
Results:
clear text description of results
4
figures and/or tables referred to in text
figures and/or tables are essential, proper format, and
"stand
alone" with clear captions
all relevant data is presented?
are results
statistical
methods?
adequately
analyzed
by
appropriate
Discussion:
all relevant data discussed?
data justifies conclusions/interpretations?
facts, calculations, and interpretations correct?
interpretations/conclusions compared with published
works?
Literature Cited:
sufficient and appropriate (related) for scope of
study?
correct citation methodology in body of text (author
date format)?
correct bibliographic format?
Overall:
report is clearly written and logically organized?
understanding of content clearly demonstrated by
author?
spelling and grammar OK, easy to read?
Total Grading Score: ___/40 = ___%
5
6