Social Research Methods HRM 207 (by C. Hungwe 2007)
There is no consensus on how research should be defined since research means different
things to different people. However, social scientists agree that research has the following
characteristics;
1. It is a process of inquiry and investigation- it is empirical
2. It is systematic and methodical- for replicability there is need for explicitness
3. Research increases knowledge- it aims at knowledge that is objective and tries to
eliminate irrationality, subjectivity and factual errors in knowing about facts.
4. Research ought to give accurate, reliable (cross-checked) and appropriate (right
sort of answers) data.
According to Mouton & Marais (1958) social science research is “a collaborative
human activity in which social reality is studied objectively with the aim of gaining a
valid understanding of it”. Kerlinger (1983) defines it as a systematic, controlled,
empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed
relations among natural phenomena.
We emphasize the word objectively because human activity/ society must be studied
fairly without pre-judgment/ bias.
Students in both undergraduate and postgraduate levels engage in research in-order to
address a specific problem and to contribute to our general understanding of the
general solutions. Hussey& Hussey (1997:02) outline the purpose of research as
follows:
(a) To review and synthesise the existing knowledge
(b) To investigate some existing situation/ problem
(c) To provide solutions to a problem
(d) To explore and analyse more general issues
(e) To construct/ create a new procedure/system
(f) To explain a new phenomenon
(g) To generate new knowledge
(h) To explain the present and also attempt to predict future tendencies and events.
Models of scientific research
Types of research
1. Pure- basic- done for enriching the theory
2. Applied- aimed at enriching field of application, for example, action research
3. Research can also either be experimental on non-experimental (descriptive and
exploratory)
Dimensions of social science research
(a) The sociological – acknowledges research praxis/social action
(b) The ontological – views research as always directed on an aspects of social reality
(c) Teleological – as a human, research in social sciences is intentional and goal
directed (understanding of phenomena is the main aim).
(d) Epistemological- the aim is not merely to understand phenomena but also to
provide a valid reliable understanding of reality (truth claims).
(e) Methodological- research may be regarded as objective by virtue of its being
critical, balanced, unbiased, systematic and controllable in nature.
The sociological dimension
During the renaissance (14th –16th) knowledge was regarded as a secret that was
meant to remain in the possession of a few. Philosophers such as Paracelsus and
Agrippa wrote that work has no need for partnership at all. They therefore argued for
an isolationist perspective. This standpoint was however rejected by the philosophers
of the 17th century such as Francis Bacon who called for co-operation and
collaboration in research. This coincides with the sociology of science arguments that
scientist operate within a clearly defined community. The sociology of science
highlights the view that scientists belong to identifiable disciplinary paradigms/ that
they are linked in research networks. The typical theme of the sociology of science
perspective concerns the analysis social mechanisms, which operate within these
research communities. It is argued that in the scientific community there is an
exchange of the sake of community’s specific rewards. A researcher who produces
acceptable scientific information is rewarded by publications of work and election
into the editorial board of learned journals. Theorists such as t. Kuhn, Barnes and
Storer go to an extent of arguing that scientific information is regarded as creative
products that are exchanged for academic recognition. In the structure of scientific
revolutions 1970 Kuhn argues that scientists operate within clearly defined
communities that have norms and values. Research findings may either be judged as
scientific/ unscientific depending on whether the concerned scientist followed the
norms/ values of a particular community. There is a great deal of social control in
these research communities. Kuhn further argues that science grows/ moves forward
not because there are discoveries made but because scientists might be tired of a
certain paradigm and therefore would accept any new idea provided that the new idea
is presented using the acceptable norms and values of a particular research
community. Just like political revolutions, in science there are scientific revolutions
that are led by scientists advocating for change in the dominant paradigms.
Science is a social and not an individual activity. Scientists publish their findings in
learned journals such as the journal of Sociology etc. Other members of the scientific
community working in the same or related fields read their reports critically. If the
paper is found convincing, it will be cited, or used as the basis for further work and
another brick will have been laid into the growing edifice of scientific knowledge
(this is why some articles are accepted while others are rejected for publication).
The importance of ethics
It is inevitable that consideration concerning mechanisms of social control would also
involve moral implications. Growing interest in research ethics is indicative of this
development e.g. interest in plagiarism. In situations where research becomes organized
and institutionalised it is unavoidable that greater emphasis is placed on moral values and
norms relating to plagiarism, professional conduct, status and rights of research
participants (e.g. project Camelot in Vietnam). Another central theme in the study of
the sociology of science is the role of ideological interest in the process of scientific
research. There is always latent conflict of interest where research is highly organized
and where external sources of finance, govt depts. And others become involved. It
becomes clear that once a specific research community adopts a certain point of view
with regards to an interest group/ ideological school the study of the relationship btwn
ideological assumptions the research becomes the most interesting field of study. E.g. in
the case where your study is sponsored by the ford foundation, there is a deliberate effort
made by the researcher to try and satisfy the interest and curiosities of the sponsors. You
present the information they want in the format dictated by them.
The ontological dimension
Ontology is the study of being /reality. The research domain in social sciences is social
reality. In general the research domain may be regarded as humankind in all its diversity,
which would include human activities, characteristics, products etc. we have to be clear
that diversity permits different perspectives. Social phenomena may be distinguished in
terms of being observable/unobservable, verbal/ nonverbal, individual/ collective.
Teleological
It may be possible to regard the theoretical aim of social science research a being a
description of rule governed aspects of human behaviour this is where explanation of
behaviour is in terms of causal laws and prediction of future behav. Similarly it would be
possible to regard a number of practical aims as important. Such a list might include: the
control of human beings, reforming society by resolving social problems, emancipation
of the oppressed, supplying reliable information for public policy etc. Irrespective of
which ideal of the social sciences one may support, the practice of science is invariably
goal-directed. Through the teleological dimension, research can be classified as
exploratory, descriptive, explanatory or predictive. Research can also be distinguished in
terms of hypothesis generation and hypothesis testing (which is a distinction between
qualitative and quantitative research).
Explanatory research = reporting why something happens
Descriptive= giving details about the area of study. The aim is to add on to existing
knowledge e.g. censuses that seek to add information about the age, gender occupations
of people in Zimbabwe.
Exploratory= the aim is to know more about the research setting. It is done where few or
no research studies have been made.
Predictive = Seeks to give a picture of how the future would be like.
Epistemological dimension
This may be regarded as the key dimension of social research. It concerns itself with
providing a valid and reliable understanding of social reality. Comes from the Greek
word episteme, which means truth. This dimension therefore emphasizes true knowledge
(truth claims). What is true knowledge? What is truth? The epistemological dimension is
emphasized more in the language of science than any other dimension. It is regarded as
the embodiment of the ideal of science, which is the quest for truth. A high degree of
validity and reliability is therefore emphasized.
Validity= having the correct/approximate picture of social reality. Your research findings
should approximate reality as closely as possible.
The methodological dimension
Concerns the logic of decision-making process in research. It concerns itself with the how
part of social research. E.g. how research should be done, planned, structured and
executed to comply with the criteria of science. The process of scientific research is
largely a type of decision-making. Researchers are required to make a series of decisions
of the following nature;
(a) Which theory/model is likely to be the most effective for investigating a given
subject?
(b) Which research hypothesis concerning the object of study may be formulated on
the basis of the selected theory/model?
(c) Which measuring instruments and data collection methods may be used
(d) How should the collected data be analysed?
(e) What do the findings mean in relation to the original formulation of the problem?
What should be emphasized is that the methodological dimension concerns itself with
the decision making process of research. Methodology can be defined as the study of
the research process in all its broadness and complexity. It is the logic of application
of scientific methods to the investigation of phenomena. This includes the various
methods and techniques employed, the rationale that underlies use of such methods,
the limitations of each technique, the role of assumptions and presumptions in
selecting methods and techniques, the influence of methodological preferences on the
type of data analysis employed and the subsequent interpretation of findings etc.
Sandra Harding (1987:03) defines methodology as a theory and analysis of how
research does/should proceed. It includes accounts of how the general structure of
theory finds its application in particular scientific disciplines, e.g. how functionalism/
Marxism/ behaviouralism should be applied in particular research areas. It is the
methodology that allows different scientists to compare and analyse the objectivity of
their work. This point is reiterated by Worsley (1970:69) who argues that: “among
sociologists working with the same set of general theoretical concepts, the question
is; in what way can an investigator satisfy his colleagues that they can trust that he
has accurately described what he has seen and the conclusions drawn are valid.
The 2 types of logic
Induction= this is where one reasons from the particular to the general. If you always see
white swans and then conclude that all swans are white. This statement may not be valid
and may be disproved when one sees a black swan.
Deduction= this is where one reasons from the general to the particular. In deduction one
starts by laying down a general formula and then measure the disputed maxim against it.
(You lay a law and seek events that falsify it). These two types of logic will influence the
methodology that one chooses.
Dominant paradigms in Social Research
A paradigm is a set of propositions that explains how the world is perceived. It contains a
world-view, a way of breaking down the complexity of the real world telling the
researchers and social scientists in general what is important, what is legitimate and
what’s reasonable.
What are research methods?
These are tools for data collection and analysis. Practically they are the tools of trade for
social scientists and they are chosen on the basis of criteria related to or even dictated by
the major elements of the methodology in which they are embedded. They are tools used
by researchers to gather empirical evidence.
The three paradigms in research are positivism, interpretivism and critical social science.
The positivist perspective
It is the oldest in social science. It can be traced back to the works of Auguste Comte
(1798- 1857) and Emile Durkheim (1859-1917). Positivism is from the term positive- a
term employed by Comte as an ideological weapon against the enlightenment thinkers.
Comte blamed the enlightenment thinkers for having caused the French revolution of
1789and generally for creating a deplorable state of anarchy (Zeitlin 1990:77).
The positivist aims of social research
Positivists perceive social research in an instrumental way. Research is a tool for studying
social events and learning about them and their interconnections so that general causal
laws can be discovered, explained and documented. Knowledge of events and social laws
allows society to control events and predict their occurrence. Social research must also
ensure that order and progress mutually exist in society. Order= the harmony that
prevails among various conditions of existence. Progress= the society’s orderly
development according to natural laws. (These are Comte’s definitions). Comte’s slogan
was “to predict in order to control”. Prediction therefore is the most important activity for
social science researchers.
Perception of Reality
Reality is perceived as everything that can be perceived through the senses. Reality is
‘out there’ and is independent of human consciousness. This is a nomothetic perspective
of reality because there is an assumption that there is only one reality. Since reality is
something that everyone experiences, all members of the society define reality in the
same experiences. Therefore reality is objective, rests on order and is governed by strict
natural and unchangeable laws.
Perception of human beings
Human are viewed as rational beings governed by social laws; their behaviour is learnt
through observation and governed by external causes that produce the same results.
(same causes = same consequences). Positivists argue that the individual is nothing but
society is everything. Therefore in research the unit of analysis is not the individual but
the family. The individual is governed by rules of society that are called social facts
(social laws). These are things that exist outside the individual but constrain and
overwhelm an individual’s behaviour. Therefore an individual is not a free being thus is a
fallacy to idealize human freedom (an attack on the E. T.).
Methods of Research used by Positivists
Positivists argue that social science research must be modelled along the lines of natural
sciences. Comte emphasised such techniques as observation, the experiment and the
comparative method. For Comte, observation is impossible without a theory first to direct
it and then to interpret what is observed (this is a the deductive type of logic. Science is
deductive proceeding from the general to the particular- abstract to the specific and
concrete. Science is perceived as nomothetic that is, based on universal causal laws that
are used to explain concrete social relationships. Science is different from commonsense.
It separates facts from values and myths. Research is value-free. This is the perspective
that informs objective personality/psychometric tests in organisational behaviour where it
is believed that humans can be objectively tested and researched on.
The interpretive perspective
This is linked to the works of Giovanni Batisto Vico (1688-1744) Dilthey (1833-1911)
and Weber (1864-1920). Weber-put emphasis on vesterhen= empathetic understanding
of human behaviour. Equally significant is the contribution of S.I., phenomenology,
ethno methodology and hermeneutics (interpretation).
Aims of social research
Social research has no direct instrumental value. Research helps to interpret and
understand the actor’s reasons for social actions, the way they construct their lives and
the meanings they attach to them as well as to comprehend the social context of social
action. What is important here is not the observable social action but rather the subjective
meanings of such actions. Through hermeneutics and vestehern social research aims to
interpret and empathise / empathetically understand human behaviour.
Perception of reality
Reality is not out there but is in the mind. Its internally experienced, socially constructed
through interaction and interpretation by the actors. Reality is based on the definition
people attach to it. (SI). Reality is subjective therefore there can be multiple realities
since people perceive things differently.
Perception of human beings
Humans occupy a central position in research. Great attention is paid to the reality and
social world created by the actors. These are constructed through assigning meaning
systems to events. Individuals therefore are not passive recipients of phenomena but they
actively construct their reality. Three are no general laws of a restrictive nature but
subjective patterns and regularities that emerge as a result of social conventions
established through interaction.
Methods used and the perception of social science by ISS
ISS argue that the basis for explaining social life and social events is common sense. This
is because common sense contains the meanings people use to make sense of their lives.
ISS therefore uses the inductive type o logic. Reality is not about causal laws but is
presented in a descriptive (idiographic) form. This is the basis of projective personality
tests such as the T.AT. Rosenzweig etc. Knowledge is not only derived through the
senses but also through understanding meanings and interpretations made by individuals.
Therefore science is not value free but value laden. Value neutrality is neither possible
nor necessary.
Critical theory perspective
It is linked to the works of Marx (1818- 1883) and critical theorists such as Adorno,
Horkheimer, Marcuse, etc. It is also linked to the work of feminist researchers such as
Harding, Eichler etc. although originally developed in the second half of the 19th Century
C.T. became fully accepted in social science after WW2. The theoretical backbone of
C.T. is a combination of conflict theory, critical sociology, Marxism and feminism.
Aims of Social research
CTs want to get below the surface and expose the real unequal power relations,
disclosing myths and illusions on what the world should be and how to change the world.
The purpose of research is determined by the critical and activist nature of the theory,
which is research, oriented. In sum the goal of research is to empower individuals to
overthrow the oppressive social order.
Perception of reality
Reality is a creation of those in power. This group of people manipulates and
brainwashes others (subordinates) to perceive things and interpret them the way they
want them to be perceived. Feminists argue that men through the institution of patriarchy
have created reality. Reality is not in a state of order but of conflict, tension and
contradiction. While the positivists argue that reality is objective and the ISSs argue that
it is subjective, CTs are somewhere in between. They believe that although subjective
meanings are relevant and important, objective relations cannot be denied.
Perception of human beings
Humans have a great potential for creativity and adjustment. This potential is however,
restricted and oppressed by social factors and conditions. Subordinate groups are
oppressed by the dominant individuals who convince them that their conditions and
acceptable and unchangeable. Belief in such illusions creates false consciousness and
prevents people from fully realising their potential. Feminists are particularly concerned
with women and their position in the contemporary society. Women are seen in dynamic
contexts which present options and opportunities that are, however, being misused and
appropriated by men. Men are seen as oppressing women in all social contexts such as
the family, church, workplace etc. The institution of patriarchy has been entrenched in
society such that women have accepted injustice and inequality.
Perception of science
Science is perceived from a standpoint that is between positivism and ISS. CTs propose
that though actors are confronted by socio-economic conditions that shape their lives,
they are also capable of changing those realities. Marx argued, “humans make history but
they don’t make it as they please”. Science is not value free but employs values. Critical
theorists do not only study reality, they act upon that reality to bring Change. Erg.
Feminists are also activists.
The two methodologies in Social research
Quantitative methodology
It is based on the positivist philosophy. Its structure, process and theoretical background
constituted the standards for the methods of social research for more than a century. The
theoretical principles of quantitative research are as follows:
1. Reality is objective, simple and positive. It consists of sense impressions.
There is on reality in nature and one truth (nomothethic understanding).
2. Humans are governed by their social laws in the same manner that fixed
laws govern the naturalistic world. Humans are subject to fixed patterns
that are empirically observable. This is the thesis of nomological thinking
where the task of the social researcher is to discover the scientific laws
that explain human behaviour.
3. Value neutrality- Facts should be kept apart from value. Researchers
should not make value judgements.
4. Natural and social sciences share common logical and methodological
foundations. Social sciences ought to employ the methods of natural
sciences.
5. Replication and retesting of data- it is argued that metaphysical,
philosophical reasoning and speculations are a mere illusion that can’t
offer reliable and verifiable data. These do not have empirical relevance
since they don’t employ a clear procedure that would allow for replication
and retesting of data.
6. The logical form of the theory is deductive.
7. In terms of knowledge construction social scientists are committed to
explicit, exact and formal procedures, in defining concepts establishing
propositions generalising and measuring concepts such that others can
reassess the validity of new propositions.
8. The researcher is a technocrat who aims to discover and document
generalisations.
*Apart from Comte’s influence this quantitative methodology is also based on
quantitativism (placing emphasis on measurement and quantification) and
behaviouralism (stresses the exclusive interest in the study of observable
behaviour.
A critique of Quantitative methodology
Mainly comes from ISS e.g. Hurssels (1950), Schultz (1959). They argue that:
1. Social phenomena do not exist outside the individuals but exists in the
interpretations of individuals.
2. The overemphasis on quantitative measurement is wrong and unjustifiable
since it cannot capture the real meaning of social behaviour.
3. There are problems that come with the use of hypotheses. The hypothesis
determines the course of the study from the onset. It also restricts options
of questions and answers (use of questionnaire).
4. The research is not transformative but supports the status quo and existing
power structures.
5. Fails to distinguish between appearance vs. reality
6. Impersonal
7. Methods and procedure considered the most important elements of the
research than the actual research project.
Qualitative Methodology
Used more inn social sciences. It includes any method that is not quantitative. It is
sometimes used as a supplement/alternative to quantitative research. Qualitative
methodology developed through a co-operative method involving a number of factors
therefore its structure is not as distinct as quantitative methodology. Denzin& Lincoln
1993:03) argue that qualitative research is a site of multiple theoretical strategies. These
include constructivism, feminism, Marxism, cultural studies etc. They further argue that
the word qualitative implies an emphasis on processes and meanings that are not
rigorously examined/ measured (if measured at all) in terms of quantity, amount and
frequency. Qualitative researchers stress the socially constructed nature of reality, the
intimate relationship between the researcher and what is studied and the situational
constrains that shape the enquiry.
Characteristics of Qualitative methodology
1. It assumes that the social world is always a human creation and not a discovery.
Consequently ISS tries to capture reality as it is seen and experienced by the
respondents. Reality is captured in human interaction.
2. It studies a small number of respondents closely using non-probability sampling.
3. Presents information gathered verbally in a detailed and complete form and not in
numbers and formulas.
4. Tries to approach reality without preconceived ideas/ prestructured models (it is
reflective).
5. It perceives the researcher and the researched as two equally important elements
in research. Respondents are not reduced to variables or hypotheses. Qualitative
research therefore does not lose perception of the subjective nature of human
behaviour unlike quantitative research that reduces human to numerical symbols.
(It is therefore communicative)
6. Aims to study reality from the inside and not outside by living with the
respondents. (Studies realty and not appearances).
7. Want to understand people and not measure them. Aims to interpret human
experiences and to capture the meaning of social action.
Critique= criticised for its high degree of relativism (results cannot be generalised).
Theoretical foundations of Qualitative research
Bogdan& Biklen (1992) identified the following schools of thought: phenomenology,
Symbolic interactionism, anthropology ethnography etc as the theoretical foundations of
qualitative methodology.
Phenomenology= the school of thought has been greatly influenced by philosophers such
as Edmund Husserls and Alfred Schultz. It is located within the Weberian tradition
that emphasises vesterhen. Phenomenologists view the world as a highly ordered system
created by people who actively produce and maintain that order. For phenomenologists
reality is socially constructed. The aim of research is to understand the meaning of events
and interactions to ordinary people in particular situations.
Symbolic interactionism= influenced by works of George Mead, Herbert Blumer Charles
Horton Cooley etc. Rose (1962) in Human behaviour and social process argues that the
term SI refers to the peculiar and distinctive character of interaction as it takes place
between human beings. The peculiarity is in the fact that human beings interpret each
other’s actions instead of merely reacting to each other. Their response is not made
directly to the actions of one other but instead is based on the meanings that they attach to
such actions. Thus human interaction is mediated by the use of symbols and by
interpreting each other’s actions. It is argued that language is the most important
symbolic expression of all. The purpose of research according to the Sis is to study the
structures, functions and meanings of symbolic systems. Their main research method is
exploration
Ethnography=culture studies. Based on works by Bronislaw Malinowski (1922). It has
origins in the works of early anthropologists whose aim was to provide a detailed and
permanent account of the cultures and lives of small, isolated tribes. Their method pf data
collection is in-depth interviewing. It is characterised by reflexivity and requires the
researcher to spend a considerable time in the field among the people whose lives and
culture are being studied.
Strengths and weaknesses of qualitative Methodology
1. Research is naturalistic- takes place in the natural setting. It aims to describe
people, events in the natural setting using methods such as observation.
2. It stresses interpretations and meanings of what people say/do. Unlike quantitative
methodology it is interested in the deeper understanding of the respondent’s social
world.
3. It humanises the research process by raising the role of the respondent to be equal
to that of the researcher (it is therefore communicative).
4. Allows a very high degree of flexibility- the researcher is open minded and does
not have preconceived notions that s/he wants to confirm. It therefore presents a
more realistic worldview.
Weaknesses
1. Problems of reliability and generalisability due to extreme subjectivity
2. Runs the risk of collecting irrelevant data through in depth interviewing. This
means more work for the researcher who must search for relevant material.
3. It is time consuming –up to 2/3 years e.g. Grillo.
4. Ethical issues-e.g. Grillo, Peter Fry Humphreys,L.
5. Lack of /little detachment decreases researcher’s objectivity and increases
chances of going native.