History of Art and Design
Module Specifications
Module Title
Module Code
Year of Study
Credits
Contact Hours
Assessment Method
:
:
:
:
:
History of Art & Design
HAD 111
First semester (First Year)
1.5
1.5 hours/week
Total 22.5 hours
: Assignment + Exam
Aims :
This unit introduces students to the cultural history, which informs current thought, and debate
towards art, craft and design. Emphasis is on research and study skills and on students acquiring
source material and knowledge. Presentation skills will also be applied in a practical context.
Objectives :
By the end of the module, students will be able to demonstrate:
 An understanding of the fundamentals of art & design principles
 Undertake research using electronic sources and paper-based materials
 Demonstrate an understanding of influences that have informed current social and
creative attitudes
 Utilize history as a design source
 Present conclusions
Learning outcomes :
Undertake research using electronic sources and paper-based materials.
By demonstrating the ability to
 collect and organize a variety of source materials, both electronic and paper-based
 critically analyze research and present conclusions
Demonstrate an understanding of influences that have informed current social and creative
attitudes.
By demonstrating the ability to
 analyze the major historical movements that have influenced modern practitioners
 analyze current attitudes towards the arts
 recognize conflict in cultural debate
 maintain records of developing understanding of influences
Present conclusions.
By demonstrating the ability to
 develop a debate to an original conclusion
 select and use appropriate presentation techniques to communicate the information
 Produce a coherent presentation of conclusions drawn from research material in oral
and written formats.
Lesson Plan
Module Name
Module code
Semester
Credit
Contact Hour
Week
: History of Art & Design
: HAD 111
: First
: 1.5 (Theory)
: 22.5
: 15
Week
Lecture
Lesson
01
01
Introduction to the module
02
02
Prehistoric period
03
03
Mesopotamian civilization
04
04
Egyptian civilization
05
05
Indus valley civilization
06
06
Ancient Indian art
07
07
Greek civilization, Roman civilization
08
08
Persian and Mughal Art
Mid semester exam
09
09
Renaissance (Part I)
10
10
Renaissance (Part II)
11
11
Baroque, Romanticism
12
12
Impressionism, Neo-Impressionism, Post-Impressionism
13
13
Twentieth Century Key Art Movements : Fauvism, Cubism
14
14
Arts and Crafts Movement, Art Nouveau, Art Deco, Bauhaus
15
15
Art and Design of Bangladesh
Semester final exam
Reference books:
1. Gardner's Art through the Ages: A Global History, Enhanced Edition (13th Edition),
Fred S. Kleiner, Published by Cengage Learning, 2008
2. Janson’s History of Art: The Western Tradition (8th Edition), Penelope J.E. Davies,
Walter B. Denny, Frima Fox Hofrichter, Joseph F. Jacobs, Ann M. Roberts, David L.
Simon, Published by Prentice Hall, 2010
1
16
Distribution of marks
Mid-Term
Attendance
05
Assignment
15
Examination
20
..........................................
Total
40
Final
Attendance
05
Assignment
15
Examination
40
..........................................
Total
60
40 (Mid-Term) + 60 (Final) = 100
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Lecture 1
Introduction to the module
Module title
Module Code
Module Credit
Contact Hours
: History of Art and Design
: HAD 101
: 1.5
: 22.5 hr
Total 15 Lectures for the semester
8 Lectures for the Mid-term and
7 Lectures for the Final
1 lecture per week with each of the groups
Assignments for the semester :
Mid-term – 10 marks
Final – 15 marks
History of Art and Design
Art history has historically been understood as the academic study of objects of art in their
historical development and stylistic contexts, i.e. genre, design, format, and style. This includes
the "major" arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture as well as the "minor" arts of ceramics,
furniture, and other decorative objects.
As a term, art history (also history of art and Design) encompasses several methods of studying
the visual arts; in common usage referring to works of art and architecture. Aspects of the
discipline overlap. As the art historian Ernst Gombrich once observed, "the field of art history
much like Caesar's Gaul, divided in three parts inhabited by three different, though not
necessarily hostile tribes: (i) the connoisseurs, (ii) the critics, and (iii) the academic art
historians"
Art and Civilization
The emergence of civilization is frequently defined or characterized in terms of an increase in
the complexity of the structure and the functioning of human society by comparison to earlier
phases. The development of the productive capacities of mankind may be said to be both, that
is, dialectically, cause and consequence of changes affecting ways of life, social structure,
material culture, technology, knowledge and ideology that separates primitive humanity from
the early civilizations.And yet we may observe that humanity advances by transforming the
heritage of the past, it builds upon past accomplishments and in doing so transforms itself and
transforms also the sense and meaning of its own past. In this sense, the past may be both
support and obstacle to the development of human capacities and of social and cultural forms
and processes. And in this sense also, the past lives on producing its effects either as active or
as unconscious memory.
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In the arts of the early civilizations, in Mesopotamia and Egypt, for instance, we will see the
heritage of ancestral forms being more or less slowly transformed, developed and adapted to a
new context, to fulfill new as well as analogous functions.
In the transition from Prehistoric Culture to Early Civilization we see the progressive
establishment of the Arts as a specialized form of activity, the birth of an Art Industry, the
development of a class of specialized art workers or craftsmen. The social division of work and
the establishment of social class structure is the condition for the new cultural, social and
political forms that will constitute the environment in which the Arts will flourish and develop.
An environment that the Arts will also contribute to create by providing the material
consciousness, so to speak, that is, by supplying the concrete embodiment of the experiences,
aspirations and ideas of the new times, serving to clarify, to fix or stabilize the forms in which
are expressed the consciousness of the present, and by this helping to mold and establish the
self-understanding of a new time.
The Difference between Art and Design
Like many other common fallacies in the world of creativity, “art and design are one and the
same thing” is the most widespread misconception people have. Taking this misconception
forward, people think that artists and designers are the same kind of professionals. There are
some points that bring up striking similarities between art and design i.e. they share the same
roots, the work patterns are almost the same and also that both professions revolve around
almost the same conceptualization. No matter how thin is line of differentiation between art
and design, the difference stands there and once you will go through this article thoroughly,
you will get to realize how wrong we have been about the basic concept of art and design.
Basically, although, art and design is not the same thing, however, the two are not as though
two different worlds apart. The basic note of differentiation is that designers design, construct
and built, however artists create, express and imagine. To make it more understandable,
designers make brochures, flyers, post cards or business cards etc, however artists indulge in
painting, sketching and making sculptures. The thing that goes with artists and designers both is
that both individuals are equally skilled and talented, as skill and talent is something that is
inevitable in both professions. For example, printed flyers can include clever art or unique
designs, it’s up to you.
The Definition of Art
Art is the product or process of deliberately arranging items (often with symbolic significance) in
a way that influences and affects one or more of the senses, emotions, and intellect. It
encompasses a diverse range of human activities, creations, and modes of expression.
Art is an Expression
‘Art is an expression’ refers to the point that art represents expression of the emotion or feeling
of the artist. Taking it further, one of the main purposes of art is to express, a feeling, an idea, a
concept or an expression. Art is an outlet, rather a valve for expressing one’s self. From
Leonardo to Picasso, the world history is full of artists who are expressionists, and made use of
their expressions to convey their feelings. Art is not aimed to get a particular result from the
paintings or other pieces of art; rather art is merely meant for expression.
Comprehension, Not Important in Art
As mentioned earlier, the main objective of art is to express one’s feelings and emotions. Here
everyone knows that feelings and emotions can be one of the most random things of the world
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and only the one who has expressed his emotions can understand them well. Moreover, artists
usually do not care whether the viewers understand what it is they are trying to convey.
Therefore, understanding and comprehension is not important when it comes to art. However,
it is considered a successful piece of art if the viewer creates an understanding for it.
Art is Non-Profit
One of the most important elements of the understanding of art is aspect of being a non-profit.
Art is a purer thing which is usually not done for gaining any profit. Although, it is a fact that
everyone needs a mean of earning and same is the case with artists who do also need money to
survive. However, earning is not the primary goal for artists. Artists have a creative flare in them
that requires them to create, and if that creation is ultimately sold, then it is ever better.
Art is not Audience Driven
There is no concept of target audience when it comes to art. Basically, when an artist creates
something, he usually does not consider the target audience and whether they will understand
and appreciate their piece of art or not. Also, as mentioned earlier, that there is no profit or
business involved in art, it is quite obvious that there will be no involvement of a target
audience as well. The audience of art can be anyone or everyone whoever gets attracted to it.
Art is always Subjective
Art is subjective to whoever sees it or experiences it. It means that for the artist, the objective
of making a particular piece of art would be one; however, for all others who are watching it, it
has a different meaning for everyone. Art is subjective to different people’s different
perspectives, whether it is good art or bad. It also verifies the famous saying, “beauty is in the
eye of the beholder”. Therefore, it represents that one person may look at a piece of art and
feel it is amazing and another might be appalled.
Definition of Design
A plan, or to plan. The organization or composition of a work; the skilled arrangement of its
parts. An effective design is one in which the elements of art and principles of design have been
combined to achieve an overall sense of unity.
Design is Communication
The only objective of art is to express one’s feelings and emotions, however, with design, the
basic objective of the designer is to try to communicate some kind of idea, feeling, or opinion
among its audience. Unlike art, if a design does not communicate, or if communication is
misunderstood, the design is not successful.
Design is Audience Driven
Here too, pretty much unlike art, design has a particular target audience. No matter it is related
to logo designing, graphic designing, or web designing, the audience is one of the main things
you must consider as a designer. Design is not like art, where creating is just for the sake of
creating, rather, as a designer, you are creating to please your target audience. Therefore, in
design, the audience is an integral part of the process.
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Design is Commercial
This is another point of differentiation between art and design where art is non-commercial and
non-profit and design is always for commercial and business point of view. Design is more of a
commercialized art. The ultimate objective of design is to make your audience happy and in the
end, get paid for it. From industrial design, to graphic design, to interior design, and they all
have one thing in common; design is essentially the less pure and more commercial version of
art.
Design is about Planning and Problem Solving
Design is all about planning the communication and problem solving through that
communication. Design is made by people and made for people to problem solve in order to
create something that fits into certain specifications or project plan. In other words, it takes a
lot of planning before the design can even begin.
Design has Limitation
Art is unlimited; however, design is unlimited. Designers are often limited in terms of client’s
specifications as to what they can create. Thus, design is usually constructing and building
rather than truly creating.
Design is always Objective
As mentioned earlier the thing about art that it is subjective to the eyes of the beholder, design
is quite unlike it. Design is objective, so it is easier to be understood and determine whether it is
good or bad. There is a great number of people who when look at design, can immediately say
whether the design is aesthetically pleasing and easy to understand, or if it is poorly
constructed and unsuccessful.
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Week 2
Lecture 2
Prehistoric period
Timeline:
2 million years ago—4000 BC
In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures
beginning somewhere in very late geological history, and generally continuing until that culture
either develops writing or other methods of record-keeping, or it makes significant contact with
another culture that has.
The very earliest human artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose are
a subject of some debate; it is clear that such workmanship existed by 40,000 years ago in the
Upper Paleolithic era. From the Upper Paleolithic through the Mesolithic, cave paintings and
portable art such as figurines and beads predominated, with decorative figured workings also
seen on some utilitarian objects. In the Neolithic evidence of early pottery appeared, as did
sculpture and the construction of megaliths. Early rock art also first appeared in the Neolithic.
The advent of metalworking in the Bronze Age brought additional media available for use in
making art, an increase in stylistic diversity, and the creation of objects that did not have any
obvious function other than art. It also saw the development in some areas of artisans, a class
of people specializing in the production of art, as well as early writing systems. By the Iron Age,
civilizations with writing had arisen from Ancient Egypt to Ancient China.
Many indigenous peoples from around the world continued to produce artistic works distinctive
to their geographic area and culture, until exploration and commerce brought record-keeping
methods to them. Some cultures, notably the Maya civilization, independently developed
writing during the time they flourished, which was then later lost. These cultures are generally
considered prehistoric, especially if their writing systems have not been deciphered.
Paleolithic Art
(2 million years ago—13,000 BC)
Paleolithic or "Old Stone Age" is a term used to define the oldest period in the human history. It
began about 2 million years ago, from the use of first stone tools and ended of the Pleistocene
epoch, with the close of the last ice age about 13,000 BC.
The Lower spans the time from around 4 million years ago when the first humans appear in the
archaeological record, to around 120,000 years ago when important evolutionary and
technological changes ushered in the Middle Paleolithic.
In Europe and Africa the Middle Paleolithic (or Middle Paleolithic) is the period of the early
Stone Age that lasted between around 120,000 and 40,000 years ago. It was the time when
early humans gained increasing control over their surroundings and later saw the emergence of
modern humans around 100,000 years ago. Stone tool manufacturing developed a more
sophisticated tool making technique which permitted the creation of more controlled and
consistent flakes. Hunting provided the primary food source but people also began to exploit
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shellfish and may have begun smoking and drying meat to preserve it. This would have required
a mastery of fire and some sites indicate that plant resources were managed through selective
burning of wide areas. Artistic expression emerged for the first time with ochre used as body
paint and some early rock art appearing. There is also some evidence of purposeful burial of the
dead which may indicate religious and ritual behaviors.
The Upper Paleolithic (or Upper Palaeolithic) is the third and last subdivision of the Paleolithic
or Old Stone Age as it is understood in Europe, Africa and Asia. Very broadly it dates to between
40,000 and 8,500 years ago. Modern humans, who had begun migrating out of Africa during the
Middle Paleolithic period, began to produce regionally distinctive cultures during the Upper
Paleolithic period. The earliest remains of organized settlements in the form of campsites, some
with storage pits, are encountered in the archaeological record. Some sites may have been
occupied year round though more generally they seem to have been used seasonally with
peoples moving between them to exploit different food sources at different times of the year.
Technological advances included significant developments in flint tool manufacturing with
industries based on fine blades rather than cruder flakes. The reasons for these changes in
human behavior have been attributed to the changes in climate during the period which
encompasses a number of global temperature drops. Artistic work also blossomed with Venus
figurines and exotic raw materials found far from their sources suggest emergent trading links.
Paleolithic Art, produced from about 32,000 to 11,000 years ago, falls into two main categories:
Portable Pieces (small figurines or decorated objects carved out of bone, stone, or modeled in
clay), and Cave Art.
Mesolithic / Archaic
(10,000 - 5,000 BC)
The Mesolithic is the period of middle Stone Age, from about 10,000 - 5,000 BC years ago. It
corresponds to period of primarily nomadic hunting and gathering which preceded the
adoption of domesticated plants and animals.
The term Mesolithic is used to characterize that period in Europe and, sometimes, parts of
Africa and Asia. That stage is usually called the Archaic in the Americas and in the rest of the
world; it's usually characterized by Microliths.
This was a period when humans developed new techniques of stone working. At that time,
people stayed longer in one place and gave increased attention to the domestication. There is a
gap in the artistic activity of people of that epoch. Most of what has survived from the
Mesolithic era is small statuette size works and paintings in shallow shelter caves.
The rich art of the Paleolithic is replaced by a Mesolithic art that is quite different. There are
many changes in style as well as meaning. Upper Paleolithic cave art depicts colored drawings
and expressive features of animals. A full range of color is used. Mesolithic art in contrast is
schematic; no realistic figures are present and only the color red is used. This form is also found
in North Africa and the northern Mediterranean.
Neolithic Art
(10,000 - 5,000 BC)
The Neolithic period, also called New Stone Age, began when men first developed agriculture
and settled in permanent villages. It ended with the discovery of bronze. The prime medium of
Neolithic art was pottery. Other important artistic expressions were statuary of the universally
worshiped Mother Goddess and megalithic stone monuments.
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Free standing sculpture had already begun by the Neolithic, the earliest being the
anthropomorphic figurines, often embellished by animals from the very beginning of the
Neolithic discovered in Nevali Cori and Göbekli Tepe near Urfa in eastern Turkey, dating to ca.
10th millennium BC. The mesolithic statues of Lepenski Vir at the Iron Gorge, Serbia and
Montenegro date to the 7th millennium BC and represent either humans or mixtures of humans
and fish.
Megalithic monuments are found in the Neolithic from Spain to the British Isles and Poland.
They start in the 5th Millennium BC, though some authors speculate on Mesolithic roots.
Because of frequent reuse, this is difficult to prove. While the most well-known of these is
Stonehenge, were the main structures date from the early Bronze age, such monuments have
been found throughout most of Western and Northern Europe, notably at Carnac, France, at
Skara Brae in the Orkney Islands, in Portugal, and in Wiltshire, England, the area of Stonehenge,
the Avebury circle, the tombs at West Kennet, and Woodhenge. One tomb found in New
Grange, Ireland, has its entrance marked with a massive stone carved with a complex design of
spirals. The tomb of Knowth has rock-cut ornaments as well. Many of these monuments were
megalithic tombs, and archaeologists speculate that most have religious significance.
Famous Caves
Hereby, we get three famous caves :



Lascaux- Situated in Southern France (20,000BC)
Altamira - Situated in Northern Spain (15,000BC)
Chauvet- Situated in Southern France (16,000BC)
Lascaux is famous for its Palaeolithic cave paintings, found in a complex of caves in the
Dordogne region of southwestern France, because of their exceptional quality, size,
sophistication and antiquity. Estimated to be up to 20,000 years old, the paintings consist
primarily of large animals, once native to the region. Lascaux is located in the Vézère.
The cave was discovered on September 12, 1940 by four teenagers, Marcel Ravidat, Jacques
Marsal, Georges Agnel, and Simon Coencas, as well as Marcel's dog, Robot. The cave complex
was opened to the public in 1948. By 1955, the carbon dioxide produced by 1,200 visitors per
day had visibly damaged the paintings. The cave was closed to the public in 1963 in order to
preserve the art. After the cave was closed, the paintings were restored to their original state,
and were monitored on a daily basis. Rooms in the cave include The Hall of the Bulls, the
Passageway, the Shaft, the Nave, the Apse, and the Chamber of Felines.
Lascaux II, a replica of two of the cave halls — the Great Hall of the Bulls and the Painted
Gallery — was opened in 1983, 200 meters from the original. Reproductions of other Lascaux
artwork can be seen at the Centre of Prehistoric Art at Le Thot, France.
Sections have been identified in the cave; the Great Hall of the Bulls, the Lateral Passage, the
Shaft of the Dead Man, the Chamber of Engravings, the Painted Gallery, and the Chamber of
Felines. The cave contains nearly 2,000 figures, which can be grouped into three main
categories - animals, human figures and abstract signs. Most of the major images have been
painted onto the walls using mineral pigments although some designs have also been incised
into the stone.
Altamira (Spanish for 'high views') is a cave in Spain famous for its Upper Paleolithic cave
paintings featuring drawings and polychrome rock paintings of wild mammals and human
hands.
Its special relevance comes from the fact that it was the first cave in which prehistoric cave
paintings were discovered. When the discovery was first made public in 1880, it led to a bitter
public controversy between experts which continued into the early 20th century, as many of
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them did not believe prehistoric man had the intellectual capacity to produce any kind of
artistic expression. The acknowledgement of the authenticity of the paintings, which finally
came in 1902, changed forever the perception of prehistoric human beings.
The cave is 270 meters longand consists of a series of twisting passages and chambers. The
main passage varies from two to six meters in height. The cave was formed through collapses
following early karstic phenomena in the calcerous rock of Mount Vispieres.
Human occupation was limited to the cave mouth, although paintings were created throughout
the length of the cave. The artists used charcoal and ochre or haematite to create the images,
often diluting these pigments to produce variations in intensity and creating an impression of
chiaroscuro. They also exploited the natural contours in the cave walls to give their subjects a
three-dimensional effect. The Polychrome Ceiling is the most impressive feature of the cave,
depicting a herd of extinct Steppe Bison in different poses, two horses, a large doe, and possibly
a wild boar.
The Chauvet Cave is a cave in the Ardèche department of southern France that contains the
earliest known cave paintings, as well as other evidence of Upper Paleolithic life. It is located
near the commune of Vallon-Pont-d'Arc on a limestone cliff above the former bed of the
Ardèche River. Discovered on December 18th, 1994, it is considered one of the most significant
prehistoric art sites.
The cave was first explored by a group of three speleologists: Eliette Brunel-Deschamps,
Christian Hillaire, and Jean-Marie Chauvet, for whom it was named. Chauvet (1996) has a
detailed account of the discovery. On top of the paintings and other human evidence they also
discovered fossilized remains, prints, and markings from a variety of animals, some of which are
now extinct. Further study by French archaeologist Jean Clottes has revealed much about the
site, though the dating has been the matter of some dispute.
The cave is situated above the previous course of the Ardèche River before the Pont d'Arc
opened up. The gorges of the Ardèche region are the site of numerous caves, many of them
having some geological or archaeological importance. The Chauvet Cave is uncharacteristically
large and the quality, quantity, and condition of the artwork found on its walls have been called
spectacular. Based on radiocarbon dating, the cave appears to have been used by humans
during two distinct periods: the Aurignacian and the Gravettian. Most of the artwork dates to
the earlier, Aurignacian, era (30,000 to 32,000 years ago). The later Gravettian occupation,
which occurred 25,000 to 27,000 years ago, left little but a child's footprints, the charred
remains of ancient hearths and carbon smoke stains from torches that lit the caves. After the
child's visit to the cave, evidence suggests that the cave had been untouched, due to a landslide
which covered its historical entrance, until discovered in 1994. The footprints may be the oldest
human footprints that can be dated accurately.
The soft, clay-like floor of the cave retains the paw prints of cave bears along with large,
rounded, depressions that are believed to be the "nests" where the bears slept. Fossilized
bones are abundant and include the skulls of cave bears and the horned skull of an ibex.
Clothing of Prehistoric Period (Fashion)
Prehistoric drawings discovered on cave walls only included those of animals, indicating that
humans did not consider themselves set apart from the rest of the world.
In 10,000 B.C. the history of man was forever changed with the invention of the needle and
loom. People made clothing from soaked animal skins, hide, and an early version of felt formed
by meshing two skins together.
During the Neolithic Period (6,000 B.C.) people began to settle down. They built bigger looms
and made jewelry and weaponry. Natural sources made dyeing fabrics possible. A shell was
used to create purple and led to the discovery of indigo. Mordent allowed colors to stay.
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Fashion and clothing as the "silent communicator": protection, modesty, status, affiliation,
identification, comfort, superstition, belief systems.
Prehistoric times called for mostly furs, draped skin, and simplicity.
he earliest known woven textiles of the Near East may be fabrics used to wrap the dead,
excavated at a Neolithic site at Çatalhöyük in Anatolia, carbonized in a fire and radiocarbon
dated to c. 6000 BC. Evidence exists of flax cultivation from c. 8000 BC in the Near East, but the
breeding of sheep with a wooly fleece rather than hair occurs much later, c. 3000 BC.
Notable Possessions
(Prehistoric Period)
Venus of Willendorf (Sculpture)
The Venus of Willendorf, also known as the Woman of Willendorf, is an 11 cm (4.3 in) high
statuette of a female figure estimated to have been made between 24,000 and 22,000 BCE. It
was discovered in 1908 by archaeologist Josef Szombathy at a paleolithic site near Willendorf, a
village in Lower Austria near the city of Krems. It is carved from an oolitic limestone that is not
local to the area, and tinted with red ochre. The "Venus of Willendorf" is now in the
Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna.
Several similar statuettes and other forms of art have been discovered, and they are collectively
referred to as Venus figurines, although they pre-date the mythological figure of Venus by
millennia. The Willendorf figure was named following a model already over fifty years old, and
shares many characteristics with other figures.
Stirrup spout vessel (Object)
A stirrup spout vessel (so called because of its resemblance to a stirrup) is a type of ceramic
vessel common among several Pre-Columbian cultures of South America beginning in the early
2nd millennium BCE.
These cultures included the Chavin and the Moche. In these vessels the stirrup handle actually
forms part of the spout, which emanates from the top of the stirrup. The jars, which were often
elaborately figurative, would be cast from a mold, while the stirrup spout was built by hand and
welded to the vessel with slip.
Stonehenge (Architecture)
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 2.0
miles (3.2 km) west of Amesbury and 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. One of the most
famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of a circular setting of large standing stones
set within earthworks. It is at the centre of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age
monuments in England, including several hundred burial mounds.
Archaeologists believe the iconic stone monument was constructed anywhere from 3000 BC to
2000 BC, as described in the chronology below. Radiocarbon dating in 2008 suggested that the
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first stones were erected in 2400–2200 BC, whilst another theory suggests that bluestones may
have been erected at the site as early as 3000 BC (see phase 1 below).
The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the
monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. The site and its surroundings were added to the
UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites in 1986 in a co-listing with Avebury Henge monument. It is
a national legally protected Scheduled Ancient Monument. Stonehenge is owned by the Crown
and managed by English Heritage, while the surrounding land is owned by the National Trust.
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
1. What are the names and time periods the art of prehistoric period?
In the history of art, prehistoric art is all art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures
beginning somewhere in very late geological history, and generally continuing until that culture
either develops writing or other methods of record-keeping, or it makes significant contact with
another culture that has.
Basically there are three major time periods of art of prehistoric period. They are :
Paleolithic Art (2 million years ago-13,000 BC.)
Mesolithic / Archaic (10,000 - 5,000 BC)
Neolithic Art (10,000 - 5,000 BC)
2. Mention names of 3 famous caves with locations and time periods.
Three famous caves include –



Lascaux (20,000BC)
Altamira (15,000BC)
Chauvet (16,000BC)
: Situated in Southern France
: Situated in Northern Spain
: Situated in Southern France
3. What is Venus of Willendorf?
The Venus of Willendorf, also known as the Woman of Willendorf, is an 11 cm (4.3 in) high
sculpture of a female figure estimated to have been made between 24,000 and 22,000 BCE. It
was discovered in 1908 by archaeologist Josef Szombathy at a paleolithic site near Willendorf, a
village in Lower Austria near the city of Krems. It is carved from an oolitic limestone that is not
local to the area, and tinted with red ochre. The "Venus of Willendorf" is now in the
Naturhistorisches Museum in Vienna.
4. What was Stirrup spout vessel?
A stirrup spout vessel (so called because of its resemblance to a stirrup) is a type of ceramic
vessel common among several Pre-Columbian cultures of South America beginning in the early
2nd millennium BCE.
5. Briefly write about a prehistoric monument.
Stonehenge is a prehistoric monument located in the English county of Wiltshire, about 2.0
miles (3.2 km) west of Amesbury and 8 miles (13 km) north of Salisbury. One of the most
famous sites in the world, Stonehenge is composed of a circular setting of large standing stones
set within earthworks. It is at the centre of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age
monuments in England, including several hundred burial mounds.
Broad Questions
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1. Discuss the arts of prehistoric period.
2. Describe the clothing of prehistoric period.
3. Discuss about three famous caves.
Week 3
Lecture 3
Mesopotamian civilization
Timeline:
9000—500 B.C.
Mesopotamia (from the Ancient Greek: "land between rivers) is a toponym for the area of the
Tigris–Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, northeastern Syria,
southeastern Turkey and southwestern Iran.
This is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers which roughly comprises modern Iraq
and part of Syria. The most ancient civilizations known to man first developed there writing,
schools, libraries, written law codes, agriculture, irrigation, farming and moved us from
prehistory to history. It's giving Mesopotamia the reputation of being the cradle of civilization.
The name does not refer to any particular civilization using that name. It includs non-Semitic
Sumerians, followed by the Semitic Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Over the course of
4000 years, the art of Mesopotamia reveals a tradition that appears, homogeneous in style and
iconography.
Art became decorative, stylized and conventionalized at different times and places. Gods took
on human forms and humans were combined with animals to make fantastic creatures. Large
temples and imposing palaces dotted the landscape. History and poetry for the first time was
recorded and set down to music. Lyres, pipes, harps and drums accompanied their songs and
dances.
The soil of Mesopotamia yielded the civilization's major building material - mud brick. Stone
was rare, and certain types had to be imported for sculpture. Variety of metals, as well as shells
and precious stones, were used for the finest sculpture and inlays.
Prehistoric Period
Mesopotamian art of the period, from 7000 to 3500 B.C., before writing, was fully developed.
Archaeological sites are Hassuna, Samarra and Tell Halaf.
Early Dynastic Period : Old Sumerian (From 3000 to 2340 B.C.)
The Sumerians developed pottery and jewellery. A new type of building was introduced – citystate centers of this epoch are Ur, Umma, Lagash, Kish, and Eshnunna. One of the most
remarkable artifacts remaining from this period is known as The Standard of Ur.
Akkadian Period
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In the late 24th century B.C. under Sargon I, Akkadians united the whole of Mesopotamia. Little
Akkadian art remains. Significant Akkadian innovations were those of the seal cutters. The
Akkadian cities are Sippar, Assur, Eshnuna, Tell Brak, and Akkad.
Neo-Sumerian Period (From 2112 to 2004 B.C.)
The Akkadian Empire fell to the nomadic Guti, who did not centralize their power. This enabled
the Sumerian cities of Uruk, Ur, and Lagash to reestablish their power.
Old Babylonian Period
The land was once more united by Semitic rulers (about 2000-1600 B.C.). The most important
ruler was Hammurabi of Babylon. The most original art of the Babylonian period came from
Mari.\
Kassite and Elamite Dynasties
The Kassites, a people of non-Mesopotamian origin, were present in Babylon shortly after
Hammurabi's death. They adapted themselves to their environment and its art.
Assyrian Empire (From 1700 B.C. to 100 B.C.)
It shows different from established Babylonian stylistic traditions both in religious subjects and
secular themes. They built ziggurats for temples. The technique of polychromed glazing of
bricks was used. The Neo-Assyrian period, 1000-612 B.C. is a time of great builders. Kings
adorned palaces with magnificent reliefs. Gypsum alabaster, was more easily carved than the
hard stones used by the Sumerians and Akkadians. Royal chronicles in battle and in the hunt
were recounted in horizontal bands with cuneiform texts. At times mythological figures are
portrayed. Sculptors were at their best in depicting hunting scenes. The art of the late Assyrian
seal cutter is a combination of realism and mythology.
Neo-Babylonian Period (626-539 B.C.)
The Babylonians defeated the Assyrians in 612 B.C. and sacked Nimrud and Nineveh. They did
not establish a new style or iconography. Neo-Babylonian creativity manifested itself
architecturally at Babylon, the capital.
Language and writing
The earliest language written in Mesopotamia was Sumerian, an agglutinative language isolate.
Along with Sumerian, Semitic dialects were also spoken in early Mesopotamia. Akkadian, came
to be the dominant language during the Akkadian Empire and the Assyrian empires, but
Sumerian was retained for administration, religious, literary, and scientific purposes. Different
varieties of Akkadian were used until the end of the Neo-Babylonian period. Aramaic, which had
already become common in Mesopotamia, then became the official provincial administration
language of first the Neo Assyrian Empire, and then the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Akkadian
fell into disuse, but both it and Sumerian were still used in temples for some centuries. The last
Akkadian texts date from the late 1st century CE.
Early in Mesopotamia's history (around the mid-4th millennium BC) cuneiform script was
invented. Cuneiform literally means "wedge-shaped", due to the triangular tip of the stylus
used for impressing signs on wet clay. The standardized form of each cuneiform sign appears to
have been developed from pictograms. The earliest texts (7 archaic tablets) come from the E
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Temple dedicated to the goddess Inanna at Uruk, from a building labeled as Temple C by its
excavators.
The early logographic system of cuneiform script took many years to master. Thus, only a
limited number of individuals were hired as scribes to be trained in its use. It was not until the
widespread use of a syllabic script was adopted under Sargon's rule[that significant portions of
Mesopotamian population became literate. Massive archives of texts were recovered from the
archaeological contexts of Old Babylonian scribal schools, through which literacy was
disseminated.
During the third millennium BC, there developed a very intimate cultural symbiosis between the
Sumerians and the Akkadians, which included widespread bilingualism. The influence of
Sumerian on Akkadian (and vice versa) is evident in all areas, from lexical borrowing on a
massive scale, to syntactic, morphological, and phonological convergence. This has prompted
scholars to refer to Sumerian and Akkadian in the third millennium as a sprachbund. Akkadian
gradually replaced Sumerian as the spoken language of Mesopotamia somewhere around the
turn of the 3rd and the 2nd millennium BC (the exact dating being a matter of debate), but
Sumerian continued to be used as a sacred, ceremonial, literary, and scientific language in
Mesopotamia until the 1st century CE. Mesopotamian Eastern Aramaic dialects still survive to
this day as spoken and literary languages among the indigenous Assyrians and Mandeans of
Iraq.
Architecture
The study of ancient Mesopotamian architecture is based on available archaeological evidence,
pictorial representation of buildings, and texts on building practices. Scholarly literature usually
concentrates on temples, palaces, city walls and gates, and other monumental buildings, but
occasionally one finds works on residential architecture as well. Archaeological surface surveys
also allowed for the study of urban form in early Mesopotamian cities.
The most notable architectural remains from early Mesopotamia are the temple complexes at
Uruk from the 4th millennium BC, temples and palaces from the Early Dynastic period sites in
the Diyala River valley such as Khafajah and Tell Asmar, the Third Dynasty of Ur remains at
Nippur (Sanctuary of Enlil) and Ur (Sanctuary of Nanna), Middle Bronze Age remains at SyrianTurkish sites of Ebla, Mari, Alalakh, Aleppo and Kultepe, Houses are mostly known from Old
Babylonian remains at Nippur and Ur. Among the textual sources on building construction and
associated rituals are Gudea's cylinders from the late 3rd millennium are notable, as well as the
Assyrian and Babylonian royal inscriptions from the Iron Age.
Literature
Libraries were extant in towns and temples during the Babylonian Empire. An old Sumerian
proverb averred that "he who would excel in the school of the scribes must rise with the dawn."
Women as well as men learned to read and write, and for the Semitic Babylonians, this involved
knowledge of the extinct Sumerian language, and a complicated and extensive syllabary.
A considerable amount of Babylonian literature was translated from Sumerian originals, and the
language of religion and law long continued to be the old agglutinative language of Sumer.
Vocabularies, grammars, and interlinear translations were compiled for the use of students, as
well as commentaries on the older texts and explanations of obscure words and phrases. The
characters of the syllabary were all arranged and named, and elaborate lists were drawn up.
Many Babylonian literary works are still studied today. One of the most famous of these was
the Epic of Gilgamesh, in twelve books, translated from the original Sumerian by a certain Sinliqe-unninni, and arranged upon an astronomical principle. Each division contains the story of a
15
single adventure in the career of Gilgamesh. The whole story is a composite product, although it
is probable that some of the stories are artificially attached to the central figure.
Technology
Mesopotamian people invented many technologies including metal and copper-working, glass
and lamp making, textile weaving, flood control, water storage, and irrigation. They were also
one of the first Bronze Age people in the world. They developed from copper, bronze, and gold
on to iron. Palaces were decorated with hundreds of kilograms of these very expensive metals.
Also, copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as well as for different weapons such as
swords, daggers, spears etc.
According to a recent hypothesis, the Archimedes screw may have been used by Sennacherib,
King of Assyria, for the water systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and Nineveh in the
7th century BC, although mainstream scholarship holds it to be a Greek invention of later times.
Later during the Parthian or Sassanid periods, the Baghdad Battery, which may have been the
world's first battery, was created in Mesopotamia.
Fashion : Clothing of the Mesopotamians
In Mesopotamia, natural resources like flax and sheep's wool were used. Flax was a substitute
for linen. In the summer, cloth was made thinner whereas in the winter, the cloth was more
coarse and thick. Linen was soft and it lasted for a long time. The more used and washed the
cloth the softer and stronger it became. These materials could be dyed and wouldn't fade.
Flax was harvested and then would break down naturally. The long fibres in the stem were
separated and used to make linen. Flax can be identified as a plant with blue flowers.
Clothing for men and women were simple yet durable. Sumerian men in the summer were bear
chested and wore a skirt like garment tied to the side. Women would wear a long gown and
their right arm and shoulder would be left uncovered. Assyrians would wear a short-sleeved
tunic underneath their robe.
In the winter, Sumerian men would wear sheepskins with the wool side out. They would be
worn with a belt to keep them in place. Women would use sheep skin as well. They would
drape the sheepskin around them like a dress or a robe. Women would pin theirs on the left
shoulder. At the start of the Old Akkadian period men would wear wool cloth that was worn the
same way as women. Men would pin theirs on the right shoulder instead.
The rich and the royalty would often wear more expensive clothing even though they wore the
same styles as the poor. Theirs would be made of a more luxurious material. Wealthy women
and princesses would wear coloured and bright clothing. Assyrian royalty would have their
clothing woven with complicated designs.
Notable Possessions
The Code of Hammurabi (Inscription)
Hammurabi was the sixth king of Babylon from 1792 BC to 1750 BC middle chronology. He
became the first king of the Babylonian Empire following the abdication of his father, SinMuballit, extending Babylon's control over Mesopotamia by winning a series of wars against
neighboring kingdoms. Although his empire controlled all of Mesopotamia at the time of his
death, his successors were unable to maintain his empire.
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Hammurabi is known for the set of laws called Hammurabi's Code, one of the first written codes
of law in recorded history. These laws were inscribed on stone tablets standing over eight feet
tall (2.4 meters), of unknown provenance, found in Persia in 1901. Owing to his reputation in
modern times as an ancient law-giver, Hammurabi's portrait is in many government buildings
throughout the world.
The Hanging Garden of Babylon (Architecture)
The ancient city of Babylon, under King Nebuchadnezzar II, must have been a wonder to the
traveller's eyes. "In addition to its size," wrote Herodotus, a historian in 450 BC, "Babylon
surpasses in splendour any city in the known world." Herodotus claimed the outer walls were
56 miles in length, 80 feet thick and 320 feet high. Wide enough, he said, to allow a four-horse
chariot to turn. The inner walls were "not so thick as the first, but hardly less strong."
Inside the walls were fortresses and temples containing immense statues of solid gold. Rising
above the city was the famous Tower of Babel, a temple to the god Marduk, that seemed to
reach to the heavens. While archaeological examination has disputed some of Herodotus's
claims (the outer walls seem to be only 10 miles long and not nearly as high) his narrative does
give us a sense of how awesome the features of the city appeared to those that visited it.
Interestingly enough, though, one of the city's most spectacular sites is not even mentioned by
Herodotus: The Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.
Nimrud ivories (Sculpture)
The Nimrud ivories are carved ivory plaques and figures dating from the 9th to the 7th centuries
BC that were excavated from the Assyrian city of Nimrud (in modern Ninawa in Iraq) during the
19th and 20th centuries. The ivories mostly originated outside Mesopotamia and are thought to
have been made in the Levant and Egypt. They are carved with motifs typical of those regions
and were used to decorate high-status items of furniture or transportation. The ivories would
have originally been decorated with gold leaf or semi-precious stones, which were stripped
from them at some point before their final burial. Many were found at the bottom of wells,
having apparently been dumped there during a period of war or unrest.
Ziggurat
Ziggurats were massive structures built in the ancient Mesopotamian valley and western Iranian
plateau, having the form of a terraced step pyramid of successively receding stories or levels.
Ziggurats were built by the Sumerians, Babylonians, Elamites, Akkadians, and Assyrians for local
religions. Each ziggurat was part of a temple complex which included other buildings. The
precursors of the ziggurat were raised platforms that date from the Ubaid period during the
fourth millennium BC. The earliest ziggurats began near the end of the Early Dynastic Period.
The latest Mesopotamian ziggurats date from the 6th century BC. Built in receding tiers upon a
rectangular, oval, or square platform, the ziggurat was a pyramidal structure with a flat top.
Sun-baked bricks made up the core of the ziggurat with facings of fired bricks on the outside.
The facings were often glazed in different colors and may have had astrological significance.
Kings sometimes had their names engraved on these glazed bricks.
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
1. What is the meaning of Mesopotamia? How was the civilization developed?
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Mesopotamia means "land between rivers” which is a toponym for the area of the Tigris–
Euphrates river system, largely corresponding to modern-day Iraq, north-eastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and south-western Iran. This is the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers
which roughly comprises modern Iraq and part of Syria. The most ancient civilizations known to
man first developed there writing, schools, libraries, written law codes, agriculture, irrigation,
farming and moved us from prehistory to history.
2. Mention the periods of Mesopotamian Civilization.
There are many divisions and sub-divisions of Mesopotamian Civilization. But basically we can
find five core movements which divides the civilization mostAkkadian Period
Sumerian Period
Amorite Period
Assyrian Priod
Neo-Babylonian Period
3. Who was Hammurabi? Why was he famous?
Hammurabi was the sixth king of Babylon from 1792 BC to 1750 BC middle chronology.
Hammurabi is known for the set of laws called Hammurabi's Code, one of the first written codes
of law in recorded history. These laws were inscribed on stone tablets standing over eight feet
tall (2.4 meters), of unknown provenance, found in Persia in 1901. Owing to his reputation in
modern times as an ancient law-giver, Hammurabi's portrait is in many government buildings
throughout the world.
4. What is the Hanging Garden of Babylon? Who build it?
The ancient city of Babylon, under King Nebuchadnezzar II, must have been a wonder to the
traveller's eyes. "In addition to its size," wrote Herodotus, a historian in 450 BC.
Broad Questions
1. Give a description of Mesopotamian civilization with the timeline.
2. Discuss about the clothing and technology of Mesopotamian Civilization.
3. Give brief description of
a. Ziggurat
b. Nimrud ivories
c. The Hanging Garden of Babylon
4. Write shortly about the literature and language of Mesopotamia.
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Week 4
Lecture 4
Egyptian civilization
Timeline:
3500—1000 B.C.
The history of Ancient Egypt, long more than 3000 years, is divided into 8 or 9 periods,
sometimes called Kingdoms. The Ancient Egyptians themselves rather seem to have developed
the notion of dynasties throughout their history. It developed along the river Nile, in Eastern
Africa.
The importance of religion and the respect for death ruled their art. They built mostly temples,
graves and adopted strict canons controlled by the priests. Our knowledge of Egyptian
civilization rests almost entirely on them and their contents since they were built to endure
forever. Conventions of ancient Egyptian believes and culture strongly affected the art. The
Pharaoh (King) considered divine. Representation of the figure presented the most reflexive
view of each part of the body. Preparation for the afterlife was of extreme importance. The
body must be preserved if the soul or ka is to live on in the beyond in a same body. They built
great tombs for their Pharaohs (kings), who were not only the supreme rulers but gods. Tombs
contained everything the deceased might want or need in the afterlife and much of our
knowledge of the culture comes from tomb paintings. After Pharaoh's death, his body was laid
right in the centre of the huge mountain of stone, along with many weapons and food. Even his
servants were buried to help him on his journey to the other world.
Pre-Dynastic and Early Dynastic Period (3500-3000 B.C.)
From about 5000 BC to 3000 BC, Egypt was not a unified nation and that time is known as the
Pre-Dynastic period. Around 3000 BC, Upper and Lower Kingdom conjoined and lands along the
Nile River were united under one ruler and the Dynastic period began.
The Old Kingdom (2700-2200 B.C.)
The old kingdom is an important period in political and cultural development of Ancient Egypt.
Centuries of uninterrupted rise, established one of the most powerful cultures of the ancient
world. During this period Hieroglyphic writing reached its sophistication. The techniques of
crafts developed to a high professionalism. King Djoser, builder of the step pyramid at Saqqara,
is the first and most celebrated king of the third dynasty. The works of Cheops, Chephren, and
Mycerinus, the creators of the three pyramids at Giza represents the peak of achievements in
the architectural field. A strong centralized government, as well as a divine kingship
characterizes this period. Towards the end of the period, central authority disintegrated and the
country fell into a state of rapid decline.
The Middle Kingdom (2050-1800 B.C.)
The middle kingdom started with the re-foundation of the Kingdom under single administration
by Mentuhtep II. It was an epoch of restoration of the Egyptian culture. The kings of the
following dynasties enlarged their control over the land, promoted the economic and political
19
development. Egyptian trade flourished, and a developed irrigation system was re-established.
Pyramid building was also revived, but much humbler then in the old kingdom. This rise was
followed by the ultimate downfall and the country fell into the hands of foreign rulers.
The New Kingdom (1550-1080 B.C.)
During this period, Egypt reached the zenith of its power. Egypt extended further south in Africa
and into the Middle East under these rulers. Tutmosis III was among the pioneers in the military
field. The degree of refinement of this age is clearly manifested in the architectural heritage.
Under the rule of queen Hatshipsut, the artistic revival began. The reigning monarchs of this
period showed a genuine interest in art and architecture. Khenaton, the heretic pharaoh,
reached the peak of artistic innovations with his unique art style that accompanied his religious
reformation.
Late Period (after 1080 B.C.)
The late period was a period of deterioration. Kingship suffered a decline in prestige, and the
political and social systems were unstable. Egypt was now ruled from two separate capitals, one
in the north and one in the south. Large foreign colonies developed and Egypt for the first time
opened its borders to the foreigners who settled in the delta.
Architecture
The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the
Great Pyramids of Giza and the temples at Thebes. Building projects were organized and funded
by the state for religious and commemorative purposes, but also to reinforce the power of the
pharaoh. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders; using simple but effective tools and
sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with accuracy and precision.
The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were constructed from perishable
materials such as mud bricks and wood, and have not survived. Peasants lived in simple homes,
while the palaces of the elite were more elaborate structures. A few surviving New Kingdom
palaces, such as those in Malkata and Amarna, show richly decorated walls and floors with
scenes of people, birds, water pools, deities and geometric designs. Important structures such
as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of
bricks. The architectural elements used in the world's first large-scale stone building, Djoser's
mortuary complex, include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif.
The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, such as those at Giza, consist of single,
enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. In the New Kingdom, architects added the
pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple's
sanctuary, a style that was standard until the Graeco-Roman period. The earliest and most
popular tomb architecture in the Old Kingdom was the mastaba, a flat-roofed rectangular
structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber. The step pyramid of
Djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. Pyramids were built during
the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less
conspicuous rock-cut tombs. The 25th dynasty was a notable exception, as all 25th dynasty
pharaohs constructed pyramids
Pyramids
A pyramid is a structure whose outer surfaces are roughly triangular and converge to a single
point at the top. The base of a pyramid can be trilateral, quadrilateral, or any polygon shape,
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meaning that a pyramid has at least three triangular surfaces (at least four faces including the
base). The square pyramid, with square base and four triangular outer surfaces, is a common
version.
A pyramid's design, with the majority of the weight closer to the ground, and with the pyramid
on top means that less material higher up on the pyramid will be pushing down from above.
This distribution of weight allowed early civilizations to create stable monumental structures.
Pyramids have been built by civilizations in many parts of the world. For thousands of years, the
largest structures on Earth were pyramids—first the Red Pyramid in the Dashur Necropolis and
then the Great Pyramid of Khufu, both of Egypt, the latter the only one of the Seven Wonders
of the Ancient World still remaining. Khufu's Pyramid is built entirely of limestone, and is
considered an architectural masterpiece.
Basically there are 3 types of architectural pyramids. They are1. Mastaba Pyramid
2. Step Pyramid
3. Solid or True Pyramid
1. Mastaba, is a type of ancient Egyptian tomb in the form of a flat-roofed, rectangular
structure with outward sloping sides that marked the burial site of many eminent Egyptians of
Egypt's ancient period. Mastabas were constructed out of mud-bricks or stone. The greatest
stimulus for the ancient Egyptians was their belief in an afterlife. This was reflected in their
architecture and most prominently by the enormous amounts of time, money, and manpower
involved in the building of their tombs.[1] “Egyptians believed that the soul could live only if the
body was preserved from corruption and depredation.
2. Step pyramids are structures which characterized several cultures throughout history, in
several locations throughout the world. These pyramids typically are large and made of several
layers of stone. The term refers to pyramids of similar design that emerged separately from one
another, as there are no firmly established connections between the different civilizations that
built them. The earliest Egyptian pyramids were step pyramids. During the Third dynasty of
Egypt, the architect Imhotep built Egypt's first step pyramid, the Pyramid of Djoser, by building
a series of six successively smaller mastabas (an earlier form of tomb structure), one on top of
another. Later pharaohs, including Sekhemkhet and Khaba, built similar structures. The first
step pyramid was built for Djoser (or Zoser).
3. The building of Solid pyramids began in the 3rd Dynasty after the reign of King Djoser. Early
kings such as Snefru built several pyramids, with subsequent kings adding to the number of
pyramids until the end of the Middle Kingdom. The last king to build royal pyramids was
Ahmose, with later kings hiding their tombs in the hills, like in the Valley of the Kings in Luxor's
West Bank. Solid Pyramids are the most well known types of pyramid and signature of ancient
Egypt. The greatest solid pyramid of Giza or Khufu’s Pyramid was build during the Pharaoh
Khufu empire (2589 BC-2566 BC). It’s height 481 feet and base 756 feet. Pyramid of Khafre is
also known a great True pyramid, as well as the pyramid of Mankaura. All these three pyramids
are from the old kingdom of Egypt.
Art
The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes. For over 3500 years, artists
adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom,
following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. These
artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic
flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and
balance within a composition. Images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple
21
walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. The Narmer Palette, for example, displays figures that
can also be read as hieroglyphs. Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and
symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with
precision and clarity.
Ancient Egyptian artisans used stone to carve statues and fine reliefs, but used wood as a cheap
and easily carved substitute. Paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores (red and
yellow ochres), copper ores (blue and green), soot or charcoal (black), and limestone (white).
Paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes, which could be
moistened with water when needed. Pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle, royal
decrees, and religious scenes. Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art, such as
shabti statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife.
During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life
became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in
the afterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are
scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.
Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places
sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in
the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan-style frescoes were found in Avaris. The most striking
example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the Amarna period, where
figures were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten's revolutionary religious ideas. This
style, known as Amarna art, was quickly and thoroughly erased after Akhenaten's death and
replaced by the traditional forms
Religious beliefs
Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient Egyptian civilization from its
inception; pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was
populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection.
However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to
be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this pantheon changed continually as
new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse
and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system. These various conceptions
of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality.
Gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the
center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine. Temples were not places of public worship
or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue
of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the
outside world and was only accessible to temple officials. Common citizens could worship
private statues in their homes, and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos. After
the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's role as a spiritual intermediary was de-emphasized as religious
customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of oracles
to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people.
The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or
aspects. In addition to the body, each person had a šwt (shadow), a ba (personality or soul), a
ka (life-force), and a name. The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of
thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and
could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a
permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become
one of the "blessed dead", living on as an akh, or "effective one". For this to happen, the
deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "feather
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of truth". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual
form.
Social status
Egyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed. Farmers made
up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple,
or noble family that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were
required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system. Artists and craftsmen
were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the
shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials
formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, the so-called "white kilt class" in reference to the
bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. The upper class prominently
displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians,
and engineers with specialized training in their field. Slavery was known in ancient Egypt, but
the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear.
The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes except
slaves, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition
the vizier and his court for redress. Both men and women had the right to own and sell
property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in
court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by
agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his
wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient
Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a
greater range of personal choices and opportunities for achievement. Women such as
Hatshepsut and Cleopatra VI even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as Divine
Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egyptian women did not often take part in
official roles in the administration, served only secondary roles in the temples, and were not as
likely to be as educated as men. Also see a BBC History
Legal system
The head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for enacting laws,
delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as
Ma'at. Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive, court documents show that Egyptian
law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching
agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes.
Local councils of elders, known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in
court cases involving small claims and minor disputes. More serious cases involving murder,
major land transactions, and tomb robbery were referred to the Great Kenbet, over which the
vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves
and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In some cases, the state took
on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to
obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or
serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future
reference.
Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or
exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb
robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or impaling the
criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family. Beginning in
the New Kingdom, oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil
23
and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes" or "no" question concerning the
right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgment by
choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers
written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon.
Agriculture
A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient
Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual
inundations of the Nile River. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of
food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and
artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed
based on the amount of land a person owned.
Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three
seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted
from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt ideal for
growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to
February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches
and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From
March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail
to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the
grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.
The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which
were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. Flax plants, uprooted before
they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along
their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make
clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables
and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be
watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other
crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.
Trade
The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods
not found in Egypt. In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold
and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil
jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. An Egyptian colony stationed in
southern Canaan dates to slightly before the First Dynasty. Narmer had Egyptian pottery
produced in Canaan and exported back to Egypt.
By the Second Dynasty at latest, ancient Egyptian trade with Byblos yielded a critical source of
quality timber not found in Egypt. By the Fifth Dynasty, trade with Punt provided gold, aromatic
resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons. Egypt relied on trade with
Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals
being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone
lapis lazuli, which had to be imported from far-away Afghanistan. Egypt's Mediterranean trade
partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive
oil. In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials, Egypt mainly exported grain, gold,
linen, and papyrus, in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects.
24
Fashion : Clothing of the ancient Egyptians
Egypt 3100 B.C.—30 B.C. Egyptians enhanced and controlled nature through concepts of
beauty.
Basics: gowns called kalasiris with breasts in full view, clothing used to symbolize status,
elaborate wigs and collars, loin cloths, cosmetics, gold, linen. (Angular shapes)
In ancient Egypt, linen was by far the most common textile. It helped people to be comfortable
in the subtropical heat. Linen is made from the flax plant by spinning the fibres from the stem of
the plant. Spinning, weaving and sewing were very important techniques for all Egyptian
societies. Plant dyes could be applied to clothing but the clothing was usually left in its natural
color. Wool was known, but considered impure. Only the wealthy wore animal fibers that were
the object of taboos. They were used on occasion for overcoats, but were forbidden in temples
and sanctuaries.
Peasants, workers and other people of modest condition often wore nothing, but the shenti
(made of flax) was worn by all people. Slaves often worked naked.
The most common headdress was the klaft or nemes, a striped cloth worn by men.
Notable Possessions
(Egyptian civilization)
Hieroglyphics
Hieroglyphs were a formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians that combined
logographic and alphabetic elements. Egyptians used cursive hieroglyphs for religious literature
on papyrus and wood.
Hieroglyphs emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on
Gerzean pottery from ca. 4000 BCE resemble hieroglyphic writing. For many years the earliest
known hieroglyphic inscription was the Narmer Palette, found during excavations at
Hierakonpolis (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to ca. 3200 BCE.
The characters that are relatively old are believed by many to have been made in Sumerin
Mesopotamia; there the original cuneiform was proto-cuneiform and originally a pictographic
form. In ancient Egypt the first uses of hieroglyphs is on the cosmetic palettes, pottery, and
labels found in tombs, reliefs and burials. The hieroglyphs that were originally used for
recording agricultural products and handicrafts led to the birth of linear and cuneiform script,
widely used by the Sumerians, Assyrians and Babylonians; in ancient Egypt, a similar linear
script formed from the hieroglyphs, called hieratic, but still equivalent to all the hieroglyph
forms. Hieroglyphics can be read now because of the Rosetta stone.
Tutankhamun – The youngest Pharaoh of Egyptian history
Tutankhamun (1333 BC – 1323 BC) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, during the
period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom. He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya of
the Amarna letters, and likely the 18th dynasty king Rathotis who, according to Manetho, an
ancient historian, had reigned for nine years — a figure which conforms with Flavius Josephus's
version of Manetho's Epitome.
He is considered as the Youngest Pharaoh of the ancient Egyptian History.
Imhotep – Considered as the first architect
25
Imhotep (circa 2650-2600 BC) was an Egyptian polymath, who served under the Third Dynasty
king Djoser as chancellor to the pharaoh and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. He is
considered to be the first architect and engineer and physician in early history though two other
good physicians, Hesy-Ra and Merit-Ptah lived around the same time.
Imhotep was one of very few mortals to be depicted as part of a pharaoh's statue. He was one
of only a few commoners ever to be accorded divine status after death. The center of his cult
was Memphis. From the First Intermediate Period onward Imhotep was also revered as a poet
and philosopher.
Rosetta stone
The Rosetta stone is an ancient Egyptian granodiorite stele inscribed with a decree issued at
Memphis in 196 BC on behalf of King Ptolemy V. The decree appears in three scripts: the upper
text is Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, the middle portion Demotic script, and the lowest Ancient
Greek. Because it presents essentially the same text in all three scripts (with some minor
differences between them), it provided the key to the modern understanding of Egyptian
hieroglyphs.
Originally displayed within a temple, the stele was probably moved during the early Christian or
medieval period and eventually used as building material in the construction of Fort Julien near
the town of Rashid (Rosetta) in the Nile Delta. It was rediscovered there in 1799 by a soldier,
Pierre-Francois Bouchard, of the French expedition to Egypt. As the first ancient bilingual text
recovered in modern times, the Rosetta Stone aroused widespread public interest with its
potential to decipher the hitherto untranslated Ancient Egyptian language. Lithographic copies
and plaster casts began circulating amongst European museums and scholars. Meanwhile,
British troops defeated the French in Egypt in 1801, and the original stone came into British
possession under the Capitulation of Alexandria. Transported to London, it has been on public
display at the British Musseum since 1802. It is the most-visited object in the British Museum.
Great Sphinx of Giza
The Great Sphinx of Giza, commonly referred to as the Sphinx, is a limestone statue of a
reclining or couchant sphinx (a mythical creature with a lion's body and a human head) that
stands on the Giza Plateau on the west bank of the Nile in Giza, Egypt.
It is the largest monolith statue in the world, standing 73.5 metres (241 ft) long, 6 metres (20 ft)
wide, and 20.22 m (66.34 ft) high.[1] It is the oldest known monumental sculpture, and is
commonly believed to have been built by ancient Egyptians of the Old Kingdom during the reign
of the pharaoh Khafri (c. 2558–2532 BC).
The Great Sphinx is one of the world's largest and oldest statues, but basic facts about it, such
as which its face was modeled after, when it was built, and by whom, are still debated. These
questions have resulted in the popular idea of the "Riddle of the Sphinx," although this phrase
should not be confused with the original Greek legend of the Riddle of the Sphinx.
Pliny the Elder mentioned the Great Sphinx in his book, Natural History, commenting that the
Egyptians looked upon the statue as a "divinity" that has been passed over in silence and "that
King Harmais was buried in it"
26
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
1. What is Hieroglyphics?
Hieroglyphs were a formal writing system used by the ancient Egyptians that combined
logographic and alphabetic elements. Egyptians used cursive hieroglyphs for religious literature
on papyrus and wood.
Hieroglyphs emerged from the preliterate artistic traditions of Egypt. For example, symbols on
Gerzean pottery from ca. 4000 BCE resemble hieroglyphic writing. For many years the earliest
known hieroglyphic inscription was the Narmer Palette, found during excavations at
Hierakonpolis (modern Kawm al-Ahmar) in the 1890s, which has been dated to ca. 3200 BCE.
2. What is Papyrus?
Papyrus means two things. First, it is the plant that is grown in Lower Egypt near the Nile River.
Second, papyrus is the paper that is made from the papyrus plant.
Papyrus paper was made by laying the reeds of the plant in two layers and pressing them
together.
The Egyptians pressed several of these pages together to create scrolls.
3. Mention the time periods of Ancient Egyptian Civilization.
There are basic 5 periods of Ancient Egyptian Civilization. Their names and timelines are:
Early Dynastic Period (3500-3000 B.C.)
The Old Kingdom
(2700-2200 B.C.)
The Middle Kingdom (2050-1800 B.C.)
The New Kingdom
(1550-1080 B.C.)
Late Period
(after 1080 B.C.)
4. What is Rosetta stone?
The Rosetta stone is an ancient Egyptian Stone inscription stele. The decree appears in three
scripts: the upper text is Ancient Egyptian hieroglyphs, the middle portion Demotic script, and
the lowest Ancient Greek.
5. Who was Imhotep?
Imhotep (2650-2600 BC) was an Egyptian architect, who served under the Third Dynasty king
Djoser as chancellor to the pharaoh and high priest of the sun god Ra at Heliopolis. He was the
architect of Pyramid of Djoser which is considered as the first step pyramid of Ancient Egypt.
6. What is pyramid? How many types of Pyramid?
A pyramid is a structure whose outer surfaces are roughly triangular and converge to a single
point at the top. Specially known as the massive architectures of ancient Egypt. There are three
types of pyramids :
a) Mastaba Pyramids
b) Step Pyramids
c) Solid or True Pyramids
27
7. Who was Tutankhamun?
Tutankhamun (1333 BC – 1323 BC) was an Egyptian pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, during the
period of Egyptian history known as the New Kingdom.
He is considered as the Youngest Pharaoh of the ancient Egyptian History.
Broad Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Give a description of Ancient Egyptian civilization with their timelines.
Discuss about the clothing of Ancient Egyptian civilization.
Give brief description of the Great Sphinx of Giza.
Discuss about the influence of art and literature of ancient Egypt.
Week 5
Lecture 5
Indus valley civilization
Timeline:
3300–1300 BC; mature period : 2600–1900 BC
The greater Indus region was home to the largest of the four ancient urban civilizations of
Egypt, Mesopotamia, South Asia and China. It was not discovered until the 1920's. Most of its
ruins, even its major cities, remain to be excavated. The ancient Indus Civilization script has not
been deciphered.
Many questions about the Indus people who created this highly complex culture remain
unanswered, but other aspects of their society can be answered through various types of
archaeological studies.
Harappa was a city in the Indus civilization that flourished around 2600 to 1700 BCE in the
western part of South Asia.
Cities and Context
The Harappa’s used the same size bricks and standardized weights as were used in other Indus
cities such as Moreno Dare and Dholavira. These cities were well planned with wide streets,
28
public and private wells, drains, bathing platforms and reservoirs. One of its most well known
structures is the Great Bath of Moreno Dare.
There were other highly developed cultures in adjacent regions of Baluchistan, Central Asia and
peninsular India. Material culture and the skeletons from the Harappa cemetery and other sites
testify to a continual intermingling of communities from both the west and the east. Harappa
was settled before what we call the ancient Indus civilization flourished, and it remains a living
town today.
The Saraswati River
In fact, there seems to have been another large river which ran parallel and west of the Indus in
the third and fourth millenium BCE. This was the ancient Saraswati-Ghaggar-Hakra River (which
some scholars associate with the Saraswati River of the Rg Veda).
Its lost banks are slowly being traced by researchers. Along its now dry bed, archaeologists are
discovering a whole new set of ancient towns and cities.
Meluhha
Ancient Mesopotamian texts speak of trading with at least two seafaring civilizations - Magan
and Meluhha - in the neighborhood of South Asia in the third millennium B.C. This trade was
conducted with real financial sophistication in amounts that could involve tons of copper. The
Mesopotamians speak of Meluhha as a land of exotic commodities. A wide variety of objects
produced in the Indus region have been found at sites in Mesopotamia.
Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa
Archaeologists discovered two 4000-year-old cities, 400 miles apart, along the banks of the
Indus River in Pakistan. These expertly constructed cities were parts of an advanced civilization
comparable to ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt. We don’t know what the ancient people of the
Indus River Valley called themselves. Archaeologists named the cities Mohenjo-Daro, which
means “hill of the dead,” and Harappa, after a nearby city.
The people of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa lived in sturdy brick houses that had as many as
three floors. The houses had bathrooms that were connected to sewers. Their elaborate
drainage system was centuries ahead of their time. Archaeologists have found the remains of
fine jewelry, including stones from far away places. This shows that the people of the Indus
Valley civilization valued art and traded with other cultures.
We don’t know what happened to the Indus River Valley civilization. It seems to have been
abandoned about 1700BC. It is possible that a great flood weakened the civilization. The moving
tectonic plates that created the Himalayas may have caused a devastating earthquake. It is also
possible that the people may have been defeated by another culture.
What we know about the Indus civilization is evolving. Archaeologists are continuing to find
new artifacts. In time, we may learn how this amazing civilization developed, how they learned
to create an advanced ancient civilization, and why they suddenly disappeared.
Notable Possessions
(Indus Valley civilization)
Art and Craft of Indus Valley People
29
The patterns that the craft traditions in India were to take and which were to survive for years
appear already mature and firmly established in the cities of the Indus valley. The Indus people
were expert craftsmen. They made beads of carnelian, agate, amethyst, turquoise, lapis lazuli,
etc. They manufactured bangles out of shells, glazed faience and terracotta and carved ivory
and worked shells into ornaments, bowls and ladles.
Mohenjo-daro (Architectural City)
Mohenjo-daro is an archeological site situated in what is now the province of Sindh, Pakistan.
Built around 2600 BC, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley
Civilization, and one of the world's earliest major urban settlements, existing at the same time
as the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Crete. Mohenjo-daro was abandoned in
the 19th century BC, and was not rediscovered until 1922. Significant excavation has since been
conducted at the site of the city, which was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1980.
Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BC, and abandoned around 1800 BC. The ruins of
the city were discovered in 1922 by Rakhaldas Bandyopadhyay, an officer of the Archaeological
Survey of India. He was led to the mound by a Buddhist monk, who reportedly believed it to be
a stupa. In the 1930s, major excavations were conducted at the site under the leadership of
John Marshall, K. N. Dikshit and Ernest Mackay. Further excavations were carried out in 1945 by
Ahmad Hasan Dani and Mortimer Wheeler.
The Swastika (Symbol)
The swastika is an equilateral cross with its arms bent at right angles, in either right-facing (卐)
form in counterclockwise motion or its mirrored left-facing (卍) form in clockwise motion.
Earliest archaeological evidence of swastika-shaped ornaments dates back to the Indus Valley
Civilization of Ancient India as well as Classical Antiquity. Swastikas have also been used in other
various ancient civilizations around the world. It remains widely used in Indian religions,
specifically in Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism, primarily as a tantric symbol to evoke 'shakti' or
the sacred symbol of auspiciousness. The swastika is also a Chinese character used in East Asia
representing eternity and Buddhism.
The swastika is a historical sacred symbol both to evoke 'Shakti' in tantric rituals and evoke the
gods for blessings in Indian religions. It first appears in the archaeological record here around
2500 BC in the Indus Valley Civilization. It rose to importance in Buddhism during the Mauryan
Empire and in Hinduism with the decline of Buddhism in India during the Gupta Empire. With
the spread of Buddhism, the Buddhist swastika reached Tibet and China. The symbol was also
introduced to Balinese Hinduism by Hindu kings. The use of the swastika by the Bön faith of
Tibet, as well as later syncretic religions, such as Cao Dai of Vietnam and Falun Gong of China,
can also be traced to Buddhist influence.
Priest-King (Sculpture)
In 1927, a seated male figure, 17.5 cm tall, was found in a building with unusually ornamental
brickwork and a wall-niche. Though there is no evidence that priests or monarchs ruled the city,
archeologists dubbed this dignified figure a "Priest-King"; it has become symbolic of the Indus
valley civilization.
The bearded sculpture wears a fillet around the head, an armband, and a cloak decorated with
trefoil patterns that were originally filled with red pigment.
The two ends of the fillet fall along the back, and though the hair is carefully combed towards
the back of the head, no bun is present. The flat back of the head may have held a separately
30
carved bun, as is traditional on the other seated figures, or it could have held a more elaborate
horn and plumed headdress.
Two holes beneath the highly stylized ears suggest that a necklace or other head ornament was
attached to the sculpture. The left shoulder is covered with a cloak decorated with trefoil,
double circle and single circle designs that were originally filled with red pigment. Drill holes in
the center of each circle indicate they were made with a specialized drill and then touched up
with a chisel. The eyes are deeply incised and may have held inlay. The upper lip is shaved, and
a short combed beard frames the face. The large crack in the face may be due to weathering, or
it may be a result of the original firing of this object.
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
1. What is Swastika? Where was it found?
The swastika is an equilateral cross with its arms bent at right angles, in either right-facing (卐)
form in counterclockwise motion or its mirrored left-facing (卍) form in clockwise motion.
Some Indus valley seals show swastikas, which are found in other religions (worldwide),
especially in Indian religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism. The earliest evidence
for elements of Hinduism is alleged to have been present before and during the early Harappan
period. Phallic symbols interpreted as the much later Hindu Shiva lingam have been found in
the Harappan remains.
2. Mention two major cities of Indus valley Civilization.
The Indus Valley civilization was a Bronze Age civilization that was located in the northwestern
region of the Indian subcontinent, consisting of what is now mainly modern-day Pakistan and
northwest India. The two major cities of Indus valley Civilization were :
(1) Mohenjo-daro and
(2) Harappa
3. What is Mohenjo-daro?
Mohenjo-daro is an archeological site situated in what is now the province of Sindh, Pakistan.
Built around 2600 BC, it was one of the largest settlements of the ancient Indus Valley
Civilization, and one of the world's earliest major urban settlements, existing at the same time
as the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Crete.
Mohenjo-daro was built in the 26th century BC, and abandoned around 1800 BC.
4. What was Priest King?
Priest-King is an sculpture made by ornamental brickwork, a seated male figure, 17.5 cm tall,
found in Indus valley civilization. The bearded sculpture wears a fillet around the head, an
armband, and a cloak decorated with trefoil patterns that were originally filled with red
pigment.
Though there is no evidence that priests or monarchs ruled the city, archeologists dubbed this
dignified figure a "Priest-King"; it has become symbolic of the Indus valley civilization.
Broad Questions
1. Give a description of Indus valley civilization.
2. Give a description of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro.
Week 6
31
Lecture 6
Ancient Indian Art
India takes her place alongside Egypt and Mesopotamia as a country where we can trace the
dawn of human civilization and the beginning of the thoughts, ideas and activities, which have
shaped the destinies of mankind all over the civilized world. The history of India, thus, possesses
an aspect of universality, which so strikingly distinguishes the history of Egypt, Babylonia and
Assyria during the early period and Persia, Greece and Rome later.
Continuity has been the keynote of Indian culture. The ancient civilization of India differs from
those of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece in the way that its traditions have been preserved
without any break to the present day. The ancient cultures of Egypt Mesopotamia and even
Greece have long ceased to exist. But in case of India the present is fully conscious of the past.
Over a period of more than five thousand years not much has changed.
The same mantra that a Brahmin used to chant before taking his bath in praise of the seven
rivers of India, more than four thousand years ago continues to be changed even today. The
society as described in the ancient epics has changed very little. An average Indian still
venerates ideals and concepts which his ancestors cherished thousands of years ago. But the
present day Egyptians had no knowledge of their past until its discovery by the archaeologists.
Even the glory of Periclean Athens is vague for the Greets of today. They are now mere
memories, arousing only academic interest.
The Indian history and culture form an unbroken chain by which the past is indissolubly linked
with the present. People of India are sentimentally attached to their past and always clamour
for its complete restoration. The old customs and practices are so deeply ingrained in the minds
of the people that it can hardly be delinked.
The ancient India bequeathed to us a vast treasury of texts, which represent the intellectual,
religious and literary activities for a period over four thousand years. The earliest literary work,
the Samhita of the Rigveda and many other works on geography, astronomy, science and
economics continue to remain alive even in the present, which is not possible in case of Egypt,
Greece and Rome. Some Indian writers even seek to find in ancient India a replica of the most
advanced political institutions of the modern times.
...
India is a land of veritable treasures. India has been the birthplace of three major religions of
the world—Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism; these have inspired most of her art. India's artistic
traditions are ancient and deeply rooted in religion. While at various times in her long history,
foreign races and cultures exercised some influence on Indian art forms, the main aesthetic
currents remained predominantly Indian.
The character of Indian art is best described as plastic, organic and sculptural. This is well
symbolized by the nature of Indian architecture-primarily a sculptural mass rather than a space
enclosure. Though sculpture is the Indian art par excellence, it is in architecture that the
national genius has shown it’s most unquestionable originality and much of the greatest Indian
sculpture was produced in connection with, indeed as an art of, architecture. Broadly speaking,
architecture has been described as an art of organizing space, functionally and beautifully. A
great architect clothes his well spatial structure with a form of beauty, not an extraneous
superimposed beauty but inherent in all the structure, in every part, making the whole. The
32
‘dominance’ of the sculptural mode in India is due to the Indian propensity, stronger than that
of any other culture, for carving sculptural caves and temples out of the living rock, of mountain
escarpment or outcropping. Also in ancient India, the arts were not separated as they
unfortunately are today the architect; the sculptor and the painter were often one man.
Sculptures were invariably painted in colour and the sculpture generally was not free-standing,
but formed part of the temple structure. In this way architecture, sculpture and painting were
in fact, much more intimately connected than they are today and much of this was a happy
combination.
India occupies an exalted position in the realm of art of the ancient world. If the Greeks excelled
in the portrayal of the physical charm of the human body, the Egyptians in the grandeur of their
pyramids and the Chinese in the beauty of their landscapes, the Indians were unsurpassed in
transmitting the spiritual contents into their plastic forms embodying the high ideals and the
common beliefs of the people. The Indian artists visualized the qualities of various gods and
goddesses as mentioned in their scriptures and infused these qualities into their images whose
proportions they based on the idealised figures of man and woman. Indian art is deeply rooted
in religion and it conduces to fulfilling the ultimate aim of life, moksha or release from the cycle
of birth and death. There were two qualities about which the Indian artists cared more than
about anything else, namely, a feeling for volume and vivid representation, even at the risk of
sacrificing, at times, anatomical truth or perspective. A sense of narrative a taste for decoration,
keenness of observations are clearly brought out in each sculpture. Indian art is a wholesome,
youthful and delicate art, a blend of symbolism and reality, spirituality and sensuality. Indian art
may well be said to bear in itself the greatest lesson an exemplary continuity from pre-historic
times to the present age, together with an exceptional coherence. We said earlier that Indian
art was inspired by religion, for India is the birth place of three of the world's great religions
Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism and these three faiths have inspired most of our Indian art.
We use the word 'most' purposely for the simple reason that not all Indian art is religious. The
Indian artist was a man of this universe, he lived here, looked around himself, saw the joys and
sorrows of the life and reproduced them in whatever medium he happened to be working in at
a given time; clay, wood, paper, metal or stone. The creation of art by the Indian artists are not
"realistic" representations in the sense we understand the term on Greek or Roman Art (but
they are imagined and are idealised).
None had actually seen the major gods like Rama, Krishna, Vishnu and Shiva, etc., but according
to their description in the scriptures the Indian artists visualised them as shown generally
standing erect, signifying mental, physical and spiritual equilibrium. In form, the males are virile
beings broad shouldered, deep chested and narrow hipped. The females are precisely contrary
to the males narrow shouldered, having full and fir breasts, and attenuated waist and' broad
hips. The females according to the Indian artists represent Matri or the mother. In the course of
this guide book we proposed to keep the hum form as the peg on which to hang our story and
will venture to see the hum body treated by different periods according to the changing styles the like and dislike of a particular age. Indian art is a treasure house of ancient contemporary
life, its faiths and beliefs, customs and manners. It is considered by some to be the function or
purpose of art of any age to mirror contemporary society, its customs, manners, habits, modes
of dress and ornamentation etc.
Painting is one of the most delicate forms of art giving expression to human thoughts and
feelings through the media of line and colour. Many thousands of years before the dawn of
history, when man was only a cave dweller, he painted his rock shelters to satisfy his aesthetic
sensitivity and creative urge.
Among Indians, the love of colour and design is so deeply ingrained that from the earliest times
they created paintings and drawings even during the periods of history for which we have no
direct evidence.
33
Cave paintings of
Ajanta and Ellora
Ajanta
The Ajanta Caves carved out of volcanic rock in the Maharashtra Plateau was not far off from
the ancient trade routes & attracted traders & pilgrims through whom the Ajanta art style
diffused as far as China & Japan. The Buddhist Monks employed artists who turned the stone
walls into picture books of Buddha's life & teachings. These artists have portrayed the
costumes, ornaments & styles of the court life of their times.
The artists applied mud plaster in two coats – the first was rough to fill in the pores of the rocks
& then a final coat of lime plaster over it. The painting was done in stages. They drew the
outline in red ochre, then applied the colours & renewed the contours in brown, deep red or
black.
The attenuated poses, supple limbs, artistic features, a great variety of hair styles, all kinds of
ornaments & jewellery indicate skilled artisans.
In a mural in Cave 10, some 50 elephants are painted in different poses bringing out the skill of
the artist in handling these bulky forms in all perspective views, with erected tails & raised
trunks, depicting sensed danger.
The styles of the later murals reveals a merging of two streams of art, Satavahana of Andhra &
Gupta art of North India. This resulted in the classical style which had a far reaching influence
on all the paintings of the country for centuries to come.
A high degree of craftsmanship incorporating all the rules laid down by ancient Indian treatises
on painting & aesthetics are evident. One cannot but notice the fluid, yet firm lines, long
sweeping brush strokes, outlining graceful contours, subtle gradation of the same colour,
highlighting nose, eyelids, lips & chin making the figures emerge from the flat wall surface.
Animals, birds, trees, flowers, architecture are pictured with an eye to their beauty of form.
Human emotions & character are depicted with great understanding & skill - indignation, greed,
love & compassion.
Ellora
Mural paintings in Ellora are found in 5 caves, but only in the Kailasa temple, they are
somewhat preserved. The paintings were done in two series - the first, at the time of carving
the caves & the subsequent series was done several centuries later. The earlier paintings show
Vishnu & Lakshmi borne through the clouds by Garuda, with clouds in the background.
The sinewy figures have sharp features & pointed noses. The protruding eye typical of the later
Gujarathi style appears for the first time in Ellora. In the subsequent series, the main
composition is that of a procession of Saiva holy men. The flying Apsaras are graceful . Very few
murals in the Jain temples are well preserved.
Notable Possessions
34
(Ancient Indian art)
Ajanta Caves
These caves are known to depict the story of Buddhism and are known to span a period from
200 BC to 650 AD. These 29 caves had been originally built as retreats for the Buddhist monks
and these monks had been taught and could perform rituals in the ancient seats of learning.
The monks used simple hammers and chisels to carve out these impressive figures which adorn
the walls of most of the structures here.Images of nymphs and princesses are known to be
elaborately portrayed
Ellora Caves
These structures are unique, in the terms that they depict three different religious cultures of
India – Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. These structures were carved out during the period
350 AD to 700 AD. The 12 southern caves are that of Buddhist origin, the 17 in the centre are
dedicated to the cause of Hinduism, whereas the last 5 to the north are significant for the Jain.
Two caves are extremely unique since they merge elements from Hinduism and Buddhism.
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
1. write a short note on Ajanta caves.
These caves are known to depict the story of Buddhism and are known to span a period from
200 BC to 650 AD. These 29 caves had been originally built as retreats for the Buddhist monks
and these monks had been taught and could perform rituals in the ancient seats of learning.
The monks used simple hammers and chisels to carve out these impressive figures which adorn
the walls of most of the structures here.
2. Write a short note on Ellora caves.
Ellora caves are unique, in the terms that they depict three different religious cultures of India –
Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. These structures were carved out during the period 350 AD
to 700 AD. The 12 southern caves are that of Buddhist origin, the 17 in the centre are dedicated
to the cause of Hinduism, whereas the last 5 to the north are significant for the Jain. Two caves
are extremely unique since they merge elements from Hinduism and Buddhism.
Broad Questions
1. Give a description of ancient Indian art.
Week 7
35
Lecture 7
Greek civilization, Roman civilization
Greek civilization
Timeline:
1100 B.C. – 31 B.C.
Ancient Greece is a civilization belonging to a period of Greek history that lasted from the
Archaic period of the 8th to 6th centuries BC to the end of antiquity (ca. 600 AD). Immediately
following this period was the beginning of the Early Middle Ages and the Byzantine era.
Included in Ancient Greece is the period of Classical Greece, which flourished during the 5th to
4th centuries BC. Classical Greece began with the repelling of a Persian invasion by Athenian
leadership. Because of conquests by Alexander the Great, Hellenistic civilization flourished from
Central Asia to the western end of the Mediterranean Sea.
Greek art and architecture has lasting influence with its simplicity and reasonableness on the
history of Western civilization and art. Greeks stated many of permanent themes, attitudes, and
forms of Western culture. Greek artists first established mimesis (imitation of nature) as a main
principle for art. The nude human figure in Greek art reflects a belief that "Man is the measure
of all things". Another Greek legacy that the West has inherited is architecture. Many of the
structural elements, decorative motifs, and building types that were established in Ancient
Greece are still used in architecture today.
The roots of Greek culture lie in Mycenaean culture. Mycenaeans built simple houses of a type
that the Greeks continued to build long after. And Mycenaean workshops established a
tradition of painted pottery that continued without interruption, though with great changes,
into later periods. In short, much of Mycenaean culture carried over into later Greek
society.After the collapse of Mycenae around 1100 BC, the Greek cities fell into decline and this
was followed by a period of wars and invasions, known as the Dark Ages.
The Dark Ages (1100 - 750 B.C.)
This is known as the period between the fall of the Mycenean civilization and the readoption of
writing in the eighth or seventh century B.C. After the Trojan Wars the Mycenaeans went
through a period of civil war and invasions. Greece entered a period of relative
impoverishment, depopulation, and cultural isolation. The art of writing was lost for most of
that period. The country was weak and a tribe called the Dorians invaded from the north and
spread down the west coast.
During the Dark Age, Greeks settled Ionia. Artisans in Athens produced an abstract style of
painted pottery called protogeometric (meaning "first geometric"). The precision of the painting
on this pottery foretell the character of later Greek art. Around 800 B.C., the Hellenic civilization
began to arise. The last 2 centuries of the Dark Age, are called the Geometric period. That refers
to a primarily abstract style of pottery decoration of the time. The Greeks probably adapted
Phoenician alphabet at the same time, (around 800 B.C).
36
During most of its ancient history, Greece was a disunited land of scattered city-states, and wars
between the city-states probably first occurred by the end of the 8th century B.C. The 8th
century also saw Greek expansion into southern Italy and Sicily, where city-states from the
Greek mainland established their first colonies.
The Archaic Period (750-500 B.C.)
The period from 750 B.C. to 480 B.C. is called the archaic period. After about 750 B.C. ancient
Greek artists increasingly came into contact with ideas and styles from outside of Greece. In the
seventh and sixth centuries many cities came to be ruled as democracies. The best known of
these is the Athenian democracy. Greek colonization of Southern Italy and Sicily begins.
By 6th century B.C. the Greek world presents a picture in many respects different from that of
the Homeric Age. This is the period when monumental stone sculpture, vase painting and other
developments began to reflect Greek ideas. Monumental building programs became part of the
competition, as each community attempted to establish itself as culturally superior. In this
period, kouros and kore statues were created. These stylized figures of young men and maidens
express the birth of a specifically Greek artistic obsession - the idealization of the human figure.
The art of vase painting reached a level of artistic and technical excellence.
A threat to Greece developed in the East. Persia expanded into Ionia and to the rim of the
Aegean Sea. The Persian Wars, between Persia and Greece, broke out in the early 5th century,
and ended in victory for Athens and the Greeks.
The Classical Period (480-338 B.C.)
Classical period of ancient Greek history is fixed between 480 B.C., when the Greeks began to
come into conflict with the kingdom of Persia to the east and 338 B.C., when Philip II of
Macedonia with son Alexander defeated the Greeks.
Athens established an empire of its own after the Persian Wars, and rivalry between Athens and
the city-state of Sparta dominated the history of 5th-century Greece. The period of classical art
began in Greece about the middle of the 5th century BC. By that time, many of the problems
that faced artists in the early archaic period had been solved.
Greek sculptors had learned to represent the human body naturally and easily, in action or at
rest. They were portraying gods and their best sculptures achieved almost godlike perfection in
their calm, ordered beauty.
The works of the great Greek painters have disappeared completely, and we know only what
ancient writers tell us about them. Fortunately we have many examples of Greek vases,
preserved in tombs or uncovered by archaeologists in other sites. The decorations on these
vases give us some idea of Greek painting. They are examples of the wonderful feeling for form
and line that made the Greeks supreme in the field of sculpture.
The Hellenistic Period (338-31 B.C.)
From 334 to 323 B.C., Alexander the Great extended his father's empire into Asia Minor (now
Turkey), Syria, Egypt, Persia, Afghanistan, and as far as India. Hellenic civilization reached the
peak of its power during the 5th century BC.
The usual periodization practiced is to see the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC as
distinguishing the Hellenic period from the Hellenistic. This represents the shift from a culture
dominated by ethnic Greeks, to a culture dominated by Greek-speakers of whatever ethnicity,
and from the political dominance of the city-state to that of larger monarchies.
The empire of Alexander the Great did not survive his death in 323. After he died, empire was
divided into a number of Hellenistic ('Greek-like') kingdoms. In the 2nd century B.C. Rome
37
began to exert its influence. The Hellenistic period ended in 31 B.C., when Rome defeated
Egypt, the last of the Hellenistic kingdoms.
In the Hellenistic art people sought to portray the inner emotions and details of everyday life
instead of the heroic beauty. The style changed from godlike serenity to individual emotion and
from the dramatic to melodramatic pathos, using dramatic poses and theatrical contrasts of
light and shade playing over figures in high reliefs. One characteristic of these sculptures was
that they showed extreme expressions of pain, stress, wild anger, fear, and despair. The first
Theaters were built in the Hellenistic Period. Corinthian columns began to be more common in
this period.
Art
Acropolis Art
Some of the most influential masterpieces of the western world were created as the result of a
two century long building program in Archaic and Classical Acropolis. In the 6th century BCE a
multitude of freestanding votive Kouroi and Korai were dedicated on the rock, and in the 5th
century BCE the sculptures of the Parthenon lead the classical evolution.
Charioteer of Delphi
The Charioteer of Delphi is one of the most important sculptures of ancient Greece partly
because it vividly represents the passage from the archaic conventions to the Classical ideals. It
exemplifies the balance between stylized geometric representation and idealized realism, thus
capturing the moment in history when western civilization leaped forward to define its own
foundations that braced it for the next few millennia.
Kore
Korai statues are the female equivalent of Kouros. There are several distinct differences
between the two, with the most significant one being the fact that Kouros statues were almost
always portrayed in the nude, while Kore were always clothed. Consequently, when studying
the statues, we tend to focus on the development of anatomy in Kouros, and on the
development of the dress for the Kore along with the facial expression.
Kouros
Kouros, as was the case with the Kore statues, were almost always approximately life-size
(some much larger), and with few exceptions were made of marble. They are depicted standing
in a frontal pose with their left leg moved forward, their arms close to their bodies touching the
side of their thighs, and they exhibit an almost strict symmetry as the different parts of the
anatomy are depicted as simple geometric forms.
Minoan Art
What has survived to our day from Minoan art provides insight into the culture that flourished
in Crete during Prehistoric times. The art of the minoans speak of a society of joyous
disposition, in touch with their environment, and in awe of the logical order of the natural
world. Above all, the unearthed artifacts reveal a people who had developed a high degree of
self-respect and a keen eye for observing and adopting to their physical environment.
Architecture
Greek life was dominated by religion and so it is not surprising that the temples of ancient
38
Greece were the biggest and most beautiful. They also had a political purpose as they were
often built to celebrate civic power and pride, or offer thanksgiving to the patron deity of a city
for success in war.
The Greeks developed three architectural systems, called orders, each with their own
distinctive proportions and detailing. The Greek orders are: Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
Doric
Ionic
Corinthian
The Doric style is rather
sturdy and its top (the
capital), is plain. This style
was used in mainland
Greece and the colonies in
southern Italy and Sicily.
The Ionic style is thinner
and more elegant. Its
capital is decorated with a
scroll-like design (a volute).
This style was found in
eastern Greece and the
islands.
The Corinthian style is
seldom used in the Greek
world, but often seen on
Roman temples. Its capital
is very elaborate and
decorated with acanthus
leaves.
1. Doric Order:
Parthenon : temple of Athena Parthenos ("Virgin"), Greek goddess of wisdom, on the Acropolis
in Athens. The Parthenon was built in the 5th century BC, and despite the enormous damage it
has sustained over the centuries, it still communicates the ideals of order and harmony for
which Greek architecture is known.
2. Ionic Order:
Erechtheum : temple from the middle classical period of Greek art and architecture, built on
the Acropolis of Athens between 421 and 405 BC.
The Erechtheum contained sanctuaries to Athena Polias, Poseidon, and Erechtheus. The
requirements of the several shrines and the location upon a sloping site produced an unusual
plan. From the body of the building porticoes project on east, north, and south sides. The
eastern portico, hexastyle Ionic, gave access to the shrine of Athena, which was separated by a
partition from the western cella. The northern portico, tetrastyle Ionic, stands at a lower level
and gives access to the western cella through a fine doorway. The southern portico, known as
the Porch of the Caryatids (see caryatid) from the six sculptured draped female figures that
support its entablature, is the temple's most striking feature; it forms a gallery or tribune. The
west end of the building, with windows and engaged Ionic columns, is a modification of the
original, built by the Romans when they restored the building. One of the east columns and one
of the caryatids were removed to London by Lord Elgin, replicas being installed in their places.
The Temple of Apollo at Didyma : The Greeks built the Temple of Apollo at Didyma, Turkey
(about 300 BC). The design of the temple was known as dipteral, a term that refers to the two
sets of columns surrounding the interior section. These columns surrounded a small chamber
that housed the statue of Apollo. With Ionic columns reaching 19.5 m (64 ft) high, these ruins
suggest the former grandeur of the ancient temple.
39
3. Corinthian Order :
Corinthian order is most ornate of the classic orders of architecture. It was also the latest, not
arriving at full development until the middle of the 4th cent. B.C. The oldest known example,
however, is found in the temple of Apollo at Bassae (c.420 B.C.). The Greeks made little use of
the order; the chief example is the circular structure at Athens known as the choragic
monument of Lysicrates ( 335 B.C.). The temple of Zeus at Athens (started in the 2d cent. B.C.
and completed by Emperor Hadrian in the 2d cent. A.D.) was perhaps the most notable of the
Corinthian temples.
Fashion : Clothing of the Ancient Greek
The clothing of the women of Ancient Greece from the fifth century B.C.E., to the fourth
century B.C.E., changed as the time periods changed. Changes in fashion are important, because
these changes reflect some of the changes in society. As with all societies throughout history, as
years go by, different fashions come and they go. This was exactly the same with the ancient
Greek women in the fifth century. The different clothing styles of this century changed with
events and with innovations.
Basic Clothing of the Fifth Century materials was classified into three types


Himation
Peplos
Chiton
Himation
The himation was made from a rectangle of woven wool. "It started as outdoor wear, but, when
light material came into style, the himation was worn at any time," states Payne. (83) It first was
used as a cloak but, as the century passed, it was draped more elaborately and it was ten to
twelve feet longer.
Peplos
Another garment worn by the Doric women was the peplos. It was also worn in the fifth century
B.C.E. Kohler says, "[The peplos] has a piece of woolen material, about 3 meters wide and of a
length equal to the height of the wearer, and was folded at the upper extremity to form first a
narrow and then a wider shawl or plaid. The material was brought through beneath the left arm
and fastened with tapes on the right shoulder to leave a board peak in front and behind." (100).
Common Material Patterns of the Peplos :




checks
wavy lines
stripes
flowered designs
The peplos was tubular in shape, and the upper edge was turned down at the waist. The peplos
was put over the head and was made to fit closely at the shoulder with fasteners. The arms
were left bare. It was held at the waist with a girdle. The lower edge was finished with a braid.
The peplos was open at the right side and hung in folds from the shoulder. In time, the shawl, or
plaid, was so wide that it reached to the hip. It was tied with tapes on both shoulders.
40
Chiton
In the early fifth century, after the Persian Invasion, the native Doric chiton came into style.
Examples of this style include the dress of the Porch Maidens, or Caryatids of the Erectheum,
and the Dancing Girls of Herculaeum. The Doric chiton came directly from the style of the
peplos.
Payne states, "The Doric chiton was folded and worn in the same manner as the peplos, but was
of larger dimensions." It was about twice the width from elbow to elbow with arms bent and
lifts to a horizontal position. "The Doric chiton consisted of two pieces of rectangular cloth
equal to the height of the wearer," says Kohler. It was shown either closed or open down the
right side. It was worn closed in Corinth and Attica. The chiton was made of fine pleated linen.
Notable Possessions
(Greek civilization)
The Parthenon (Architecture)
The Parthenon is a temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess
Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their virgin patron. Its construction began in
447 BC when the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power. It was completed in 438 BC,
although decorations of the Parthenon continued until 432 BC. It is the most important
surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered the culmination of the development
of the Doric order. Its decorative sculptures are considered some of the high points of Greek
art. The Parthenon is regarded as an enduring symbol of Ancient Greece and of Athenian
democracy and one of the world's greatest cultural monuments. The Greek Ministry of Culture
is currently carrying out a program of selective restoration and reconstruction to ensure the
stability of the partially ruined structure
Red-figure pottery (Painting)
Red-figure vase painting is one of the most important styles of figural Greek vase painting. It
developed in Athens around 530 BC and remained in use until the late 3rd century BC. It
replaced the previously dominant style of Black-figure vase painting within a few decades. Its
modern name is based on the figural depictions in red colour on a black background, in contrast
to the preceding black-figure style with black figures on a red background. The most important
areas of production, apart from Attica, were in Southern Italy. The style was also adopted in
other parts of Greece. Etruria became an important centre of production outside the Greek
World.
Laocoön Group (Scupture)
41
The statue of Laocoön and His Sons, also called the Laocoön Group, is a monumental sculpture
in marble now in the Vatican Museums, Rome. The statue is attributed by the Roman author
Pliny the Elder to three sculptors from the island of Rhodes: Agesander, Athenodoros and
Polydorus. It shows the Trojan priest Laocoön and his sons Antiphantes and Thymbraeus being
strangled by sea serpents.
The story of Laocoön had been the subject of a play by Sophocles (the play is now lost), and was
mentioned by other Greek writers. Laocoön was killed after attempting to expose the ruse of
the Trojan Horse by striking it with a spear.
Pitsa panels (Material Art)
The Pitsa panels or Pitsa tablets are a group of painted wooden tablets found near Pitsa,
Corinthia (Greece). They are the earliest surviving examples of Greek panel painting.
The four panels, two of them highly fragmentary, were discovered during the 1930s in a cave
near the village of Pitsa, in the vicinity of Sicyon. They can be stylistically dated to circa 540–530
BC, i.e., to the Archaic period of Greek art.
The tablets are thin wooden boards or panels, covered with stucco (plaster) and painted with
mineral pigments. Their bright colours are surprisingly well preserved. Only eight colours (black,
white, blue, red, green, yellow, purple and brown) are used, with no shading or gradation of any
sort. Probably, the black contour outlines were drawn first and then filled in with colours
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
1. Mention the time periods of Ancient Greek Civilization.
The Time period of ancient greek civilizations was from 1100 B.C. – 31 B.C. Basically there are
four divisions of ancient Greek periods :




The Dark Ages (1100 – 750 B.C.)
The Archaic Period (750 – 500 B.C.)
The Classical Period (480 – 338 B.C.)
The Hellenistic Period (338 – 31 B.C.)
2. What are Acropolis Art and Minoan Art?
Acropolis Art is the most influential masterpieces of the western world were created as the
result of a two century long building program in Archaic and Classical Acropolis. In the 6th
century BCE a multitude of freestanding votive Kouroi and Korai were dedicated on the rock,
and in the 5th century BCE the sculptures of the Parthenon lead the classical evolution.
Minoan Art is a form of Ancient Greek art which speaks of a society of joyous disposition, in
touch with their environment, and in awe of the logical order of the natural world. Above all,
the unearthed artifacts reveal a people who had developed a high degree of self-respect and a
keen eye for observing and adapting to their physical environment.
3. Define “The Parthenon”.
42
The Parthenon is a temple on the Athenian Acropolis, Greece, dedicated to the Greek goddess
Athena, whom the people of Athens considered their virgin patron. Its construction began in
447 BC when the Athenian Empire was at the height of its power. It was completed in 438 BC,
although decorations of the Parthenon continued until 432 BC. It is the most important
surviving building of Classical Greece, generally considered the culmination of the development
of the Doric order.
4. What is Red-figure pottery?
Red-figure vase painting is one of the most important styles of figural Greek vase painting. It
developed in Athens around 530 BC and remained in use until the late 3rd century BC.
5. Give brief description of a popular Greek sculpture.
One of the most popular ancient Greek sculpture is Laocoön and His Sons also called the
Laocoön Group, is a monumental statue in marble which is now in the Vatican Museums, Rome.
6. What is Pitsa tablets?
The Pitsa panels or Pitsa tablets are a group of painted wooden tablets found near Pitsa,
Corinthia (Greece). They are the earliest surviving examples of Greek panel painting.
The four panels, two of them highly fragmentary, were discovered during the 1930s in a cave
near the village of Pitsa, in the vicinity of Sicyon.
7. How was the clothing of Ancient Greece?
Clothing was made in the home by the ladies of the house. It was the mother’s responsibility to
make the clothing for her family, with the help from her daughters or from slaves employed in
the home.
The main cloth used in ancient Greek clothing was wool. First the wool was soaked in hot water
to rinse off some of the grease. Only rich people would dye the wool because it was expensive.
The Greeks used different materials to produce dye for their clothing: for brown dye they used
oak bark; for pink, roots of the herb madder; for yellow, stalks of weld; and for blue, dried wood
leaves would be used. After these processes were complete, they spun wool into yarn. Using a
large loom, women wove the yarn into cloth to be used for fabric.
Broad Questions
1. Give a description of Greek Civilization.
2. Discuss three Greek orders of Architecture with examples.
3. Describe the Clothing of Ancient Greece with description of used materials.
43
Roman civilization
Timeline:
753 BC – 1453 AD
Two thousand years ago, Rome was a crowded, noisy, busy city with large temples and public
buildings. The Coliseum was a great building for holding their chariot races. The Romans were
also fierce soldiers. Rome took over many countries. Rome once ruled over the whole world for
500 years! They built roads all over the empire that just led to Rome.
Christians worshiped one God, but Romans, who worshiped many gods, did not like this. They
tried to stamp out Christianity. For many years, Christians had to worship in underground
passageways. Romans honored all of their gods in their art and architecture. Roman Art was at
its highest from 750 BC to 410 AD.
Influence
Roman Art was influenced by many things. They were influenced by some countries that they
ruled over, like Greece, Egypt, and Africa. The Romans often mixed the best styles of those
cultures. Romans believed in gods and goddesses as their religion. They also were influenced by
their emperors. Romans sculpted their masters and leaders.
Art Forms
Romans had many different art forms. One of the art forms was murals, large wall paintings.
Many Roman Emperors had murals on their walls of their palace.
Architecture was another type art form. The Triumphal Arch of Tibias was made with arches
and columns of different shapes and sizes to make it more beautiful and interesting. Buildings
and bridges were also made as a form of architecture.
They made statues and portraits too. Statues were life-like and of gods, goddesses, emperors,
and important people. Many statues are just the head and shoulders of emperors. They were
called portraits. Other art forms were paintings, poetry, tombstones, domes, and vaults.
Style
Art and architecture were used to proclaim an important person’s power. They were signs of
the Roman’s power over the lands that they ruled. Roman Art usually showed images of
emperors, gods, and goddesses, and common people. The Romans did not have perfect human
shapes in their art. In some of their sculptures, they would have people with long noses. The
Greeks, who only sculpted perfect human bodies, would never have done that.
Romans had four styles of optical illusion paintings that tricked the eye. The first style was when
they painted walls to look like they were made of marble or copies of Greek styles of
decoration. A second style was when they painted realistic looking scenes that looked like views
through the window. The third style was less realistic, but delicate looking images. The fourth
method of tricking the eye was a combination of the second and third styles.
Materials/Subject
The Romans made paint brushes, and paint out of many natural materials. Paint brushes were
made from twigs, wood, reeds, or rushes. Shaped wood or ivory was used for writing. Paints
were made from ground rocks and powdered plants. Red and yellow came from ochre. White
came from chalk. Green came from green soil, and black was from soot. Blue was a mixture of
copper and glass. But purple was made from a special seashell.
44
Two thousand years later, Rome is still a crowded, noisy and busy city with large temples and
public buildings. Even though the Roman Empire is not existing, their art is still there.
Roman sculpture
The study of ancient Roman sculpture is complicated by its relation to Greek sculpture. Many
examples of even the most famous Greek sculptures, such as the Apollo Belvedere and
Barberini Faun, are known only from Roman Imperial or Hellenistic "copies." At one time, this
imitation was taken by art historians as indicating a narrowness of the Roman artistic
imagination, but in the late 20th-century, Roman art began to be reevaluated on its own terms:
some impressions of the nature of Greek sculpture may in fact be based on Roman artistry.
Examples of Roman sculpture are abundantly preserved. Latin and some Greek authors,
particularly Pliny the Elder in Book 34 of his Natural History, describe statues, and a few of
these descriptions match extant works. While a great deal of Roman sculpture survives more or
less intact, it is often damaged or fragmentary.
Portraiture
Portraiture is a dominant genre of Roman sculpture, growing perhaps from the traditional
Roman emphasis on family and ancestors; the entrance hall (atrium) of a Roman elite house
displayed ancestral portrait busts. During the Roman Republic, it was considered a sign of
character not to gloss over physical imperfections, and to depict men in particular as rugged
and unconcerned with vanity: the portrait was a map of experience. During the Imperial era,
more idealized statues of Roman emperors became ubiquitous, particularly in connection with
the state religion of Rome. Tombstones of even the modestly rich middle class sometimes
exhibit portraits of the otherwise unknown deceased carved in relief.
Among the many museums with examples of Roman portrait sculpture, the collections of the
Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and the British Museum in London are especially
noteworthy.
Religious and funerary art
Religious art was also a major form of Roman sculpture. A central feature of a Roman temple
was the cult statue of the deity, who was regarded as "housed" there (see aedes). Although
images of deities were also displayed in private gardens and parks, the most magnificent of the
surviving statues appear to have been cult images. Roman altars were usually rather modest
and plain, but some Imperial examples are modeled after Greek practice with elaborate reliefs,
most famously the Ara Pacis, which has been called "the most representative work of Augustan
art." Small statuettes, executed with varying degrees of artistic competence, are plentiful in the
archaeological record, particularly in the provinces, and indicate that these art objects were a
continual presence in the lives of Romans, whether for dedicating at a temple or for private
devotional display at home or in neighborhood shrines.
Roman sarcophagi, mainly dating from the 1st to the 4th centuries, offer examples of intricate
reliefs that depict scenes often based on Greek and Roman mythology or mystery religions that
offered personal salvation, and allegorical representations. Roman funerary art also offers a
variety of scenes from everyday life, such as game-playing, hunting, and military endeavors.
Technology
Scenes shown on reliefs such as that of Trajan's column and those shown on sarcophogi reveal
images of Roman technology now long lost, such as ballistae and the use of waterwheel-driven
saws for cutting stone. The latter was only recently discovered at Hieropolis and
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commemorates the miller who used the machine. Other reliefs show harvesting machines,
much as they were described by Pliny the Elder in his Naturalis Historia.
The architectural writer Vitruvius is oddly reticent on the architectural use of sculpture,
mentioning only a few examples, though he says that an architect should be able to explain the
meaning of architectural ornament and gives as an example the use of caryatids.
Architecture
It was in the area of architecture that Roman art produced its greatest innovations. Because the
Roman Empire extended over so great an area and included so many urbanized areas, Roman
engineers developed methods for city building on a grand scale, including the use of concrete.
Massive buildings like the Pantheon and the Colosseum could never have been constructed
with previous materials and methods. Though concrete had been invented a thousand years
earlier in the Near East, the Romans extended its use from fortifications to their most
impressive buildings and monuments, capitalizing on the material’s strength and low cost. The
concrete core was covered with a plaster, brick, stone, or marble veneer, and decorative
polychrome and gold-gilded sculpture was often added to produce a dazzling effect of power
and wealth.
Because of these methods, Roman architecture is legendary for the durability of its
construction; with many buildings still standing, and some still in use, mostly buildings
converted to churches during the Christian era. Many ruins, however, have been stripped of
their marble veneer and are left with their concrete core exposed, thus appearing somewhat
reduced in size and grandeur from their original appearance, such as with the Basilica of
Constantine.
During the Republican era, Roman architecture combined Greek and Etruscan elements, and
produced innovations such as the round temple and the curved arch. As Roman power grew in
the early empire, the first emperors inaugurated wholesale leveling of slums to build grand
palaces on the Palatine Hill and nearby areas, which required advances in engineering methods
and large scale design. Roman buildings were then built in the commercial, political, and social
grouping known as a forum, that of Julius Caesar being the first and several added later, with
the Forum Romanum being the most famous. The greatest arena in the Roman world, the
Colosseum, was completed around 80 AD. at the far end of that forum. It held over 50,000
spectators, had retractable fabric coverings for shade, and could stage massive spectacles
including huge gladiatorial contests and mock naval battles. This masterpiece of Roman
architecture epitomizes Roman engineering efficiency and incorporates all three architectural
orders—Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian. Less celebrated but just as important if not more so for
most Roman citizens, was the five-story insula or city block, the Roman equivalent of an
apartment building, which housed tens of thousands of Romans.
Fashion: Clothing in ancient Rome
Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised the toga, the tunic, the stola, brooches for these,
and breeches.
Fibers
The Romans used several different types of fibers. Wool was likely used most often, as it was
obtained easily and was rather easy to prepare. Other materials used were linen and hemp,
even though a more complex preparation process is required to create cloth from these sources
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than from wool. There is some evidence that cotton was used, but less often. Silk was imported
from several locations.
Wild silk, that is, cocoons collected from the wild after the insect had eaten its way out, also
was known. Wild silk, being of smaller lengths, had to be spun. A rare luxury cloth with a
beautiful golden sheen, known as sea silk, was made from the long silky filaments or byssus
produced by Pinna nobilis, a large Mediterranean seashell.
These different fibers had to be prepared in different ways. According to Forbes, their wool
contained around 50% fatty impurities, flax and hemp were about 25% impure, silk was
between 19 and 25% impure, while cotton (the most pure of all the source fibers) contained
only 6% impurities.
Wool, the most commonly used fiber, was most likely the first material to be spun. The sheep of
Tarentum were renowned for the quality of their wool, although the Romans never ceased
trying to optimise the quality of wool through cross-breeding. The production of linen and
hemp was very similar to that of wool and was described by Pliny the Elder. After the harvest,
the material would be immersed (most probably in water), it would be skinned and then aired.
Once dry, the fibers would be pressed mechanically (with a mallet) and then smoothed.
Following this, the materials were woven. Linen and hemp both are tough and durable
materials.
Silk and cotton were imported, from China and India respectively. Silk was rare and expensive; a
luxury afforded only to the richest and worn by women. Another type of silk, called "sea silk"
was obtained from a mollusk and it was a luxury item as well. Due to the cost of imported
clothing, quality garments were also woven from nettle.
The Romans had to turn their material with a manual spinner. Iron alum was used as the base
fixing agent and it is known that the marine gastropod, Haustellum brandaris, was used as a red
dye, due to its purple-red colorant (6,6'-dibromoindigotin); the color of the emperor. The dye
was imported from Tyre, Lebanon and was used primarily by wealthy women. Cheaper versions
were also produced by counterfeiters. A more widely used tint was indigo, allowing blue or
yellow shades, while madder, a dicotyledon angiosperm, produced a shade of red and was one
of the cheapest dyes available. According to Pliny the Elder, a blackish colour was preferred to
red. Yellow, obtained from saffron, was expensive and reserved for the clothing of married
women or the Vestal Virgins. There were far fewer colours than in the modern era.
Archaeological discoveries of Greek vases depict the art of weaving, while writers in the field of
antiques mention the art of weaving and fiber production. Some clothes have survived for
several centuries and, as clothing is necessary, examples are numerous and diverse. These
materials often provide some of the most detailed and precious information on the production
means used, on the dyes used, on the nature of the soil where the materials were grown and,
therefore, on trade routes and climate, among many other things.
Historical research in the area of ancient clothing is very active and allows researchers to
understand a great deal about the lifestyle of the Romans. The materials used were similar to
those used by the ancient Greeks, except the tilling process had been ameliorated and the tilled
linen and wool were of a far superior quality.
Hides, leather, and skins
The Romans had two main ways of tanning, one of which was mineral tanning, or "tawing" –
making hide into leather without the use of tannin, especially by soaking it in a solution of alum
and salt. The Romans used tools that resembled those that would be used in the Middle Ages.
The tanned leather then was used to fashion heavy coats to keep Roman soldiers warm during
travel, and in more frigid areas of Rome, it was used during cold seasons.
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The leather was not given to the soldiers by the military commanders or overseers, but rather
from the soldier's wives and familybefore the soldiers left for a campaign.
Although leather sometimes was used for protection against poor weather, its primary use was
in footwear and belts.
Animal skins were worn over the helmet with bearskins being popular among legionaries and
feline among with Praetorians. Ancient Roman taxidermists would retain the entire body and
the head, with the front legs tied to fasten over the armor. The animal's head would fit over the
soldier's helmet, and mostly was worn by the Roman aquilifer, who carried the symbol of Rome
into battle.
The Romans rarely used goatskin for their leather, preferring pig or sheepskin, although the
ideal would be the preferred leather was that most readily available – cattle skin. The thickest
and most durable leather was used for shoe soles - they had to be durable to endure war.
Types of clothing
Looms and their effect on clothing
In general, individual clothes were woven on vertical looms during antiquity. This contrasts with
the medieval period when cloth was produced on foot-powered horizontal looms that later was
made into clothes by tailors. Evidence for the transition between these two distinct systems,
from Egypt, suggests that it had begun by 298 AD but it is likely that it was very gradual. The
weaver sat at the horizontal loom producing rectangular lengths of cloth which never were
wider than the weaver's two arms could reach with the shuttle. Conversely, a weaver who
stood at a vertical loom could weave cloth of a greater width than was possible sitting down,
including the toga, which could, and did, have a complex shape.
Women's clothing
After the 2nd century BC, besides tunics, women wore a simple garment known as a stola and
usually followed the fashions of their Greek contemporaries. Stolae typically comprised two
rectangular segments of cloth joined at the side by fibulae and buttons in a manner allowing the
garment to drape freely over the front of the wearer. Over the stola, women often wore the
palla, a sort of shawl made of an oblong piece of material that could be worn as a coat, with or
without hood, or draped over the left shoulder, under the right arm, and then over the left arm.
Girls' clothing
Roman girls often wore nothing more than a tunic hanging below the knees or lower, belted at
the waist and very simply decorated, most often white. When a girl went out she sometimes
wore another tunic, longer than the first, sometimes to the ankles or even the feet. Boys had a
charm called a bulla, but girls did not receive bullas.
Undergarments
The basic garment for both sexes, often worn beneath one or more additional layers, was the
tunica or tunic. This was a simple rectangle sewn into a tubular shape and pinned around the
shoulders like a Greek chiton. Women might also wear a strophium or breast cloth. Garments to
cover the loins, known as subligacula or subligaria, might also be worn, especially by soldiers.
The Vindolanda tablets found in Great Britain confirm this fashion at the time of the Roman
Empire, when a subligaculum might be made of leather. Farm workers wore loincloths wrapped
like diapers.
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Official clothing
The dress code of the day was complex and had to reflect one's position accurately in the social
order, one's gender, and one's language.
Early Christian Art
Timeline:
3rd – 7th century
This is the art and architecture produced for the unsplited Christian church. This art extends
over the Late Antique period, Roman art and architecture (from the late 2nd to 7th century),
and the Byzantine art and architecture (from 5th to 7th century).
Before the Edict of Milan (313), which made Christianity the Roman Empire's state religion,
Christian art was restricted to the decoration of the hidden places of worship. Most early
religious artists worked in manner that was derived from Roman art, appropriately stylized to
suit the spirituality of the religion. These artists chose to reject the ideals of perfection in form
and technique. They rather sought to present images which would draw the spectator into the
inner eye of their work, pointing to its spiritual significance. An iconography was devised to
visualize Christian concepts. The first Christians don't see in art a way of expressing beauty, but
one of transmitting their faith and beliefs as well as to teach them.
After the fourth century, under imperial sponsorship, Early Christian architecture flourished
throughout the Roman Empire on a monumental scale. Buildings were of two types, the
longitudinal hall - basilica, and the centralized building - a baptistery or a mausoleum.
The exteriors of Early Christian buildings were plain and unadorned and the interiors contrarily,
were richly decorated with marble floors and wall slabs, frescoes, mosaics, metal works,
hangings, and sumptuous altar furnishings in gold and silver. Early Christian illuminated
manuscripts are of an unusually high quality.
Freestanding Early Christian sculpture is rarely seen. Early Christian bas-reliefs survive in
abundance in marble and porphyry.
Notable Possessions
(Roman and Early Christian Art)
Pompeii
The city of Pompeii is a partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples in the Italian
region of Campania, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Along with Herculaneum,
Pompeii was partially destroyed and buried under 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) of ash and pumice in
49
the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, and it was lost for nearly 1700 years before its
accidental rediscovery in 1749. Since then, its excavation has provided an extraordinarily
detailed insight into the life of a city during the Pax Romana. Today, this UNESCO World
Heritage Site is one of the most popular tourist attractions of Italy, with approximately
2,500,000 visitors every year.
The Colosseum (Architecture)
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre, is an elliptical
amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman
Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman
engineering.
Occupying a site just east of the Roman Forum, its construction started in 72 AD under the
emperor Vespasian and was completed in 80 AD under Titus, with further modifications being
made during Domitian's reign (81–96). The name "Amphitheatrum Flavium" derives from both
Vespasian's and Titus's family name (Flavius, from the gens Flavia).
Capable of seating 50,000 spectators, the Colosseum was used for gladiatorial contests and
public spectacles such as mock sea battles, animal hunts, executions, re-enactments of famous
battles, and dramas based on Classical mythology. The building ceased to be used for
entertainment in the early medieval era. It was later reused for such purposes as housing,
workshops, and quarters for a religious order, a fortress, a quarry, and a Christian shrine.
Discobolus (Sculpture)
The Discobolus of Myron or Discus thrower is a famous Greeko Roman sculpture that was
completed towards the end of the Severe period, circa 460-450 BC. The original Greek bronze is
lost. It is known through numerous Roman copies, both full-scale ones in marble, such as the
first to be recovered, the Palombara Discopolus, or smaller scaled versions in bronze. A discus
thrower is depicted about to release his throw: "by sheer intelligence", Sir Kenneth Clark
observed in The Nude (1956:p 239f) "Myron has created the enduring pattern of athletic
energy. He has taken a moment of action so transitory that students of athletics still debate if it
is feasible, and he has given it the completeness of a cameo." The moment thus captured in the
statue is an example of rhythmos, harmony and balance. Myron is often credited with being the
first sculptor to master this style. Naturally, as always in Greek athletics, the Discobolus is
completely nude. His pose is said to be unnatural to a human, and today considered a rather
inefficient way to throw the discus. Also there is very little emotion shown in the discus
thrower's face, and "to a modern eye, it may seem that Myron's desire for perfection has made
him suppress too rigorously the sense of strain in the individual muscles," Clark observes. The
other trademark of Myron embodied in this sculpture is how well the body is proportioned, the
symmetria.
House of the Vettii
In Pompeii one of the most famous of the luxurious residences (domus) is the so-called House
of the Vettii, preserved like the rest of the Roman city by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. The
house is named for its owners, two successful freedmen: Aulus Vettius Conviva, an Augustalis,
and Aulus Vettius Restitutus. Its careful excavation has preserved almost all of the wall frescos,
which were completed following the earthquake of 62 AD, in the manner art historians term the
"Pompeiian Fourth Style."
The House of the Vettii is located on a back street, opposite a bar on top of a hill. The house is
built round two compluviums, centers open to the sky, a dim atrium into which a visitor would
pass, coming from a small dark vestibule that led from the street entrance, and beyond—
50
perpendicular to the entrance axis— a daylit peristyle of fluted Doric columns surrounded on all
sides by a richly frescoed portico, with the more formal spaces opening onto it. Servants'
quarters are to one side off the atrium, ranged round a small atrium of their own. The major
fresco decorations enliven the peristyle and its living spaces (oeci) and the triclinium or dining
hall.
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
1. What influenced the Roman Art?
Roman Art was influenced by many things. They were influenced by some countries that they
ruled over, like Greece, Egypt, and Africa. The Romans often mixed the best styles of those
cultures. Romans believed in gods and goddesses as their religion. They also were influenced by
their emperors. Romans sculpted their masters and leaders.
2. What was the material and subject of Roman art?
The Romans made paint brushes, and paint out of many natural materials. Paint brushes were
made from twigs, wood, reeds, or rushes. Shaped wood or ivory was used for writing. Paints
were made from ground rocks and powdered plants. Red and yellow came from ochre. White
came from chalk. Green came from green soil, and black was from soot. Blue was a mixture of
copper and glass. But purple was made from a special seashell.
3. How was clothing of Ancient Rome? How many types of clothing there were?
Clothing in ancient Rome generally comprised the toga, the tunic, the stola, brooches for these,
and breeches.
Amongst all we can see basic five types of clothing in ancient Rome. They are




Looms and their effect on clothing
Girls' clothing
Men Clothing
Undergarments
Official clothing
4. What is Early Christian Art?
Early Christian Art is the art and architecture produced for the unsplited Christian church. This
art extends over the Late Antique period, Roman art and architecture (the late 2nd - 7th
century), and the Byzantine art and architecture (from 5th - 7th century).
Before the Edict of Milan (313), which made Christianity the Roman Empire's state religion,
Christian art was restricted to the decoration of the hidden places of worship. Most early
religious artists worked in manner that was derived from Roman art, appropriately stylized to
suit the spirituality of the religion.
5. What do you know about the Pompeii?
The city of Pompeii is a partially buried Roman town-city near modern Naples in the Italian
region of Campania, in the territory of the comune of Pompei. Along with Herculaneum,
Pompeii was partially destroyed and buried under 4 to 6 m (13 to 20 ft) of ash and pumice in
the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in AD 79, and it was lost for nearly 1700 years before its
accidental rediscovery in 1749.
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6. What is Colosseum? Shortly mansion about a roman sculpture.
The Colosseum, or the Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre, is an elliptical
amphitheatre in the centre of the city of Rome, Italy, the largest ever built in the Roman
Empire. It is considered one of the greatest works of Roman architecture and Roman
engineering
The Discobolus of Myron or Discus thrower is a famous Greeko Roman sculpture that was
completed towards the end of the Severe period, circa 460-450 BC. The original Greek bronze is
lost. It is known through numerous Roman copies, both full-scale ones in marble, such as the
first to be recovered, the Palombara Discopolus, or smaller scaled versions in bronze.
7. What was House of the Vettii?
In Pompeii one of the most famous of the luxurious residences (domus) is the so-called House
of the Vettii, preserved like the rest of the Roman city by the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. The
house is named for its owners, two successful freedmen: Aulus Vettius Conviva, an Augustalis,
and Aulus Vettius Restitutus. Its careful excavation has preserved almost all of the wall frescos,
which were completed following the earthquake of 62 AD, in the manner art historians term the
"Pompeiian Fourth Style."
Broad Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Give a description of Roman Art (Influence, Forms, Style, Subject).
Discuss about the types of Roman sculpture.
How was the Roman Architecture? Give a description of the Colosseum.
Give a description of the Roman Clothing with types and materials.
Discuss about the early Christian Art.
Week 8
Lecture 8
Persian and Mughal Art
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Persian Art
Timeline:
6th century B.C. – 7th century A.D.
Region traditionally known as Persia is now called Iran. The term ancient Persia is used to refer
to the period before the advent of Islam in the 7th century A.D. The high plateau of Iran has
seen the development of many cultures, all of which have added distinctive features to the
many styles of Persian art and architecture.
Early works
Although earlier civilizations are known, the first archaeological finds of artistic importance are
the superb ceramics from Susa and Persepolis (c. 3500 B.C.). The choice of biological subjects,
simplified into patterns, may be called the formative principle of Persian art. Much of 4thmillennium Iranian art is strongly influenced by that of Mesopotamia. The 3d-millennium art of
Elam, found at Sialk and Susa, also follows Mesopotamian styles, and this trend is continued in
the less well-known Elam and Urartu art of the 2d millennium.
Beginning at the end of the 2nd millennium to the middle of the 1st millennium a great
florescence of bronze casting occurred along the southern Caspian mountain zone and in
mountainous Lorestan. Probably dated 1200-700 B.C., harness trappings, horse bits, axes, and
votive objects were made in large quantities and reflected a complex animal style created by
combining parts of animals and fantastic creatures in various forms.
Achaemenian period (550-330 B.C.)
A unified style emerges. Luxurious works of decorative art were produced. The Achaemenids
evolved a monumental style in which relief sculpture is used as an adjunct to massive
architectural complexes. Remains of great palaces reveal plans that characteristically show
great columned audience halls. The style as a whole and the feeling for space and scale are
distinctive.
In the sculpture is shown ordered clarity and simplicity. Heraldic stylization is subtly combined
with effects of realism. Typical are the low stone reliefs and friezes executed in molded and
enameled brick, a technique of Babylonian-Assyrian origin. The great care lavished on every
stone detail is also found in the fine gold and silver rhytons (drinking horns), bowls, jewelry, and
other objects produced by this culture.
After the death of Alexander the Great (323 B.C.), there was turmoil in Iran until the rise of the
Parthians (c. 250 B.C.). Theirs is essentially a crude art, synthesizing Hellenistic motifs with
Iranian forms.
Sassanian Period (224 A.D. – 651 A.D.)
Of far greater artistic importance is the the Sassanian art. Adapting and expanding previous
styles and techniques, they rebuilt the Parthian capital at Ctesiphon. There a great palace with a
huge barrel vault was constructed of rubble and brick. Sassanid architecture is decorated with
carved stone or stucco reliefs and makes use of colorful stone mosaics.
Sassanian metalwork was highly developed, the most usual objects being shallow silver cups
and large bronze ewers, engraved and worked in repoussé. The commonest themes were court
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scenes, hunters, animals, birds, and stylized plants. The largest collection of these vessels is in
the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg. The Sassanids recorded their triumphs on immense
outdoor rock reliefs scattered throughout Iran, often using the same sites that the Achaemenids
had covered with reliefs and inscriptions.
The Persian Fine Arts
The Persian rug
From the yarn fiber to the colors, every part of the Persian rug is traditionally hand made from
natural ingredients over the course of many months.
The art of carpet weaving in has its roots in the culture and customs of its people and their
instinctive feelings. Weavers mix elegant patterns with a myriad of colors. The Iranian carpet is
similar to the Persian garden: full of florae, birds, and beasts.
The colors are usually made from wild flowers, and are rich in colors such as burgundy, navy
blue, and accents of ivory. The proto-fabric is often washed in tea to soften the texture, giving it
a unique quality. Depending on where the rug is made, patterns and designs vary. And some
rugs, such as Gabbeh, and Gelim have a variations in their textures and number of knots as well.
Out of about 2 million Iranians who work in the trade, 1.2 million are weavers producing the
largest amount of hand woven aritistic carpets in the world. exported $517 million worth of
carpets in 2002.
The exceptional craftsmanship in weaving these carpets and silken textile thus caught the
attention of the likes of Xuanzang, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, and Jean Chardin.
Painting and miniature
A Persian miniature is a small painting on paper, whether a book illustration or a separate work
of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called a muraqqa. The techniques are
broadly comparable to the Western and Byzantine traditions of miniatures in illuminated
manuscripts. Although there is an equally well-established Persian tradition of wall-painting, the
survival rate and state of preservation of miniatures is better, and miniatures are much the
best-known form of Persian painting in the West, and many of the most important examples
are in Western, or Turkish, museums. Miniature painting became a significant Persian genre in
the 13th century, receiving Chinese influence after the Mongol conquests, and the highest point
in the tradition was reached in the 15th and 16th centuries. The tradition continued, under
some Western influence, after this, and has many modern exponents. The Persian miniature
was the dominant influence on other Islamic miniature traditions, principally the Ottoman
miniature in Turkey, and the Mughal miniature in the Indian sub-continent.
Pottery and ceramics
Iranian pottery or Persian pottery (sometimes known as gombroon) production presents a
continuous history from the beginning of Iranian history until the present day.
Ceramic is perhaps the earliest and the most important invention made by man. For historians
and archaeologists it is the most significant of the artistic manifestations. For historians and
archaeologists pottery of a certain period manifests the contemporary social organisation,
economic conditions and cultural stage of that particular region. By studying pottery one may
form impressions about the life, the religion of people and their history, about their social
relationships, their attitude towards their neighbours, to their own world and even to their
interpretation of the universe as it was then known to them. Other media, e.g. metal and
textiles can be destroyed, or re-used, but pottery is indestructible, and even small fragments
reveal a great deal of information for an expert.
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In Iran pottery manufacture has a long and brilliant history. Due to the special geographical
position of the country, being at the crossroads of ancient civilizations and on important
caravan routes, almost every part of Iran was, at times, involved in pottery making.
Calligraphy
Persian Calligraphy is the calligraphy of Persian writing system. It has been one of the most
revered arts throughout Persian history. It is considered to be one of the most eye catching and
fascinating manifestations of Persian culture.
Says writer Will Durant: "Ancient Iranians with an alphabet of 36 letters, used skins and pen to
write, Instead of ear-then tablets". Such was the creativity spent on the art of writing. The
significance of the art of calligraphy in works of pottery, metallic vessels, and historic buildings
is such that they are deemed lacking without the adorning decorative calligraphy.
Illuminations, and especially the Quran and works such as the Shahnameh, Divan Hafez,
Golestan, Bostan et al. are recognized as highly invaluable because of their delicate calligraphy
alone. Vast quantities of these are scattered and preserved in museums and private collections
worldwide, such as the Hermitage Museum of St. Petersburg and Washington's Freer Gallery of
Art among many others.
There basic four Styles include :




Shekasteh
Nasta'liq
Naskh
Mohaqqaq
Notable Possessions
(Persia)
Khatam-kari
Delicate and meticulous marquetry, produced since the Safavid period: at this time, khatam was
so popular in the court that princes learned this technique at the same level of music or
painting. In the 18th and 19th centuries, katahm declined, before being stimulated under the
reign of Reza Shah, with the creation of craft schools in Tehran, Isfahan, and Shiraz. "Khatam"
means "incrustation", and "Khatam-kari" "incrustation work". This craft consists in the
production of incrustation patterns (generally star shaped), with thin sticks of wood (ebony,
teak, ziziphus, orange, rose), brass (for golden parts), camel bones (white parts). Ivory, gold or
silver can also be used for collection objects. Sticks are assembled in triangular beams,
themselves assembled and glued in a strict order to create a cylinder, 70 cm in diameter, whose
cross-section is the main motif: a six-branch star included in a hexagon. These cylinders are cut
into shorter cylinders, and then compressed and dried between two wooden plates, before
being sliced for the last time, in 1 mm wide tranches. These sections are ready to be plated and
glued on the object to be decorated, before lacquer finishing. The tranche can also be softened
through heating in order to wrap around objects. Many objects can be decorated in this
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fashion, such as: jewellery/decorative boxes, chessboards, cadres, pipes, desks, frames or some
musical instruments. Khatam can be used on Persian miniature, realizing true work of art.
Dastan-e-Amir Hamza (Miniature Art)
The Hamzanama or Dastan-e-Amir Hamza narrates the legendary exploits of Amir Hamza, the
uncle of the prophet of Islam, though most of the story is extremely fanciful, "a continuous
series of romantic interludes, threatening events, narrow escapes, and violent acts". In the
West the work is best known for the enormous illustrated manuscript commissioned by the
Mughal Emperor Akbar in about 1562.
The text augmented the story, as traditionally told in dastan performances. This romance
originated more than 1,000 years ago, probably in Persia, and subsequently spread throughout
the Islamic world in oral and written forms. The Dastan (story telling tradition) about Amir
Hamza persists far and wide up to Bengal and Arakan (Burma) due to Hamza's wide travelling in
Persia, Central Asia, eastern India, Himalayan region, Bengal delta, Manipur, Burma and
probably in Malaysia in his youth or before he embraced Islam in 616.
Arg-é Bam (Architecture)
Arg-é Bam ( ‫ارگ بم‬in Persian, "Bam citadel") was the largest adobe building in the world, located
in Bam, a city in the Kermān Province of southeastern Iran. It is listed by UNESCO as part of the
World Heritage Site "Bam and its Cultural Landscape". This enormous citadel on the Silk Road
was built before 500 BC and remained in use until 1850 AD. It is not known for certain why it
was then abandoned.
The entire building was a large fortress in whose heart the citadel itself was located, but
because of the impressive look of the citadel, which forms the highest point, the entire fortress
is named the Bam Citadel.
Naqsh-e Rustam (Architecture)
Naqsh-e Rustam also referred to as Necropolis is an archaeological site located about 12 km
northwest of Persepolis, in Fars province, Iran. Naqsh-e Rustam lies a few hundred meters from
Naqsh-e Rajab.
The oldest relief at Naqsh-i Rustam is severely damaged and dates to c. 1000 BC. It depicts a
faint image of a man with unusual head-gear and is thought to be Elamite in origin. The
depiction is part of a larger mural, most of which was removed at the command of Bahram II.
The man with the unusual cap gives the site its name, Naqsh-e Rostam, "Picture of Rostam",
because the relief was locally believed to be a depiction of the mythical hero Rostam.
Qajar art (Art form)
Qajar art refers to the art and art-forms of the Qajar dynasty of the Persian Empire, which
lasted from 1781 to 1925. Most notably, Qajar art is recognizable for its distinctive style of
portraiture. The boom in artistic expression that occurred during the Qajar era was the
fortunate side effect of the period of relative peace that accompanied the rule of Agha
Muhammad Khan and his descendants. With his ascension, the bloody turmoil that had been
the eighteenth century in Persia came to a close, and made it possible for the peacetime arts to
again flourish.
Qajar art refers to the art and art-forms of the Qajar dynasty of the Persian Empire, which
lasted from 1781 to 1925. Most notably, Qajar art is recognizable for its distinctive style of
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portraiture. The boom in artistic expression that occurred during the Qajar era was the
fortunate side effect of the period of relative peace that accompanied the rule of Agha
Muhammad Khan and his descendants.
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
1. What is Persian Rug? What is it made of?
Persian rug is a form of carpet design which is specially produced in Iran, Iraq and other Middle
Asian regions.
Persian rugs are made up of a layout and a design which in general included one or a number of
motifs. In its classification the company has called the original designs as the 'main pattern' and
the derivatives as the 'sub patterns'. They have identified 19 groups, including: historic
monuments and Islamic buildings, Shah Abbassi patterns, spiral patterns, all-over patterns,
derivative patterns, interconnected patterns, paisley patterns, tree patterns, Turkoman
patterns, hunting ground patterns, panel patterns, European flower patterns, vase patterns,
intertwined fish patterns, Mehrab patterns, striped patterns, geometric patterns, tribal
patterns, and composites.
2. What is Persian miniature? Name two of popular Persian miniatures.
A Persian miniature is a small painting on paper, whether a book illustration or a separate work
of art intended to be kept in an album of such works called a muraqqa. The techniques are
broadly comparable to the Western and Byzantine traditions of miniatures in illuminated
manuscripts.
a) Advice of the Ascetic by Behzad
b) Saki by Reza Abbasi
3. What are Arg-é Bam and Naqsh-e Rustam?
Arg-é Bam was the largest adobe building in the world, located in Bam, a city in the Kermān
Province of southeastern Iran. This enormous citadel on the Silk Road was built before 500 BC
and remained in use until 1850 AD.
Naqsh-e Rustam also referred to as Necropolis is an archaeological site located about 12 km
northwest of Persepolis, in Fars province, Iran. Naqsh-e Rustam lies a few hundred meters from
Naqsh-e Rajab.
4. What is Calligraphy? How many styles are there for calligraphy?
Persian Calligraphy is the calligraphy of Persian writing system. It has been one of the most
revered arts throughout Persian history. It is considered to be one of the most eye catching and
fascinating manifestations of Persian culture.
There basic four Styles of Calligraphy:




Shekasteh
Nasta'liq
Naskh
Mohaqqaq
5. What is Dastan-e-Amir Hamza?
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The Hamzanama or Dastan-e-Amir Hamza narrates the legendary exploits of Amir Hamza, the
uncle of the prophet of Islam, though most of the story is extremely fanciful, "a continuous
series of romantic interludes, threatening events, narrow escapes, and violent acts". In the
West the work is best known for the enormous illustrated manuscript commissioned by the
Mughal Emperor Akbar in about 1562.
Broad Questions
1. Give a description of Persian Fine Arts.
2. Discuss about the Pottery and ceramics of Persia.
Mughal Art
Timeline:
1526 – 1858
The Mughal Empire in India lasted from 1526 until (technically) 1858, although from the late
17th century power flowed away from the emperors to local rulers, and later European powers,
above all the British Raj, who were the main power in India by the late 18th century. The period
is most notable for luxury arts of the court, and Mughal styles heavily influenced local Hindu
and later Sikh rulers as well. The Mughal miniature began by importing Persian artists,
especially a group brought back by Humayun when in exile in Safavid Persia, but soon local
artists, many Hindu, were trained in the style. Realistic portraiture, and images of animals and
plants, was developed in Mughal art beyond what the Persians had so far achieved, and the size
of miniatures increased, sometimes onto canvas. The Mughal court had access to European
prints and other art, and these had increasing influence, shown in the gradual introduction of
aspects of Western graphical perspective, and a wider range of poses in the human figure.
Some Western images were directly copied or borrowed from. As the courts of local Nawabs
developed, distinct provincial styles with stronger influence from traditional Indian painting
developed in both Muslim and Hindu princely courts.
The arts of jewelry and hardstone carving of gemstones, such as jasper, jade, adorned with
rubies, diamonds and emeralds are mentioned by the Mughal chronicler Abu'l Fazl, and a range
of examples survive; the series of hard stone daggers in the form of horses’ heads is particularly
impressive.
The Mughals were also fine metallurgists they introduced Damascus steel and refined the
locally produced Wootz steel, the Mughals also introduced the "bidri" technique of metalwork
in which silver motifs are pressed against a black background. Famous Mughal metallurgists like
Ali Kashmiri and Muhammed Salih Thatawi created the seamless celestial globes.
Notable Possessions
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(Mughal)
Arabesque
The Arabesque, one of aspects of Islamic art, usually found decorating the walls of mosques, is
an elaborate application of repeating geometric forms that often echo the forms of plants and
animals. The choice of which geometric forms are to be used and how they are to be formatted
is based upon the Islamic view of the world. To Muslims, these forms, taken together,
constitute an infinite pattern that extends beyond the visible material world, they in fact
symbolize the infinite, and therefore nature of the creation of the one God (Allah).
Geometric artwork in the form of the Arabesque was not widely used in the Islamic world until
the golden age of Islam came into full bloom. During this time, ancient texts were translated
from Greek and Latin into Arabic. Like the following Renaissance in Europe, math, science,
literature and history were infused into the Islamic world with great, mostly positive
repercussions. The works of Plato and especially of Euclid became popular among the literate.
Luck of Edenhall
The "Luck of Edenhall" is a glass beaker that was made in Syria in the 13th century, elegantly
decorated in blue, green, red and white enamel with gilding. Its inscription, ihs, suggests it may
have been intended for a Christian purpose. Glass drinking vessels very rarely survive—or
remain in one family—for long enough to acquire a legendary status, so the successful passing
of this vessel through many generations of the Musgrave family of Edenhall, Cumberland, is
something of a miracle. Legend has it that this ancient beaker embodied the continuing
prosperity of its owners.
The beaker is now known to be an exceptionally fine and pristine example of 13th century
luxury glass making. It may have found its way to England in the baggage of a returning
Crusader. The antiquity of the legend surrounding it has not been determined. It was the
subject of a German ballad by Ludwig Uhland, later rendered in English by Henry Wadsworth
Longfellowr.
Zellige
Zellige is terra cotta tilework covered with enamel in the form of chips set into plaster. It is one
of the main characteristics of the Moroccan architecture. It consists of geometrical mosaics
made from ceramic used mainly as an ornament for walls, ceilings, fountains, floors, pools,
tables, etc.
The art of zellige flourished at the Hispano-Moresque period (Azulejo) of Morocco. It then
appeared in Morocco in the 10th century using nuances of white and brown colours.
The art remained very limited in use until the Merinid dynasty who gave it more importance
around the 14th century. Blue, red, green and yellow colours were introduced in the 17th
century. The old enamels with the natural colours were used until the beginning of the 20th
century and the colors had probably not evolved much since the period of Merinids. The cities
of Fes and Meknes remain the centers of this art.
Short Question and Prospected Answer
1. What is Arabesque?
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The arabesque is a form of artistic decoration consisting of "surface decorations based on
rhythmic linear patterns of scrolling and interlacing foliage, tendrils" or plain lines, often
combined with other elements. Within the very wide range of Eurasian decorative art that
includes motifs matching this basic definition the term "arabesque" is used consistently as a
technical term by art historians to describe only elements of the decoration found in two
phases: Islamic art from about the 9th century onwards, and European decorative art from the
Renaissance onwards.
Broad Question
1. Give a description of Mughal art.
Week 9
Lecture 9
Renaissance (Part I)
Renaissance
Timeline :
14th – 17th century
Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the period roughly from the 14th to the
17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of
Europe. As a cultural movement, it encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular
literatures, beginning with the 14th century resurgence of learning based on classical sources,
which contemporaries credited to Petrarch, the development of linear perspective and other
techniques of rendering a more natural reality in painting, and gradual but widespread
educational reform. Traditionally, this intellectual transformation has resulted in the
Renaissance being viewed as a bridge between the middle Ages and the Modern era. Although
the Renaissance saw revolutions in many intellectual pursuits, as well as social and political
upheaval, it is perhaps best known for its artistic developments and the contributions of such
polymaths as Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, who inspired the term "Renaissance man".
Early Renaissance (Early 1400s)
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Renaissance marks the period of European history at the close of the Middle Ages and the rise
of the Modern world. It represents a cultural rebirth from the 14th through the middle of the
17th centuries. Early Renaissance, mostly in Italy, bridges the art period during the fifteenth
century, between the Middle Ages and the High Renaissance in Italy. It is generally known that
Renaissance matured in Northen Europe later, in 16th century.
The term renaissance means rebirth and is used to mark an era of broad cultural achievement
as a result of renewed interest in the classical art and ideas of Ancient Greece and Rome. The
main idea of rebirth lies at the belief that through the study of the intellectual and artistic
treasures of the Greco-Roman antiquity, inspired by Humanism, can be reached the artistic
greatness, wisdom and enlightenment.
The rediscovery of classical world radically altered the art of painting. By the year 1500, the
Renaissance revived ancient forms and content. The spiritual content of painting changed subjects from Roman history and mythology were borrowed. Devotional art of Christian
orientation became classically humanized. Classical artistic principles, including harmonious
proportion, realistic expression, and rational postures were emulated.
During this artistic period two regions of Western Europe were particularly active: Flanders and
Italy. Most of the Early Renaissance works in northern Europe were produced between 1420
and 1550.
High Renaissance (1450 – 1520)
The 'birth' of new interest in Classical Greco-Latin world, that artistic revolution of the Early
Renaissance matured to what is now known as the High Renaissance. There has never been
growth as lovely as that of painting in Florence and Rome, of the end of 15th and early 16th
centuries. High Renaissance in Italy is the climax of Renaissance art, from 1500-1525. It is also
considered as a sort of natural evolution of Italian Humanism.
It has been characterized by explosion of creative genius. Painting especially reached its peak of
technical competence, rich artistic imagination and heroic composition. The main
characteristics of High Renaissance painting are harmony and balance in construction.
Italian High Renaissance artists achieved ideal of harmony and balance comparable with the
works of ancient Greece or Rome. Renaissance Classicism was a form of art that removed the
extraneous detail and showed the world as it was. Forms, colors and proportions, light and
shade effects, spatial harmony, composition, perspective, anatomy - all are handled with total
control and a level of accomplishment for which there are no real precedents.
We find it in the works of the greatest artists ever known: the mighty Florentines, Leonardo da
Vinci and Michelangelo; the Umbrian, Raffaello Sanzio; along with the great Venetian masters
Titian, Tintoretto and Veronese.
Late Renaissance (1520 to 1600)
Prior to the 16th century, only a minority of Europeans was able to read, but by the
1500′s, an increase in literacy occurred synonymously with an increase in book printing. Also, in
1517, Martin Luther introduced his Ninety-Five Theses, which led to the establishment
of Protestantism, a Christian movement away from the Catholic Church. Art from this period
reflects the artist’s and society’s reactions to the Protestant Reformation. Many Protestants
destroyed religious artwork (i.e. stained-glass windows), and instead had a greater focus on
landscape, courtly scenes, and acceptable religious pieces.
In the 16th century, the Renaissance had overwhelmed Italy and was slowly moving throughout
the rest of Europe. Because of the new establishment of the Vatican in Rome, this city became a
center for new Christian art and Renaissance ideals. Meanwhile, in Florence, artists were
receiving more commissions from private sources and had made the switch from tempera to
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oil. Many artists, such as Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Correggio, trained and completed
some earlier work in Florence and Northern Italy. One painting in particular done by Leonardo
captures the Renaissance essence of the 16th century: The Last Supper.
With the order, stage-like space, and one point perspective, Leonardo captures the human
emotions in a symbolic narrative. He even used recognizable people as models. The calm,
enduring setting and figures build onto the already established early Renaissance forms and
characterize the art in the 16th century.
Renaissance art
Renaissance art is the painting, sculpture and decorative arts of that period of European history
known as the Renaissance, emerging as a distinct style in Italy in about 1400, in parallel with
developments which occurred in philosophy, literature, music and science. Renaissance art,
perceived as a "rebirth" of ancient traditions, took as its foundation the art of Classical
antiquity, but transformed that tradition by the absorption of recent developments in the art of
Northern Europe and by application of contemporary scientific knowledge. Renaissance art,
with Renaissance Humanist philosophy, spread throughout Europe, affecting both artists and
their patrons with the development of new techniques and new artistic sensibilities.
Renaissance art marks the transition of Europe from the medieval period to the Early modern
age.
In many parts of Europe, Early Renaissance art was created in parallel with Late Medieval art. By
1500 the Renaissance style prevailed. As Late Renaissance art (Mannerism) developed, it took
on different and distinctive characteristics in every region.
Influences
The influences upon the development of Renaissance art in the early 15th century are those
that also affected Philosophy, Literature, Architecture, Theology, Science, Government and
other aspects of society. The following list presents a summary, dealt with more fully in the
main articles that are cited above.

Classical texts, lost to European scholars for centuries, became available. These
included Philosophy, Prose, Poetry, Drama, Science, a thesis on the Arts and Early
Christian Theology.

Simultaneously, Europe gained access to advanced mathematics which had its
provenance in the works of Islamic scholars.

The advent of movable type printing in the 15th century meant that ideas could be
disseminated easily, and an increasing number of books were written for a broad
public.

The establishment of the Medici Bank and the subsequent trade it generated brought
unprecedented wealth to a single Italian city, Florence.

Cosimo de' Medici set a new standard for patronage of the arts, not associated with the
church or monarchy.

Humanist philosophy meant that man's relationship with humanity, the universe and
with God was no longer the exclusive province of the Church.

A revived interest in the Classics brought about the first archaeological study of Roman
remains by the architect Brunelleschi and sculptor Donatello. The revival of a style of
architecture based on classical precedents inspired a corresponding classicism in
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painting and sculpture, which manifested itself as early as the 1420s in the paintings of
Masaccio and Uccello.

The improvement of oil paint and developments in oil-painting technique by
Netherlandish artists such as Jan van Eyck, Rogier van der Weyden and Hugo van der
Goes led to its adoption in Italy from about 1475 and had ultimately lasting effects on
painting practices, worldwide.

The serendipitous presence within the region of Florence in the early 15th century of
certain individuals of artistic genius, most notably Masaccio, Brunelleschi, Ghiberti,
Piero della Francesca, Donatello and Michelozzo formed an ethos out of which sprang
the great masters of the High Renaissance, as well as supporting and encouraging many
lesser artists to achieve work of extraordinary quality.

A similar heritage of artistic achievement occurred in Venice through the talented
Bellini family, their influential inlaw Mantegna, Giorgione, Titian and Tintoretto.

The publication of two treatises by Leone Battista Alberti, De Pitura (On Painting), 1435,
and De re aedificatoria (Ten Books on Architecture), 1452.
Renaissance painting
Italian Renaissance painting is the painting of the period beginning in the late 13th century and
flourishing from the early 15th to late 16th centuries, occurring within the area of present-day
Italy, which was at that time divided into many political areas. The painters of Renaissance Italy,
although often attached to particular courts and with loyalties to particular towns, nonetheless
wandered the length and breadth of Italy, often occupying a diplomatic status and
disseminating both artistic and philosophical ideas.
The city that is renowned as the birthplace of the Renaissance and in particular, Renaissance
painting, is Florence. A detailed background is given in the companion articles Renaissance and
Renaissance architecture.
Italian Renaissance painting can be divided into four periods:
(1) The Proto-Renaissance, 1300–1400;
(2) The Early Renaissance, 1400–1475;
(3) The High Renaissance, 1475–1525, and
(4) The Mannerism, 1525–1600.
These dates are approximations rather than specific points because the lives of individual artists
and their personal styles overlapped the different periods
The Proto-Renaissance begins with the professional life of the painter Giotto and includes
Taddeo Gaddi, Orcagna and Altichiero. The Early Renaissance was marked by the work of
Masaccio, Fra Angelico, Paolo Uccello, Piero della Francesca and Verrocchio. The High
Renaissance period was that of Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo and Raphael. The Mannerist
period included Andrea del Sarto, Pontormo and Tintoretto. Mannerism is dealt with in a
separate article.
Influences
The influences upon the development of Renaissance painting in Italy are those that also
affected Philosophy, Literature, Architecture, Theology, Science, Government and other aspects
of society. The following is a summary of points dealt with more fully in the main articles that
are cited above.
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Philosophy
A number of Classical texts, that had been lost to Western European scholars for centuries,
became available. These included Philosophy, Poetry, Drama, Science, a thesis on the Arts and
Early Christian Theology. The resulting interest in Humanist philosophy meant that man's
relationship with humanity, the universe and with God was no longer the exclusive province of
the Church. A revived interest in the Classics brought about the first archaeological study of
Roman remains by the architect Brunelleschi and sculptor Donatello. The revival of a style of
architecture based on classical precedents inspired a corresponding classicism in painting,
which manifested itself as early as the 1420s in the paintings of Masaccio and Paolo Uccello.
Science and technology
Simultaneous with gaining access to the Classical texts, Europe gained access to advanced
mathematics which had its provenance in the works of Byzantine and Islamic scholars. The
advent of movable type printing in the 15th century meant that ideas could be disseminated
easily, and an increasing number of books were written for a broad public. The development of
oil paint and its introduction to Italy had lasting effects on the art of painting.
Society
The establishment of the Medici Bank and the subsequent trade it generated brought
unprecedented wealth to a single Italian city, Florence. Cosimo de' Medici set a new standard
for patronage of the arts, not associated with the church or monarchy. The serendipitous
presence within the region of Florence of certain individuals of artistic genius, most notably
Giotto, Masaccio, Brunelleschi, Piero della Francesca, Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo,
formed an ethos which supported and encouraged many lesser artists to achieve work of
extraordinary quality. A similar heritage of artistic achievement occurred in Venice through the
talented Bellini family, their influential inlaw Mantegna, Giorgione, Titian and Tintoretto.
Themes
Much painting of the Renaissance period was commissioned by or for the Catholic Church.
These works were often of large scale and were frequently cycles painted in fresco of the Life of
Christ, the Life of the Virgin or the life of a saint, particularly St. Francis of Assisi. There were also
many allegorical paintings on the theme of Salvation and the role of the Church in attaining it.
Churches also commissioned altarpieces which were painted in tempera on panel and later in
oil on canvas. Apart from large altarpieces, small devotional pictures were produced in very
large numbers, both for churches and for private individuals, the most common theme being
the Madonna and Child.
Throughout the period, civic commissions were also important, local government buildings like
the Palazzo Pubblico in Siena being decorated with frescoes and other works both secular, such
as the Allegory of Good Government, and religious, such as Simone Martini's fresco of the
Maèsta.
Portraiture was uncommon in the 14th and early 15th century, being mostly limited to civic
commemorative pictures such as the equestrian portraits of Guidoriccio da Fogliano by Simone
Martini, 1327, in Siena and, of the early 15th century, John Hawkwood by Uccello in Florence
Cathedral and its companion portraying Niccolò da Tolentino by Andrea del Castagno.
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During the 15th century portraiture became common, initially often formalised profile portraits
but increasingly three-quarter face, bust-length portraits. Patrons of art works such as
altarpieces and fresco cycles often were included in the scenes, a notable example being the
inclusion of the Sassetti and Medici families in Domenico Ghirlandaio's cycle in the Sassetti
Chapel. Portraiture was to become a major subject for High Renaissance painters such as
Raphael and Titian and continue into the Mannerist period in works of artists such as Bronzino.
With the growth of Humanism, artists turned to Classical themes, particularly to fulfill
commissions for the decoration of the homes of wealthy patrons, the best known being
Botticelli's Birth of Venus for the Medici. Increasingly, Classical themes were also seen as
providing suitable allegorical material for civic commissions. Humanism also influenced the
manner in which religious themes were depicted, notably on Michelangelo's Ceiling of the
Sistine Chapel.
Other motifs were drawn from contemporary life, sometimes with allegorical meaning, some
sometimes purely decorative. Incidents important to a particular family might be recorded like
those in the Camera degli Sposi that Mantegna painted for the Gonzaga family at Mantua.
Increasingly, still lifes and decorative scenes from life were painted, such as the Concert by
Lorenzo Costa of about 1490.
Important events were often recorded or commemorated in paintings such as Uccello's Battle
of San Romano, as were important local religious festivals. History and historic characters were
often depicted in a way that reflected on current events or on the lives of current people.
Portraits were often painted of contemporaries in the guise of characters from history or
literature. The writings of Dante, Voragine's Golden Legend and Boccaccio's Decameron were
important sources of themes.
In all these subjects, increasingly, and in the works of almost all painters, certain underlying
painterly practices were being developed: the observation of nature, the study of anatomy, the
study of light and the study of perspective.
Proto-Renaissance painting
Traditions of 13th century Tuscan painting
The art of the region of Tuscany in the late 13th century was dominated by two masters of the
Byzantine style, Cimabue of Florence and Duccio of Siena. Their commissions were mostly
religious paintings, several of them being very large altarpieces showing the Madonna and
Child. These two painters, with their contemporaries, Guido of Siena, Coppo di Marcovaldo and
the mysterious painter upon whose style the school may have originated, the so-called Master
of St Bernardino, all worked in a manner that was highly formalised and dependent upon the
ancient tradition of icon painting. In these tempera paintings many of the details were rigidly
fixed by the subject matter, the precise position of the hands of the Madonna and Christ Child,
for example, being dictated by the nature of the blessing that the painting invoked upon the
viewer. The angle of the Virgin's head and shoulders, the folds in her veil, and the lines with
which her features were defined had all been repeated in countless such paintings. Cimabue
and Duccio both took steps in the direction of greater naturalism, as did their contemporary,
Pietro Cavallini of Rome.
Giotto
Giotto (1266–1337), by tradition a shepherd boy from the hills north of Florence, became
Cimabue's apprentice and emerged as the most outstanding painter of his time. Giotto, possibly
influenced by Pietro Cavallini and other Roman painters, did not base the figures that he
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painted upon any painterly tradition, but upon the observation of life. Unlike those of his
Byzantine contemporaries, Giotto's figures are solidly three-dimensional; they stand squarely
on the ground, have discernible anatomy and are clothed in garments with weight and
structure.
But more than anything, what set Giotto's figures apart from those of his contemporaries are
their emotions. In the faces of Giotto's figures are joy, rage, despair, shame, spite and love. The
cycle of frescoes of the Life of Christ and the Life of the Virgin that he painted in the Scrovegni
Chapel in Padua set a new standard for narrative pictures. His Ognissanti Madonna hangs in the
Uffizi Gallery, Florence, in the same room as Cimabue's Santa Trinita Madonna and Duccio's
Ruccellai Madonna where the stylistic comparisons between the three can easily be made. One
of the features apparent in Giotto's work is his observation of naturalistic perspective. He is
regarded as the herald of the Renaissance.
Giotto's contemporaries
Giotto had a number of contemporaries who were either trained and influenced by him, or
whose observation of nature had led them in a similar direction. Although several of Giotto's
pupils assimilated the direction that his work had taken, none was to become as successful as
he. Taddeo Gaddi achieved the first large painting of a night scene in an Annunciation to the
Shepherds in the Baroncelli Chapel of the Church of Santa Croce, Florence.
The paintings in the Upper Church of the Basilica of St. Francis, Assisi, are examples of
naturalistic painting of the period, often ascribed to Giotto himself, but more probably the work
of artists surrounding Pietro Cavallini. A late painting by Cimabue in the Lower Church at Assisi,
of the Madonna and St. Francis, also clearly shows greater naturalism than his panel paintings
and the remains of his earlier frescoes in the upper church.
Mortality and redemption
A common theme in the decoration of Medieval churches was the Last Judgement, which in
northern European churches frequently occupies a sculptural space above the west door, but in
Italian churches such as Giotto's Scrovegni Chapel, is painted on the inner west wall. The Black
Death of 1348 caused its survivors to focus on the need to approach death in a state of
penitence and absolution. The inevitability of death, the rewards for the penitent and the
penalties of sin were emphasised in a number of frescoes, remarkable for their grim depictions
of suffering and their surreal images of the torments of Hell.
The Triumph of Death by Orcagna, c.1350 (detail)
These include the Triumph of Death by Giotto's pupil Orcagna, now in a fragmentary state at
the Museum of Santa Croce, and the Triumph of Death in the Camposanto Monumentale at Pisa
by an unknown painter, perhaps Francesco Traini or Buonamico Buffalmacco who worked on
the other three of a series of frescoes on the subject of Salvation. It is unknown exactly when
these frescoes were begun but it is generally presumed they post-date 1348.
Two important fresco painters were active in Padua in the late 14th century, Altichiero and
Giusto de' Menabuoi. Giusto's masterpiece, the decoration of the Cathedral's Baptistery,
follows the theme of humanity's Creation, Downfall and Salvation, also having a rare
Apocalypse cycle in the small chancel. While the whole work is exceptional for its breadth,
quality and intact state, the treatment of human emotion is conservative by comparison with
that of Altichiero's Crucifixion at the Basilica of Sant'Antonio, also in Padua. Giusto's work relies
on formalised gestures, where Altichiero relates the incidents surrounding Christ's death with
great human drama and intensity. In Florence, at the Spanish Chapel of Santa Maria Novella,
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Andrea Bonaiuti was commissioned to emphasise the role of the Church in the redemptive
process, and that of the Dominican Order in particular. His fresco Allegory of the Active and
Triumphant Church is remarkable for its depiction of Florence Cathedral, complete with the
dome which was not built until the following century.
International Gothic
During the later 14th century, International Gothic was the style that dominated Tuscan
painting. It can be seen to an extent in the work of Pietro and Ambrogio Lorenzetti which is
marked by a formalized sweetness and grace in the figures, and Late Gothic gracefulness in the
draperies. The style is fully developed in the works of Simone Martini and Gentile da Fabriano
which have an elegance and a richness of detail, and an idealised quality not compatible with
the starker realities of Giotto's paintings.
In the early 15th century, bridging the gap between International Gothic and the Renaissance
are the paintings of Fra Angelico, many of which, being altarpieces in tempera, show the Gothic
love of elaboration, gold leaf and brilliant colour. It is in his frescoes at his convent of Sant'
Marco that Fra Angelico shows himself the artistic disciple of Giotto. These devotional
paintings, which adorn the cells and corridors inhabited by the friars, represent episodes from
the life of Jesus, many of them being scenes of the Crucifixion. They are starkly simple,
restrained in colour and intense in mood as the artist sought to make spiritual revelations a
visual reality.
The development of linear perspective
During the first half of the 15th century, the achieving of the effect of realistic space in a
painting by the employment of linear perspective was a major preoccupation of many painters,
as well as the architects Brunelleschi and Alberti who both theorised about the subject.
Brunelleschi is known to have done a number of careful studies of the piazza and octagonal
baptistery outside Florence Cathedral and it is thought he aided Masaccio in the creation of his
famous trompe l'oeil niche around the Holy Trinity he painted at Santa Maria Novella.
According to Vasari, Paolo Uccello was so obsessed with perspective that he thought of little
else and experimented with it in many paintings, the best known being the three Battle of San
Romano pictures which use broken weapons on the ground, and fields on the distant hills to
give an impression of perspective.
In the 1450s Piero della Francesca, in paintings such as The Flagellation of Christ, demonstrated
his mastery over linear perspective and also over the science of light. Another painting exists, a
cityscape, by an unknown artist, perhaps Piero della Francesca, that demonstrates the sort of
experiment that Brunelleschi had been making. From this time linear perspective was
understood and regularly employed, such as by Perugino in his Christ Giving the Keys to St.
Peter in the Sistine Chapel.
The Flagellation demonstrates Piero della Francesca's control over both perspective and light
The understanding of light
Giotto used tonality to create form. Taddeo Gaddi in his nocturnal scene in the Baroncelli
Chapel demonstrated how light could be used to create drama. Paolo Uccello, a hundred years
later, experimented with the dramatic effect of light in some of his almost-monochrome
frescoes. He did a number of these in terra verde or "green earth", enlivening his compositions
with touches of vermilion. The best known is his equestrian portrait of John Hawkwood on the
wall of Florence Cathedral. Both here and on the four heads of prophets that he painted around
the inner clockface in the cathedral, he used strongly contrasting tones, suggesting that each
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figure was being lit by a natural light source, as if the source was an actual window in the
cathedral.
Piero della Francesca carried his study of light further. In the Flagellation he demonstrates a
knowledge of how light is proportionally disseminated from its point of origin. There are two
sources of light in this painting, one internal to a building and the other external. Of the internal
source, though the light itself is invisible, its position can be calculated with mathematical
certainty. Leonardo da Vinci was to carry forward Piero's work on light.
The Madonna
The Blessed Virgin Mary, revered by the Catholic Church worldwide, was particularly evoked in
Florence, where there was a miraculous image of her on a column in the corn market and
where both the Cathedral of "Our Lady of the Flowers" and the large Dominican church of Santa
Maria Novella were named in her honour.
Madonna and Child by Andrea and Giovanni della Robbia
Madonna and Child by Filippo Lippi, 1459
The miraculous image in the corn market was sadly destroyed by fire, but replaced with a new
image in the 1330s by Bernardo Daddi, set in an elaborately designed and lavishly wrought
canopy by Orcagna. The open lower storey of the building was enclosed and dedicated as
Orsanmichele.
Depictions of the Madonna and Child were a very popular art form in Florence. They took every
shape from small mass-produced terracotta plaques to magnificent altarpieces such as those by
Cimabue, Giotto and Masaccio.
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In the 15th and first half of the 16th centuries, one workshop more than any other dominated
the production of Madonnas. They were the della Robbia family, and they were not painters but
modellers in clay. Luca della Robbia, famous for his cantoria gallery at the cathedral, was the
first sculptor to use glazed terracotta for large sculptures. Many of the durable works of this
family have survived. The skill of the della Robbias, particularly Andrea della Robbia, was to give
great naturalism to the babies that they modelled as Jesus, and expressions of great piety and
sweetness to the Madonna. They were to set a standard to be emulated by other artists of
Florence.
Patronage and Humanism
In Florence, in the later 15th century, most works of art, even those that were done as
decoration for churches, were generally commissioned and paid for by private patrons. Much of
the patronage came from the Medici family, or those who were closely associated with or
related to them, such as the Sassetti, the Ruccellai and the Tornabuoni.
The Birth of Venus for the Medici by Botticelli
In the 1460s Cosimo de' Medici the Elder had established Marsilio Ficino as his resident
Humanist philosopher, and facilitated his translation of Plato and his teaching of Platonic
philosophy, which focused on humanity as the centre of the natural universe, on each person's
personal relationship with God, and on fraternal or "platonic" love as being the closest that a
person could get to emulating or understanding the love of God.
In the Medieval period, everything related to the Classical period was perceived as associated
with paganism. In the Renaissance it came increasingly to be associated with enlightenment.
The figures of Classical mythology began to take on a new symbolic role in Christian art and in
particular, the Goddess Venus took on a new discretion. Born fully formed, by a sort of miracle,
she was the new Eve, symbol of innocent love, or even, by extension, a symbol of the Virgin
Mary herself. We see Venus in both these roles in the two famous tempera paintings that
Botticelli did in the 1480s for Cosimo's nephew, Pierfrancesco Medici, the Primavera and the
Birth of Venus.
Meanwhile, Domenico Ghirlandaio, a meticulous and accurate draughtsman and one of the
finest portrait painters of his age, executed two cycles of frescoes for Medici associates in two
of Florence's larger churches, the Sassetti Chapel at Santa Trinita and the Tornabuoni Chapel at
Santa Maria Novella. In these cycles of the Life of St Francis and the Life of the Virgin Mary and
Life of John the Baptist there was room for portraits of patrons and of the patrons' patrons.
Thanks to Sassetti's patronage, there is a portrait of the man himself, with his employer,
Lorenzo il Magnifico, and Lorenzo's three sons with their tutor, the Humanist poet and
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philosopher, Agnolo Poliziano. In the Tornabuoni Chapel is another portrait of Poliziano,
accompanied by the other influential members of the Platonic Academy including Marsilio
Ficino.
The Portinari Altarpiece by Hugo van der Goes
The Sassetti Altarpiece by Ghirlandaio
Week 10
Lecture 10
Renaissance (Part II)
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Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci (April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519, Old Style) was an Italian
Renaissance polymath: painter, sculptor, architect, musician,
scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist,
geologist, cartographer, botanist, and writer whose genius,
perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the
Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described
as the archetype of the Renaissance Man, a man of
"unquenchable
curiosity"
and
"feverishly
inventive
imagination". He is widely considered to be one of the greatest
painters of all time and perhaps the most diversely talented
person ever to have lived. According to art historian Helen
Gardner, the scope and depth of his interests were without
precedent and "his mind and personality seem to us
superhuman, the man himself mysterious and remote".Marco
Rosci points out, however, that while there is much speculation
about Leonardo, his vision of the world is essentially logical
rather than mysterious, and that the empirical methods he employed were unusual for his time.
Leonardo, because of the scope of his interests and the extraordinary degree of talent that he
demonstrated in so many diverse areas, is regarded as the archetypal "Renaissance man". But it
was first and foremost as a painter that he was admired within his own time, and as a painter,
he drew on the knowledge that he gained from all his other interests.
The Last Supper by Leonardo da Vinci
Leonardo was a scientific observer. He learned by looking at things. He studied and drew the
flowers of the fields, the eddies of the river, the form of the rocks and mountains, the way light
reflected from foliage and sparkled in a jewel. In particular, he studied the human form,
dissecting thirty or more unclaimed cadavers from a hospital in order to understand muscles
and sinews.
More than any other artist, he advanced the study of "atmosphere". In his paintings such as the
Mona Lisa and Virgin of the Rocks, he used light and shade with such subtlety that, for want of a
better word, it became known as Leonardo's "sfumato" or "smoke".
Simultaneous to inviting the viewer into a mysterious world of shifting shadows, chaotic
mountains and whirling torrents, Leonardo achieved a degree of realism in the expression of
human emotion, prefigured by Giotto but unknown since Masaccio's Adam and Eve. Leonardo's
Last Supper, painted in the refectory of a monastery in Milan, became the benchmark for
religious narrative painting for the next half millennium. Many other Renaissance artists painted
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versions of the Last Supper, but only Leonardo's was destined to be reproduced countless times
in wood, alabaster, plaster, lithograph, tapestry, crochet and table-carpets.
Apart from the direct impact of the works themselves, Leonardo's studies of light, anatomy,
landscape, and human expression were disseminated in part through his generosity to a retinue
of students.
Michelangelo
In 1508 Pope Julius II succeeded in getting the sculptor Michelangelo to
agree to continue the decorative scheme of the Sistine Chapel. The
Sistine Chapel ceiling was constructed in such a way that there were
twelve sloping pendentives supporting the vault that formed ideal
surfaces on which to paint the Twelve Apostles. Michelangelo, who had
yielded to the Pope's demands with little grace, soon devised an entirely
different scheme, far more complex both in design and in iconography.
The scale of the work, which he executed single handed except for
manual assistance, was titanic and took nearly five years to complete.
The Pope's plan for the Apostles would thematically have formed a
pictorial link between the Old Testament and New Testament narratives on the walls, and the
popes in the gallery of portraits. It is the twelve apostles, and their leader Peter as first Bishop
of Rome, that make that bridge. But Michelangelo's scheme went the opposite direction. The
theme of Michelangelo's ceiling is not God's grand plan for humanity's salvation. The theme is
about humanity's disgrace. It is about why humanity needed, and in the terms of the faith,
needs Jesus.
Superficially, the ceiling is a Humanist construction. The figures are of superhuman dimension
and, in the case of Adam, of such beauty that according to the biographer Vasari, it really looks
as if God himself had designed the figure, rather than Michelangelo. But despite the beauty of
the individual figures, Michelangelo has not glorified the human state, and he certainly has not
presented the Humanist ideal of platonic love. In fact, the ancestors of Christ, which he painted
around the upper section of the wall, demonstrate all the worst aspects of family relationships,
displaying dysfunction in as many different forms as there are families.
The Creation of Adam by Michelangelo
Vasari praised Michelangelo's seemingly infinite powers of invention in creating postures for
the figures. Raphael, who was given a preview by Bramante after Michelangelo had downed his
brush and stormed off to Bologna in a temper, painted at least two figures in imitation of
Michelangelo's prophets, one at the church of Sant' Agostino and the other in the Vatican, his
portrait of Michelangelo himself in The School of Athens.
Raphael
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Raffaello Sanzio da Urbino (April 6 or March 28, 1483 – April 6, 1520), better known simply as
Raphael, was an Italian painter and architect of the High Renaissance. His work is admired for its
clarity of form and ease of composition and for its visual achievement of
the Neoplatonic ideal of human grandeur. Together with Michelangelo
and Leonardo da Vinci, he forms the traditional trinity of great masters of
that period.
Raphael was enormously productive, running an unusually large
workshop, and despite his death at 37, a large body of his work remains.
Many of his works are found in the Apostolic Palace of The Vatican,
where the frescoed Raphael Rooms were the central, and the largest,
work of his career. The best known work is The School of Athens in the
Vatican Stanza della Segnatura. After his early years in Rome much of his
work was self-designed, but for the most part executed by the workshop from his drawings,
with considerable loss of quality. He was extremely influential in his lifetime, though outside
Rome his work was mostly known from his collaborative printmaking. After his death, the
influence of his great rival Michelangelo was more widespread until the 18th and 19th
centuries, when Raphael's more serene and harmonious qualities were again regarded as the
highest models. His career falls naturally into three phases and three styles, first described by
Giorgio Vasari: his early years in Umbria, then a period of about four years (from 1504–1508)
absorbing the artistic traditions of Florence, followed by his last hectic and triumphant twelve
years in Rome, working for two Popes and their close associates.
With Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo, Raphael's name is synonymous with the High
Renaissance. However, he was younger than Michelangelo by 18 years and Leonardo by nearly
30. It cannot be said of him that he greatly advanced the state of painting as his two famous
contemporaries did. Rather, his work was the culmination of all the developments of the High
Renaissance.
Raphael had the good luck to be born the son of a painter, so his career path, unlike that of
Michelangelo who was the son of minor nobility, was decided without a quarrel. Some years
after his father's death he worked in the Umbrian workshop of Perugino, an excellent painter
and a superb technician. His first signed and dated painting, executed at the age of 21, is the
Betrothal of the Virgin, which immediately reveals its origins in Perugino's Christ giving the Keys
to Peter.
The Sistine Madonna by Raphael
Raphael was a carefree character who unashamedly drew on the skills of the renowned painters
whose lifespans encompassed his. In his works the individual qualities of numerous different
painters are drawn together. The rounded forms and luminous colours of Perugino, the lifelike
portraiture of Ghirlandaio, the realism and lighting of Leonardo and the powerful
draughtsmanship of Michelangelo became unified in the paintings of Raphael. In his short life
he executed a number of large altarpieces, an impressive Classical fresco of the sea nymph,
Galatea, outstanding portraits with two popes and a famous writer among them, and, while
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Michelangelo was painting the Sistine Chapel ceiling, a series of wall frescoes in the Vatican
chambers nearby, of which the School of Athens is uniquely significant.
This fresco depicts a meeting of all the most learned ancient Athenians, gathered in a grand
classical setting around the central figure of Plato, whom Raphael has famously modelled upon
Leonardo da Vinci. The brooding figure of Heraclitus who sits by a large block of stone, is a
portrait of Michelangelo, and is a reference to the latter's painting of the Prophet Jeremiah in
the Sistine Chapel. His own portrait is to the right, beside his teacher, Perugino..
But the main source of Raphael's popularity was not his major works, but his small Florentine
pictures of the Madonna and Christ Child. Over and over he painted the same plump calm-faced
blonde woman and her succession of chubby babies, the most famous probably being La Belle
Jardinière ("The Madonna of the Beautiful Garden"), now in the Louvre. His larger work, the
Sistine Madonna, used as a design for countless stained glass windows, has come, in the 21st
century, to provide the iconic image of two small cherubs which has been reproduced on
everything from paper table napkins to umbrellas.
Renaissance architecture
Renaissance architecture is the architecture of the period between the early 15th and early
17th centuries in different regions of Europe, demonstrating a conscious revival and
development of certain elements of ancient Greek
and Roman thought and material culture. Stylistically,
Renaissance architecture followed Gothic architecture
and was succeeded by Baroque architecture.
Developed first in Florence, with Filippo Brunelleschi
as one of its innovators, the Renaissance style quickly
spread to other Italian cities. The style was carried to
France, Germany, England, Russia and other parts of
Europe at different dates and with varying degrees of
impact.
Historians often divide the Renaissance in Italy into
three phases. Whereas art historians might talk of an "Early Renaissance" period, in which they
include developments in 14th century painting and sculpture, this is usually not the case in
architectural history. The bleak economic conditions of the late 14th century did not produce
buildings that are considered to be part of the Renaissance. As a result, the word "Renaissance"
among architectural historians usually applies to the period 1400 to ca. 1525, or later in the
case of non-Italian Renaissances.
Quattrocento
In the Quattrocento, concepts of architectural order were explored and rules were formulated.
(See- Characteristics of Renaissance Architecture, below.) The study of classical antiquity led in
particular to the adoption of Classical detail and ornamentation.
Space, as an element of architecture, was utilised differently from the way it had been in the
Middle Ages. Space was organised by proportional logic, its form and rhythm subject to
geometry, rather than being created by intuition as in Medieval buildings. The prime example of
this is the Basilica di San Lorenzo in Florence by Filippo Brunelleschi (1377–1446).
High Renaissance
During the High Renaissance, concepts derived from classical antiquity were developed and
used with greater surety. The most representative architect is Bramante (1444–1514) who
expanded the applicability of classical architecture to contemporary buildings. His San Pietro in
Montorio (1503) was directly inspired by circular Roman temples. He was, however, hardly a
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slave to the classical forms and it was his style that was to dominate Italian architecture in the
16th century.
Mannerism
During the Mannerist period, architects experimented with using architectural forms to
emphasize solid and spatial relationships. The Renaissance ideal of harmony gave way to freer
and more imaginative rhythms. The best known architect associated with the Mannerist style
was Michelangelo (1475–1564), who is credited with inventing the giant order, a large pilaster
that stretches from the bottom to the top of a façade. He used this in his design for the
Campidoglio in Rome.
Prior to the 20th century, the term Mannerism had negative connotations, but it is now used to
describe the historical period in more general non-judgemental terms.
From Renaissance to Baroque
As the new style of architecture spread out from Italy, most other European countries
developed a sort of proto-Renaissance style, before the construction of fully formulated
Renaissance buildings. Each country in turn then grafted its own architectural traditions to the
new style, so that Renaissance buildings across Europe are diversified by region.
Within Italy the evolution of Renaissance architecture into Mannerism, with widely diverging
tendencies in the work of Michelangelo and Giulio Romano and Andrea Palladio, led to the
Baroque style in which the same architectural vocabulary was used for very different rhetoric.
Outside Italy, Baroque architecture was more widespread and fully developed than the
Renaissance style, with significant buildings as far afield as Mexico and the Philippines.
Characteristics of Renaissance architecture
Raphael's unused plan for St. Peter's Basilica
The obvious distinguishing features of Classical Roman architecture were adopted by
Renaissance architects. However, the forms and purposes of buildings had changed over time,
as had the structure of cities. Among the earliest buildings
of the reborn Classicism were churches of a type that the
Romans had never constructed. Neither were there models
for the type of large city dwellings required by wealthy
merchants of the 15th century. Conversely, there was no
call for enormous sporting fixtures and public bath houses
such as the Romans had built. The ancient orders were
analysed and reconstructed to serve new purposes.
Plan
The plans of Renaissance buildings have a square,
symmetrical appearance in which proportions are usually
based on a module. Within a church the module is often the
width of an aisle. The need to integrate the design of the
plan with the façade was introduced as an issue in the work
of Filippo Brunelleschi, but he was never able to carry this
aspect of his work into fruition. The first building to
demonstrate this was St. Andrea in Mantua by Alberti. The
development of the plan in secular architecture was to take place in the 16th century and
culminated with the work of Palladio.
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Façade
Façades are symmetrical around their vertical axis.
Church façades are generally surmounted by a pediment
and organized by a system of pilasters, arches and
entablatures. The columns and windows show a
progression towards the center. One of the first true
Renaissance façades was the Cathedral of Pienza (1459–
62), which has been attributed to the Florentine
architect Bernardo Gambarelli (known as Rossellino)
with Alberti perhaps having some responsibility in its
design as well.
Domestic buildings are often surmounted by a cornice. There is a regular repetition of openings
on each floor, and the centrally placed door is marked by a feature such as a balcony, or
rusticated surround. An early and much copied prototype was the façade for the Palazzo
Rucellai (1446 and 1451) in Florence with its three registers of pilasters
Classical Orders, engraving from the Encyclopédie vol. 18. 18th century
Columns and Pilasters
The Roman orders of columns are used:- Tuscan, Doric, Ionic, Corinthian and Composite. The
orders can either be structural, supporting an arcade or architrave, or purely decorative, set
against a wall in the form of pilasters. During the Renaissance, architects aimed to use columns,
pilasters, and entablatures as an integrated system. One of the first buildings to use pilasters as
an integrated system was in the Old Sacristy (1421–1440) by Brunelleschi.
Arches
Arches are semi-circular or (in the Mannerist style) segmental. Arches are often used in arcades,
supported on piers or columns with capitals. There may be a section of entablature between
the capital and the springing of the arch. Alberti was one of the first to use the arch on a
monumental scale at the St. Andrea in Mantua.
Vaults
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Vaults do not have ribs. They are semi-circular or segmental and on a square plan, unlike the
Gothic vault which is frequently rectangular. The barrel vault is returned to architectural
vocabulary as at the St. Andrea in Mantua.
The Dome of St Peter's Basilica, Rome. photo- Wolgang Stuck, 2004
Domes
The dome is used frequently, both as a very large structural feature that is visible from the
exterior, and also as a means of roofing smaller spaces where they are only visible internally.
Domes had been used only rarely in the Middle Ages, but after the success of the dome in
Brunelleschi’s design for the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore and its use in Bramante’s plan for
St. Peter's Basilica (1506) in Rome, the dome became an indispensable element in church
architecture and later even for secular architecture, such as Palladio's Villa Rotonda.
Ceilings
Roofs are fitted with flat or coffered ceilings. They are not left open as in Medieval architecture.
They are frequently painted or decorated.
Doors
Doors usually have square lintels. They may be set within an arch or surmounted by a triangular
or segmental pediment. Openings that do not have doors are usually arched and frequently
have a large or decorative keystone.
Windows
Windows may be paired and set within a semi-circular arch. They may have square lintels and
triangular or segmental pediments, which are often used alternately. Emblematic in this respect
is the Palazzo Farnese in Rome, begun in 1517.
In the Mannerist period the “Palladian” arch was employed, using a motif of a high semi-circular
topped opening flanked with two lower square-topped openings. Windows are used to bring
light into the building and in domestic architecture, to give views. Stained glass, although
sometimes present, is not a feature.
Walls
External walls are generally of highly finished ashlar masonry, laid in straight courses. The
corners of buildings are often emphasised by rusticated quoins. Basements and ground floors
were often rusticated, as modeled on the Palazzo Medici Riccardi (1444–1460) in Florence.
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Internal walls are smoothly plastered and surfaced with
white-chalk paint. For more formal spaces, internal
surfaces are decorated with frescoes.
Details
Courses, mouldings and all decorative details are carved
with great precision. Studying and mastering the details of
the ancient Romans was one of the important aspects of
Renaissance theory. The different orders each required
different sets of details. Some architects were stricter in
their use of classical details than others, but there was
also a good deal of innovation in solving problems,
especially at corners. Moldings stand out around doors
and windows rather than being recessed, as in Gothic
Architecture. Sculptured figures may be set in niches or
placed on plinths. They are not integral to the building as in Medieval architecture
Renaissance Clothing
The thriving Renaissance economy was based in the banking and the textile industries of
Florence, Italy. Fine Renaissance clothing materials and accessories quickly became the
foundation for a new era of Renaissance fashion. Unlike anything previous, Renaissance
clothing was characterized by short upper garments among men, and an overall trend towards
tight–fitting clothes. There are countless pictorial examples found in books, tapestries, and
archeological sources.
Wealth and social rank was easily distinguished with the help of precious garments (just as it is
today). Renaissance clothing was a public display and would validate your status. Even if you did
not have much money, you would be accepted into society if you wore the right clothes and
carried yourself in a refined manner.
The church played an active role in Renaissance clothing by condemning those who focused too
heavily on fashion trends for being guilty of the sin of vanity. This label was easily applied to
anyone who was wearing "the latest fashion" because it clearly separated them for people who
were wearing the older designs (out of fashion).
Moralists and preachers felt there was danger in the fact that "trend setters" were able to
manipulate the systems of distinction originally developed by a given society. This ideology can
be detected in the Late Middle Ages and into The Renaissance as 14th and 15th century laws
were created to control Renaissance clothing.
The Central European University captured the church's opinion best saying, "...The order of the
world was derived from God above, therefore all attempts to change it, including the copying
and wearing of characteristic garments of a certain social strata, revealed sinful attitudes, and
so had to be punished."
These judgments started after the Black Plague when nobility and
aristocracy tried to stabilize their positions. New laws dictated rigid
regulations of Renaissance clothing cuts, colors and materials. In
reality, these laws were in fact "luxury legislations" and heavily
influenced by the church. One example comes from England. In
1363, English law restricted the amount of money servants,
grooms, and employees of urban craftsmen could spend on
clothes. It also prohibited them from wearing silk or any other
precious textiles.
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Colors of Renaissance clothing were given meanings as shown by the following:






Green = love
Gray = sorrow
Yellow = hostility
Blue = fidelity
Red = nobility
Black & Gray = lower status people
(It is ironic to note that by the 15th century the black and grey colors were worn by the high
aristocracy and royalty.)
Notable Possessions
(Renaissance Period)
David (Sculpture)
David is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture created between 1501 and
1504, by the Italian artist Michelangelo. It is a 5.17-metre (17.0 ft) marble statue
of a standing male nude. The statue represents the Biblical hero David, a
favoured subject in the art of Florence. Originally commissioned as one of a
series of statues of prophets to be positioned along the roofline of the east end
of Florence Cathedral, the statue was instead placed in a public square, outside
the Palazzo della Signoria, the seat of civic government in Florence, where it was
unveiled on 8 September 1504. Because of the nature of the hero that it
represented, it soon came to symbolize the defense of civil liberties embodied
in the Florentine Republic, an independent city-state threatened on all sides by
more powerful rival states and by the hegemony of the Medici family. The eyes of David, with a
warning glare, were turned towards Rome. The statue was moved to the Accademia Gallery in
Florence in 1873, and later replaced at the original location by a replica.
La Gioconda (Painting)
The Mona Lisa, also known as La Gioconda is a portrait by the Italian artist
Leonardo da Vinci. It is a painting in oil on a poplar panel, completed circa 1503–
1519 and bought by king Francis I of France. It is now the property of the French
Republic and it is on permanent display at the Musée du Louvre in Paris.
The painting is a half-length portrait and depicts a seated woman, Lisa del
Giocondo, whose facial expression has been frequently described as enigmatic.
The ambiguity of the subject's expression, the monumentality of the
composition, and the subtle modeling of forms and atmospheric illusionism
were novel qualities that have contributed to the continuing fascination and
study of the work. The image is widely recognised, caricatured, and sought out
by visitors to the Louvre, and it is considered the most famous painting in the world.
The Creation of Adam (Fresco Painting)
The Creation of Adam is a section of
Michelangelo's fresco Sistine Chapel ceiling
painted circa 1511. It illustrates the Biblical
story from the Book of Genesis in which God
the Father breathes life into Adam, the first
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man. Chronologically the fourth in the series of panels depicting episodes from Genesis on the
Sistine ceiling, it was among the last to be completed.
God is depicted as an elderly white-bearded man wrapped in a swirling cloak while Adam, on
the lower left, is completely nude. God's right arm is outstretched to impart the spark of life
from his own finger into that of Adam, whose left arm is extended in a pose mirroring God's, a
reminder that man is created in the image and likeness of God (Gen 1:26). Another point is that
Adam's finger and God's finger are not touching. It gives the impression that God, the giver of
life, is reaching out to Adam and Adam is receiving.
Many hypotheses have been formulated regarding the identity and meaning of the figures
around God. The person protected by God's left arm might be Eve due to the figure's feminine
appearance and gaze towards Adam, but was also suggested to be Virgin Mary, Sophia, the
personified human soul, or an angel of masculine build.
Fresco (Art Form)
Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related mural painting types, executed
on plaster on walls, ceilings or any other type of flat surface. The
word fresco comes from the Italian word affresco which derives
from the Latin word for "fresh". Frescoes first developed in the
ancient world and continued to be popular through the
Renaissance. Declining in popularity, they enjoyed something of a
revival in the 20th century.
Buon fresco technique consists of painting in pigment mixed with
water on a thin layer of wet, fresh (hence the name) lime mortar
or plaster, for which the Italian word for plaster, intonaco, is
used. Because of the chemical makeup of the plaster, a binder is
not required, as the pigment mixed solely with the water will sink
into the intonaco, which itself becomes the medium holding the
pigment. The pigment is absorbed by the wet plaster; after a number of hours, the plaster dries
and reacts with the air: it is this chemical reaction which fixes the pigment particles in the
plaster. One of the first painters in the post-classical period to use this technique was the Isaac
Master in the Upper Basilica of Saint Francis in Assisi. A person who creates fresco is called a
frescoist.
The Triumph of Death (Oil Painting)
The Triumph of Death is an oil panel painting by Pieter Bruegel the Elder painted c. 1562. It has
been in the Museo del Prado in Madrid since
1827.
The painting shows a panorama of an army of
skeletons wreaking havoc across a blackened,
desolate landscape. Fires burn in the distance and
the sea is littered with shipwrecks. A few leafless
trees stud hills otherwise bare of vegetation; fish
lie rotting on the shores of a corpse-choked pond.
Art historian James Snyder emphasizes the
"scorched, barren earth, devoid of any life as far
as the eye can see." In this setting, legions of
skeletons advance on the living, who either flee in terror or try in vain to fight back. In the
foreground, skeletons haul a wagon full of skulls; in the upper left corner, others ring the bell
that signifies the death knell of the world. A fool plays the lute while a skeleton behind him
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plays along; a starving dog nibbles at the face of a child; a cross sits in the center of the painting.
People are herded into a trap decorated with crosses, while a skeleton on horseback kills
people with a scythe. The painting depicts people of different social backgrounds – from
peasants and soldiers to nobles as well as a king and a cardinal – being taken by death
indiscriminately
The Temple of Vesta (Architecture)
The Temple of Vesta (Latin Aedes Vestae, Italian Tempio di Vesta) is an
ancient edifice in Rome, Italy, located in the Roman Forum near the Regia
and the House of the Vestal Virgins. The temple's most recognizable
feature is its circular footprint. Since the worship of Vesta began in private
homes, the architecture seems to be a reminder of its history. The extant
temple used Greek architecture with Corinthian columns, marble, and a
central cella. The remaining structure indicates that there were twenty
Corinthian columns built on a podium fifteen metres in diameter. The roof
probably had a vent at the apex to allow smoke release.
Basilica of Santa Maria Novella (Architecture)
Santa Maria Novella is a church in Florence, Italy, situated just
across from the main railway station which shares its name.
Chronologically, it is the first great basilica in Florence, and is the
city's principal Dominican church.
The church, the adjoining cloister, and chapterhouse contain a
store of art treasures and funerary monuments. Especially famous
are frescoes by masters of Gothic and early Renaissance. They
were financed through the generosity of the most important
Florentine families, who ensured themselves of funerary chapels
on consecrated ground.
Château de Chambord (Architecture)
The royal Château de Chambord at Chambord, Loir-et-Cher, France is one of the most
recognizable châteaux in the world because of its very
distinct French Renaissance architecture which blends
traditional French medieval forms with classical Renaissance
structures.
The building, which was never completed, was constructed
by King François I in part to be near to his mistress the
Comtesse de Thoury, Claude Rohan, wife of Julien de
Clermont, a member of a very important family of France,
whose domaine, the château de Muides, was adjacent. Her
arms figure in the carved decor of the château.
Chambord is the largest château in the Loire Valley; it was
built to serve as a hunting lodge for François I, who maintained his royal residences at Château
de Blois and Château d'Amboise. The original design of the Château de Chambord is attributed,
though with several doubts, to Domenico da Cortona. Some authors claim that the French
Renaissance architect Philibert Delorme had a considerable role in the château's design, and
others have suggested that Leonardo da Vinci may have designed it.
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
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1. What is Renaissance? Mention the Time and Periods of Renaissance.
Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the period roughly from the 14th to the
17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of
Europe. As a cultural movement, it encompassed innovative flowering of Latin and vernacular
literatures, beginning with the 14th century resurgence of learning based on classical sources.
Renaissance can be divided into four periods:
(1) The Proto-Renaissance, 1300–1400
(2) The Early Renaissance, 1400–1475
(3) The High Renaissance, 1475–1525 and
(4) Late Renaissance or The Mannerism, 1525–1600
Simultaneous with gaining access to the Classical texts, Europe gained access to advanced
mathematics which had its provenance in the works of Byzantine and Islamic scholars. The
advent of movable type printing in the 15th century meant that ideas could be disseminated
easily, and an increasing number of books were written for a broad public. The development of
oil paint and its introduction to Italy had lasting effects on the art of painting.
2. Who was Giotto? Why he is famous?
Giotto di Bondone (1266/7 – January 8, 1337), better known simply as Giotto, was an Italian
painter and architect from Florence in the late middle Ages. He is generally considered the first
in a line of great artists who contributed to the Italian Renaissance.
He is mostly known for inventing 3D painting Style. Giotto's masterwork is the decoration of the
Scrovegni Chapel in Padua, also known as the Arena Chapel, completed around 1305. This
fresco cycle depicts the life of the Virgin and the life of Christ. It is regarded as one of the
supreme masterpieces of the Early Renaissance.
3. What do you know about the development of perspective?
During the first half of the 15th century, the achieving of the effect of realistic space in a
painting by the employment of linear perspective was a major preoccupation of many painters,
as well as the architects Brunelleschi and Alberti who both theorised about the subject.
Brunelleschi is known to have done a number of careful studies of the piazza and octagonal
baptistery outside Florence Cathedral and it is thought he aided Masaccio in the creation of his
famous trompe l'oeil niche around the Holy Trinity he painted at Santa Maria Novella.
4. Who was Leonardo da Vinci? Mention 3 of his famous works.
Leonardo da Vinci (April 15, 1452 – May 2, 1519) was an Italian Renaissance polymath: painter,
sculptor, architect, musician, scientist, mathematician, engineer, inventor, anatomist, geologist,
cartographer, botanist, and writer whose genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure,
epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal.
Three of his famous works are :
(a) The Mona Lisa
(b) The Last Supper
(c) The Vitruvian Man
5. Mention the names of 3 famous painters from Renaissance period.
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Renaissance was a cultural movement that spanned the period roughly from the 14th to the
17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of
Europe.
The most famous three Renaissance painters were :
(a) Leonardo Da Vinci
(b) Michelangelo
(c) Raphael
6. What is The Temple of Vesta?
The Temple of Vesta (Latin Aedes Vestae, Italian Tempio di Vesta) is an ancient edifice in Rome,
Italy, located in the Roman Forum near the Regia and the House of the Vestal Virgins. The
temple's most recognizable feature is its circular footprint.
7. What is Fresco?
Fresco is any of several related mural painting types, executed on plaster on walls, ceilings or
any other type of flat surface. The word fresco comes from the Italian word affresco which
derives from the Latin word for "fresh".
Frescoes first developed in the ancient world and continued to be popular through the
Renaissance. Declining in popularity, they enjoyed something of a revival in the 20th century
8. What were the meanings of colors of Renaissance clothing?
Colors of Renaissance clothing were given meanings as shown by the following:
 Green = love
 Gray = sorrow
 Yellow = hostility
 Blue = fidelity (except in the Low Countries where it represented adulterous wives)
 Red = nobility
 Black & Gray = lower status people
It is ironic to note that by the 15th century the black and grey colors were worn by the
high aristocracy and royalty.
Broad Questions






What is Renaissance? Give a description of Renaissance Period.
Describe the facts that influenced Renaissance.
Describe the innovation of liner Perspective and understanding the light.
Give a description of life and works of any one of the following artists
(a) Leonardo da Vinci, (b) Michelangelo, (c) Raphael
Describe a famous Renaissance sculpture.
Describe a famous Renaissance painting.
Week 11
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Lecture 11
Baroque, Romanticism
Baroque
Timeline:
1600—1750
The Baroque is a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily
interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting,
literature, dance, and music. The style started around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of
Europe.
The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by the Roman Catholic Church,
which had decided at the time of the Council of Trent, in response to the Protestant
Reformation, that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional
involvement. The aristocracy also saw the dramatic style of Baroque architecture and art as a
means of impressing visitors and expressing triumphant power and control. Baroque palaces
are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases and reception rooms of sequentially
increasing opulence.
Baroque was born in Italy, and later adopted in France, Germany, Netherlands, and Spain. The
word "baroque" was first applied to the art of period from the late 1500s to the late 1700s, by
critics in the late nineteen century. Baroque covers a wide
range of styles and artists.
In painting and sculpture we recognize three main forms of
Baroque.
Baroque that was primarily associated with the religious
tensions within Western Christianity: division on Roman
Catholicism and Protestantism. In response to the Protestant
Reformation of the early sixteen century, the Roman Catholic
Church had embarked in the 1550s on a program of renewal
known as the Counter-Reformation. As part of the program, the
Catholic Church used art of the magnificent display for the
campaign. It was intended to be both doctrinally correct and visually and emotionally appealing
so that it could influence the largest possible audience. But as the century progressed the style
made inroads into the Protestant countries. Main representatives of this form of Baroque were
Bernini and Rubens.
Baroque that use revolutionary technique of dramatic, selective illumination of figures out of
deep shadow—a hallmark of Baroque painting. Contrary to the traditional idealized
interpretation of religious subjects, Baroque realistically presents models from the streets.
Caravaggio is key painter of this form of Baroque Baroque that was developed mainly in
Flemish countries emphasis realism of everyday life. It has been seen in works of Rembrandt
and Vermeer.
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At the same time, scientific advances and exploration with the development of the press, forced
Europeans to change the view of the world. New knowledge in astronomy was of great
importance. In the eighteen century scientific literature became so plenteous, that the period
has gotten the name - Age of Enlightenment. Economic growth in most European countries and
Colonial America, both north and South, helped create a large, prosperous middle class ardent
to invest in fine houses and even palaces. The art produced in the American colonies was
closely related to that of Europe.
The new Baroque style is a dynamic art, which reflects the growth of absolutist monarchies and
is suitable to manifest power. It is also known as "the style of absolutism". Baroque is a style in
which painters, sculptors, and architects rummaged emotion, movement, and variety in their
works. Baroque favors higher volumes, exaggerates decorations, adds colossal sculptures, huge
furniture etc. Sense of movement, energy, and tension are dominant impressions. Strong
contrasts of light and shadow often enhance dramatic effects. In architecture, there was a
special attention given to animation and grandeur achieved through scale, the dramatic use of
light and shadow.
Baroque painting
Baroque painting is the painting associated with the Baroque cultural movement. The
movement is often identified with Absolutism, the Counter Reformation and Catholic Revival,
but the existence of important Baroque art and architecture in non-absolutist and Protestant
states throughout Western Europe underscores its
widespread popularity.
Most important and major painting during the
period beginning around 1600 and continuing
throughout the 17th century, and into the early
18th century is identified today as Baroque
painting. Baroque art is characterized by great
drama, rich, deep color, and intense light and dark
shadows. As opposed to Renaissance art, which
usually showed the moment before an event took
place, Baroque artists chose the most dramatic
point, the moment when the action was occurring:
Michelangelo, working in the High Renaissance, shows his David composed and still before he
battles Goliath; Berrnini's baroque David is caught in the act of hurling the stone at the giant.
Baroque art was meant to evoke emotion and passion instead of the calm rationality that had
been prized during the Renaissance.
The prosperity of 17th century Holland led to an enormous production of art by large numbers
of painters who were mostly highly specialized and painted only genre scenes, landscapes, Stilllifes, portraits or History paintings. Technical standards were very high, and Dutch Golden Age
painting established a new repertoire of subjects that was very influential until the arrival of
Modernism.
Baroque architecture
Baroque architecture is a term used to describe the building
style of the Baroque era, begun in late sixteenth century Italy,
that took the Roman vocabulary of Renaissance architecture
and used it in a new rhetorical and theatrical fashion, often to
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express the triumph of the Catholic Church and the absolutist state. It was characterized by new
explorations of form, light and shadow and dramatic intensity.
Whereas the Renaissance drew on the wealth and power of the Italian courts and was a blend
of secular and religious forces, the Baroque was, initially at least, directly linked to the CounterReformation, a movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself in response to the
Protestant Reformation. Baroque architecture and its embellishments were on the one hand
more accessible to the emotions and on the other hand, a visible statement of the wealth and
power of the Church. The new style manifested itself in particular in the context of the new
religious orders, like the Theatines and the Jesuits who aimed to improve popular piety.
The architecture of the High Roman Baroque can be assigned to the papal reigns of Urban VIII,
Innocent X and Alexander VII, spanning from 1623 to 1667. The three principal architects of this
period were the sculptor Gianlorenzo Bernini, Francesco Borromini and the painter Pietro da
Cortona and each evolved their own distinctively individual architectural expression.
Dissemination of Baroque architecture to the south of Italy resulted in regional variations such
as Sicilian Baroque architecture or that of Naples and Lecce. To the north, the Theatine
architect Camillo-Guarino Guarini, Bernardo Vittone and Sicilian born Filippo Juvarra
contributed Baroque buildings to the city of Turin and the Piedmont region.
A synthesis of Bernini, Borromini and Cortona’s architecture can be seen in the late Baroque
architecture of northern Europe which paved the way for the more decorative Rococo style.
By the middle of the seventeenth century, the Baroque style had found its secular expression in
the form of grand palaces, first in France—with the Château de Maisons (1642) near Paris by
François Mansart—and then throughout Europe.
During the seventeenth century, Baroque architecture spread through Europe and Latin
America, where it was particularly promoted by the Jesuits.
Baroque sculpture
Baroque sculpture is the sculpture associated with the Baroque cultural movement, a
movement often identified with the existence of important Baroque art and architecture in
non-absolutist and Protestant states.
In Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new
importance, and there was a dynamic movement and
energy of human forms— they spiralled around an empty
central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding
space. For the first time, Baroque sculpture often had
multiple ideal viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque
sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example,
concealed lighting, or water fountains. Aleijadinho in Brazil
was also one of the great names of baroque sculpture, and
his master work is the set of statues of the Santuário de
Bom Jesus de Matosinhos in Congonhas. The soapstone
sculptures of old testament prophets around the terrace are
considered amongst his finest work.
The architecture, sculpture and fountains of Bernini (1598–
1680) give highly charged characteristics of Baroque style. Bernini was undoubtedly the most
important sculptor of the Baroque period. He approached Michelangelo in his
omnicompetence: Bernini sculpted, worked as an architect, painted, wrote plays, and staged
spectacles. In the late 20th century Bernini was most valued for his sculpture, both for his
virtuosity in carving marble and his ability to create figures that combine the physical and the
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spiritual. He was also a fine sculptor of bust portraits in high demand among the powerful.
Bernini died in 1680 but his heritage was absorbed by sculptors painters and architects in their
work in the first half of the 18th century particularly in Bavaria, France and Austria.
Notable Possessions
(Baroque)
Night Watch (painting)
Night Watch or The Night Watch or The Shooting
Company of Frans Banning Cocq is the common
name of one of the most famous works by Dutch
painter Rembrandt van Rijn.
The painting may be more properly titled The
Company of Frans Banning Cocq and Willem van
Ruytenburch. It is on prominent display in the
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands,
being the best known painting in their collection.
The Night Watch is considered to be one of the
most famous paintings in the world.
The painting is renowned for three elements: its
colossal size (363 x 437 cm, 11 ft 10 in x 14 ft 4 in), the effective use of light and shadow and
the perception of motion in what would have been, traditionally, a static military portrait.
Ludwigsburg Palace (Architecture)
Ludwigsburg Palace is a historical building in the city of Ludwigsburg (12 km north of Stuttgart's
city centre), Germany. It is one of the
country's largest Baroque palaces and
features an enormous garden in that style.
From the 18th century to 1918 it was the
principal royal palace of the dukedom that
became in 1806 the
Kingdom of
Württemberg.
The foundation stone was laid on May 17,
1704 under Duke Eberhard Ludwig of Württemberg (reigning monarch from 1693 to 1733). One
year later, the site was named "Ludwigsburg" (in English: "Ludwig's castle"). Begun as a hunting
lodge, the project became much more complex and gained momentum over the years.
Today, three different styles are dominant:

Baroque (e.g. Old Main Building, Rest Room of New Main Building, Building of the
Giants, Games & Hunting Pavilions, Court Chapel)

Rococo (e.g. Order Chapel, Duke's Private Suite, New Main Building) – modifications by
Duke Carl Eugen

Empire (e.g. Marble Hall, King's Audience Chamber, Queen's Bed Room, King's Library) –
modifications by King Frederick I.
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Short Question and Prospected Answer
1. Give definition of Baroque.
The Baroque is a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily
interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting,
literature, dance, and music. The style started around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of
Europe.
Broad Questions
1. Describe the influence of Baroque Architecture.
2. Give a description of Baroque Sculpture.
Romanticism
Timeline:
1790-1850
Beginning with the late -18th to the mid -19th century, new Romantic attitude begun to
characterize culture and many art works in Western civilization. It started as an artistic and
intellectual movement that emphasized a revulsion against established values (social order and
religion). Romanticism exalted individualism, subjectivism, irrationalism, imagination, emotions
and nature - emotion over reason and senses over intellect. Since they were in revolt against
the orders, they favored the revival of potentially unlimited number of styles (anything that
aroused them).
Romantic artists were fascinated by the nature, the genius, their passions and inner struggles,
their moods, mental potentials, the heroes. They investigated human nature and personality,
the folk culture, the national and ethnic origins, the medieval era, the exotic, the remote, the
mysterious, the occult, the diseased, and even satanic. Romantic artist had a role of an ultimate
egoistic creator, with the spirit above strict formal rules and traditional procedures. He had
imagination as a gateway to transcendent experience and spiritual truth.
The German poets and critics August Wilhelm and Friedrich Schlegel first used the term
'Romanticism' to label a wider cultural movement. For the Schlegel brothers, it was a product of
Christianity. The culture of the middle Ages created a Romantic sensibility which differed from
the Classical. Christian culture dealt with a struggle between the heavenly perfection and the
human experience of inadequacy and guilt. This sense of struggle, and ever-present dark forces
was allegedly present in medieval culture.
While this view partly explains Romantic fascination with the middle Ages, the actual causes of
the Romantic movement itself correspond to the sense of rapid, dynamic social change that
culminated in the French Revolution and the Napoleonic era.
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Characteristics
In a basic sense, the term "Romanticism" has been used to refer to certain artists, poets,
writers, musicians, as well as political, philosophical and social thinkers of the late 18th and
early to mid 19th centuries. It has equally been used to refer to various artistic, intellectual, and
social trends of that era. Despite this general usage of the term, a precise characterization and
specific definition of Romanticism have been the subject of debate in the fields of intellectual
history and literary history throughout the 20th century, without any great measure of
consensus emerging.
Arthur Lovejoy attempted to demonstrate the difficulty of defining Romanticism in his seminal
article "On The Discrimination of Romanticisms" in his Essays in the History of Ideas (1948);
some scholars see romanticism as essentially continuous with the present, some like Robert
Hughes see in it the inaugural moment of modernity, some like Chateaubriand, 'Novalis' and
Samuel Taylor Coleridge see it as the beginning of a tradition of resistance to Enlightenment
rationalism—a 'Counter-Enlightenment'—to be associated most closely with German
Romanticism. Still others place it firmly in the direct aftermath of the French Revolution. An
earlier definition comes from Charles Baudelaire: "Romanticism is precisely situated neither in
choice of subject nor exact truth, but in the way of feeling.
Romantic visual arts
In European painting, led by a new generation of the French school, the Romantic sensibility
contrasted with the neoclassicism being taught in the academies. In a revived clash between
color and design, the expressiveness and mood of color, as in works of J.M.W. Turner, Francisco
Goya, Théodore Géricault and Eugène Delacroix,
emphasized in the new prominence of the brushstroke
and impasto the artist's free handling of paint, which
tended to be repressed in neoclassicism under a selfeffacing finish.
As in England with J.M.W. Turner and Samuel Palmer,
Russia with Orest Kiprensky, Ivan Aivazovsky and Vasily
Tropinin, Germany with Caspar David Friedrich, Norway
with J.C. Dahl and Hans Gude, Spain with Francisco Goya, and France with Théodore Géricault,
Eugène Delacroix, Théodore Chassériau, and others; In Italy Francesco Hayez was the leading
artist of Romanticism in mid-19th-century Milan; literary Romanticism had its counterpart in
the American visual arts, most especially in the exaltation of an untamed American landscape
found in the paintings of the Hudson River School. Painters like Thomas Cole, Albert Bierstadt
and Frederic Edwin Church and others often expressed Romantic themes in their paintings.
They sometimes depicted ancient ruins of the old world, such as in Fredric Edwin Church’s piece
Sunrise in Syria. These works reflected the Gothic feelings of death and decay. They also show
the Romantic ideal that Nature is powerful and will eventually overcome the transient creations
of men. More often, they worked to distinguish themselves from their European counterparts
by depicting uniquely American scenes and landscapes. This idea of an American identity in the
art world is reflected in W. C. Bryant’s poem, To Cole, the Painter, Departing for Europe, where
Bryant encourages Cole to remember the powerful scenes that can only be found in America.
This poem also shows the tight connection that existed between the literary and visual artists of
the Romantic Era.
Some American paintings promote the literary idea of the “noble savage” (Such as Albert
Bierstadt’s The Rocky Mountains, Lander's Peak) by portraying idealized Native Americans living
in harmony with the natural world.
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Thomas Cole's paintings feature strong narratives as in The Voyage of Life series painted in the
early 1840s that depict man trying to survive amidst an awesome and immense nature, from
the cradle to the grave (see below).
Notable Possessions
(Romanticism)
Liberty Leading the People (Painting)
Liberty Leading the People (French: La Liberté
guidant le peuple) is a painting by Eugène Delacroix
commemorating the July Revolution of 1830, which
toppled Charles X of France. A woman personifying
Liberty leads the people forward over the bodies of
the fallen, holding the tricouleur flag of the French
Revolution in one hand and brandishing a bayonetted
musket with the other. The painting is perhaps
Delacroix's best-known work.
By the time Delacroix painted Liberty Leading the
People, he was already the acknowledged leader of the Romantic school in French painting.
Delacroix, who was born as the Age of Enlightenment was giving way to the ideas and style of
romanticism, rejected the emphasis on precise drawing that characterized the academic art of
his time, and instead gave a new prominence to freely brushed color.
Wanderer above the Sea of Fog (Painting)
Wanderer above the Sea of Fog is an oil painting composed in 1818
by the German Romantic artist Caspar David Friedrich. It currently
resides in the Kunsthalle Hamburg in Hamburg, Germany.
In the foreground, a young man stands upon a rocky precipice, his
back to the viewer. He is wrapped in a dark green overcoat, and
grips a walking stick in his right hand. His hair caught in a wind, the
wanderer gazes out on a landscape covered in a thick sea of fog. In
the middle ground, several other ridges, perhaps not unlike the
ones the wanderer himself stands upon, jut out from the mass.
Through the wreaths of fog, forests of trees can be perceived atop
these escarpments. In the far distance, faded mountains rise in the
left, gently leveling off into lowland plains in the east. Beyond here, the pervading fog stretches
out indefinitely, eventually commingling with the horizon and becoming indistinguishable from
the cloud-filled sky.
The Voyage of Life (Painting Series)
The Voyage of Life series, painted by Thomas Cole in 1842, is a series of paintings that
represent an allegory of the four stages of human life: childhood, youth, manhood, and old age.
The paintings follow a voyager who travels in a boat on a river through the mid-19th century
American wilderness. In each painting, accompanied by a guardian angel, the voyager rides the
boat on the River of Life. The landscape, corresponding to the seasons of the year, plays a major
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role in telling the story. In each picture, the boat's direction of travel is reversed from the
previous picture. In childhood, the infant glides from a dark cave into a rich, green landscape. As
a youth, the boy takes control of the boat and aims for a shining castle in the sky. In manhood,
the adult relies on prayer and religious faith to sustain him through rough waters and a
threatening landscape. Finally, the man becomes old and the angel guides him to heaven across
the waters of eternity.
Short Questions and Prospected Answers
1. What is “Liberty Leading the People”?
Liberty Leading the People (French: La Liberté guidant le peuple) is a painting by Eugène
Delacroix commemorating the July Revolution of 1830, which toppled Charles X of France. A
woman personifying Liberty leads the people forward over the bodies of the fallen, holding the
tricouleur flag of the French Revolution in one hand and brandishing a bayonetted musket with
the other. The painting is perhaps Delacroix's best-known work.
2. What do you know about Romanticism? Mention three Romantic artists.
Beginning with the late -18th to the mid -19th century, new Romantic attitude begun to
characterize culture and many art works in Western civilization. It started as an artistic and
intellectual movement that emphasized a revulsion against established values (social order and
religion).
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
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Francisco Goya,
Théodore Géricault and
Eugène Delacroix
3. Give short description about any Romanticism painting.
Wanderer above the Sea of Fog is an oil painting composed in 1818 by the German Romantic
artist Caspar David Friedrich which is considered one of the most famous Romantic Painting. It
currently resides in the Kunsthalle Hamburg in Hamburg, Germany.
In the foreground, a young man stands upon a rocky precipice, his back to the viewer. He is
wrapped in a dark green overcoat, and grips a walking stick in his right hand. His hair caught in a
wind, the wanderer gazes out on a landscape covered in a thick sea of fog. In the middle
ground, several other ridges, perhaps not unlike the ones the wanderer himself stands upon, jut
out from the mass.
4. What is “The Voyage of Life”?
The Voyage of Life series, painted by Thomas Cole in 1842, is a series of paintings that
represent an allegory of the four stages of human life: childhood, youth, manhood, and old age.
The paintings follow a voyager who travels in a boat on a river through the mid-19th century
American wilderness. In each painting, accompanied by a guardian angel, the voyager rides the
boat on the River of Life.
Broad Questions
1. Discuss Romanticism with its characteristics.
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Week 12
Lecture 12
Impressionism, Neo-Impressionism, Post-Impressionism
Impressionism
(late 1860s - late 1890s)
Impressionism was a 19th-century art movement that originated with a group of Paris-based
artists whose independent exhibitions brought them to prominence during the 1870s and 1880s
in spite of harsh opposition from the art community in France. The name of the style is derived
from the title of a Claude Monet work, Impression, soleil levant (Impression, Sunrise), which
provoked the critic Louis Leroy to coin the term in a satiric review published in the Parisian
newspaper Le Charivari.
Characteristics of Impressionist paintings include relatively small, thin, yet visible brush strokes;
open composition; emphasis on accurate depiction of light in its changing qualities (often
accentuating the effects of the passage of time); common, ordinary subject matter; the
inclusion of movement as a crucial element of human perception and experience; and unusual
visual angles. The development of Impressionism in the visual arts was soon followed by
analogous styles in other media which became known as Impressionist music and Impressionist
literature.
Impressionism is a movement in French painting, sometimes called optical realism because of
its almost scientific interest in the actual visual experience and effect of light and movement on
appearance of objects.
Impressionist motto — human eye is a marvelous instrument.
Impact worldwide was lasting and huge. The name
'Impressionists' came as artists embraced the nickname a
conservative critic used to ridicule the whole movement.
Painting 'Impression: Sunrise' by Claude Monet fathered
derogatory referral. Impressionist fascination with light and
movement was at the core of their art. Exposure to light and/or
movement was enough to create a justifiable and fit artistic
subject out of literally anything. Impressionists learned how to
transcribe directly their visual sensations of nature,
unconcerned with the actual depiction of physical objects in
front of them. Two ideas of Impressionists are expressed here.
One is that a quickly painted oil sketch most accurately records a landscape's general
appearance. The second idea that art benefits from a naïve vision untainted by intellectual
preconceptions was a part of both the naturalist and the realist traditions, from which their
work evolved.
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Neo-Impressionism
Timeline:
After 1880
Neo-Impressionism outgrew the Impressionism. Many Impressionists in the years after 1880
began to reconsider their earlier approaches or make important adjustments to them. What
many of them found objectionable in their earlier art was not its truth value but its lack of
permanence. Despite the fundamental similarity of conception, later works differ from earlier
works in two fundamental respects. The elements, especially the figures, are more solidly and
conventionally defined, and composition is more conservative. They moved far from her early
commitment to depicting only contemporary moments. This pattern of rejection and reform
was originated by Georges-Pierre Seurat, who made use of a technique called pointillism
(known as confettiism). This new technique is based on the skillful putting side by side touches
of pure color. The brain then blends the colors automatically in the involuntary process of
optical mixing. Other neo-impressionists include Camille Pissarro, Paul Signac, Theodoor van
Rysselberghe, and Henry Edmond Cross.
Neo-impressionism was coined by French art critic Félix Fénéon in 1886 to describe an art
movement founded by Georges Seurat. Seurat’s greatest masterpiece, A Sunday Afternoon on
the Island of La Grande Jatte, marked the beginning of this movement when it first made its
appearance at an exhibition of the Société des Artistes Indépendants in Paris. Around this time,
the peak of France’s modern era emerged and many painters were in search of new methods.
Followers of neo-impressionism, in particular, were drawn to modern urban scenes as well as
landscapes and seashores. Science-based interpretation of lines and colors influenced neoimpressionists’ characterization of their own contemporary art. Pointillism technique is often
mentioned, because it was the dominant technique in the beginning.
There are a number of alternatives to the term, “neo-impressionism,” and each has its own
nuance:
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Chromoluminarism was a term preferred by Georges Seurat. It emphasized the studies
of color and light which were central to his artistic style. This term is rarely used today.

Divisionism, which is more commonly used, is often used interchangeably with the
official term, “neo-impressionism.” It refers to the method of applying individual
strokes of primary colors.
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Neo-impressionism (new impressionism) unlike other styles in this era, neoimpressionism did not receive its name by harsh critics that ridiculed its style.. Instead,
the term embraces Seurat’s and his followers’ ideals in their style of art.
Impressionist techniques

Short, thick strokes of paint are used to quickly capture the essence of the subject,
rather than its details. The paint is often applied impasto.
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Colours are applied side-by-side with as little mixing as possible, creating a vibrant
surface. The optical mixing of colours occurs in the eye of the viewer.

Grays and dark tones are produced by mixing complementary colours. In pure
Impressionism the use of black paint is avoided.

Wet paint is placed into wet paint without waiting for successive applications to dry,
producing softer edges and an intermingling of colour.
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
Painting during evening to get effets de soir—the shadowy effects of the light in the
evening or twilight.

Impressionist paintings do not exploit the transparency of thin paint films (glazes) which
earlier artists manipulated carefully to produce effects. The surface of an Impressionist
painting is typically opaque.

The play of natural light is emphasized. Close attention is paid to the reflection of
colours from object to object.
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In paintings made en plein air (outdoors), shadows are boldly painted with the blue of
the sky as it is reflected onto surfaces, giving a sense of freshness that was not
represented in painting previously. (Blue shadows on snow inspired the technique.)
Painters throughout history had occasionally used these methods, but Impressionists were the
first to use all of them together, and with such consistency. Earlier artists whose works display
these techniques include Frans Hals, Diego Velázquez, Peter Paul Rubens, John Constable, and
J. M. W. Turner.
French painters who prepared the way for Impressionism include the Romantic colourist
Eugène Delacroix, the leader of the realists Gustave Courbet, and painters of the Barbizon
school such as Théodore Rousseau. The Impressionists learned much from the work of JeanBaptiste-Camille Corot and Eugène Boudin, who painted from nature in a style that was similar
to Impressionism, and who befriended and advised the younger artists.
Impressionists took advantage of the mid-century introduction of premixed paints in lead tubes
(resembling modern toothpaste tubes), which allowed artists to work more spontaneously,
both outdoors and indoors. Previously, painters made their own paints individually, by grinding
and mixing dry pigment powders with linseed oil, which were then stored in animal bladders.
Claude Monet
Claude Monet (14 November 1840 – 5 December 1926) was a
founder of French impressionist painting, and the most
consistent and prolific practitioner of the movement's
philosophy of expressing one's perceptions before nature,
especially as applied to plein-air landscape painting. The term
Impressionism is derived from the title of his painting
Impression, Sunrise.
When Monet travelled to Paris to visit the Louvre, he
witnessed painters copying from the old masters. Having
brought his paints and other tools with him, he would instead
go and sit by a window and paint what he saw. Monet was in
Paris for several years and met other young painters who
would become friends and fellow impressionists; among them
was Édouard Manet.
In June 1861, Monet joined the First Regiment of African Light Cavalry in Algeria for a sevenyear commitment, but, two years later, after he had contracted typhoid fever, his aunt
intervened to get him out of the army if he agreed to complete an art course at an art school. It
is possible that the Dutch painter Johan Barthold Jongkind, whom Monet knew, may have
prompted his aunt on this matter. Disillusioned with the traditional art taught at art schools, in
1862 Monet became a student of Charles Gleyre in Paris, where he met Pierre-Auguste Renoir,
Frédéric Bazille and Alfred Sisley. Together they shared new approaches to art, painting the
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effects of light en plein air with broken color and rapid brushstrokes, in what later came to be
known as Impressionism.
Post-Impressionism
Timeline:
Starts from 1880s
Post-Impressionism is the term coined by the British artist and art critic Roger Fry in 1910 to
describe the development of French art since Manet. Fry used the term when he organized the
1910 exhibition Manet and the Post-Impressionists. Post-Impressionists extended
Impressionism while rejecting its limitations: they continued using vivid colours, thick
application of paint, distinctive brush strokes, and real-life
subject matter, but they were more inclined to emphasize
geometric forms, to distort form for expressive effect, and to
use unnatural or arbitrary colour.
The years between 1880 and the outbreak of WW II testified
to a fruitfulness of different styles and artistic movements in
Western Europe. These various tendencies, often consciously
at odds with one another, are traditionally grouped under a
common label, modernism.
Post-Impressionism is a French art movement in early
Modernism, also known as Synthetism. It is almost absurd to call it Post-Impressionism for two
reasons: because it diverged so strongly away from its predecessors – Impressionists, with all
the admiration and due respect paid, and because "Post-Impressionism" started in early '80s
while impressionism was still gaining speed. One could argue it hardly is a movement, keeping
in one's mind all the diversity and brightness of artistic individuality it embraced. Struggle to
regain solidity of color and form unites it more than anything, that's where the Synthetism as a
name comes in. These artists showed a greater concern for expression, structure and form than
did the Impressionist artists.
Timeline is roughly end of 19th century. It introduced components that would have significant
and lasting impact on modern art overall - primitivism and folklore notes with elements of
mysticism. Light is as strong and as present as impressionist, but focused, not dispersed or
broken into base colors. Palette of colors is purified and intensified.
Reviews and adjustments
Rewald wrote that "the term 'Post-Impressionism' is not a very precise one, though a very
convenient one." Convenient, when the term is by definition limited to French visual arts
derived from Impressionism since 1886. Rewald's approach to historical data was narrative
rather than analytic, and beyond this point he believed it would be sufficient to "let the sources
speak for themselves."
Rival terms like Modernism or Symbolism were never as easy to handle, for they covered
literature, architecture and other arts as well, and they expanded to other countries.
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
Modernism, thus, is now considered to be the central movement within international
western civilization with its original roots in France, going back beyond the French
Revolution to the Age of Enlightenment.

Symbolism, however, is considered to be a concept which emerged a century later in
France, and implied an individual approach. Local national traditions as well as
individual settings therefore could stand side by side, and from the very beginning a
broad variety of artists practicing some kind of symbolic imagery, ranged between
extreme positions: The Nabis for example united to find synthesis of tradition and
brand new form, while others kept to traditional, more or less academic forms, when
they were looking for fresh contents: Symbolism is therefore often linked to fanatastic,
esoteric, erotic and other non-realist subject matter.

To meet the recent discussion, the connotations of the term 'Post-Impressionism' were
challenged again: Alan Bowness and his collaborators expanded the period covered to
1914, but limited their approach widely on the 1890s to France. Other European
countries are pushed back to standard connotations, and Eastern Europe is completely
excluded.
So, while a split may be seen between classical 'Impressionism' and 'Post-Impressionism' in
1886, the end and the extend of 'Post-Impressionism' remains under discussion. For Bowness
and his contributors as well as for Rewald, 'Cubism' was an absolutely fresh start, and so Cubism
has been seen in France since the beginning, and later in Anglosaxonia. Meanwhile Eastern
European artists, however, did not care so much for western traditions, and proceeded to
manners of painting called abstract and suprematic—terms expanding far into the 20th century.
Vincent van Gogh
Vincent Willem van Gogh (30 March 1853 – 29 July 1890) was a
Dutch post-Impressionist painter whose work, notable for its rough
beauty, emotional honesty, and bold color, had a far-reaching
influence on 20th-century art. After years of painful anxiety and
frequent bouts of mental illness, he died at the age of 37 from a
gunshot wound, generally accepted to be self-inflicted (although
no gun was ever found). His work was then known to only a
handful of people and appreciated by fewer still.
Van Gogh loved art from an early age. He began to draw as a child,
and he continued making drawings throughout the years leading to
his decision to become an artist. He did not begin painting until his
late twenties, completing many of his best-known works during his last two years. In just over a
decade, he produced more than 2,100 artworks, consisting of 860 oil paintings and more than
1,300 watercolors, drawings, sketches and prints. His work included self portraits, landscapes,
still lifes of flowers, portraits and paintings of cypresses, wheat fields and sunflowers.
Van Gogh spent his early adulthood working for a firm of art dealers, traveling between The
Hague, London and Paris, after which he taught for a time in England. One of his early
aspirations was to become a pastor and from 1879 he worked as a missionary in a mining region
in Belgium where he began to sketch people from the local community. In 1885, he painted his
first major work The Potato Eaters. His palette at the time consisted mainly of somber earth
tones and showed no sign of the vivid coloration that distinguished his later work. In March
1886, he moved to Paris and discovered the French Impressionists. Later he moved to the south
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of France and was taken by the strong sunlight he found there. His work grew brighter in color,
and he developed the unique and highly recognizable style that became fully realized during his
stay in Arles in 1888.
Paul Cézanne
Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) was a French artist and Post-Impressionist painter whose work laid
the foundations of the transition from the 19th century conception of
artistic endeavour to a new and radically different world of art in the
20th century. Cézanne can be said to form the bridge between late
19th century Impressionism and the early 20th century's new line of
artistic enquiry, Cubism. The line attributed to both Matisse and
Picasso that Cézanne "is the father of us all" cannot be easily
dismissed.
Cézanne's work demonstrates a mastery of design, colour, tone,
composition and draughtsmanship. His often repetitive, sensitive and
exploratory brushstrokes are highly characteristic and clearly
recognizable. He used planes of colour and small brushstrokes that
build up to form complex fields, at once both a direct expression of
the sensations of the observing eye and an abstraction from observed nature. The paintings
convey Cézanne's intense study of his subjects, a searching gaze and a dogged struggle to deal
with the complexity of human visual perception.
Notable Possessions
Impression, Sunrise (Painting)
Impression, Sunrise is a painting by Claude Monet. It
gave rise to the name of the Impressionist movement.
Although it seems that the sun is the brightest spot on
the canvas, it is in fact, when measured with a
photometer, the same brightness (or luminance) as
the sky.
Dr. Margaret Livingstone, a professor of neurobiology
at Harvard University, said "If you make a black and
white copy of Impression: Sunrise, the Sun disappears
[almost] entirely."
Livingstone said that this caused the painting to have a very realistic quality, as the older part—
shared with the majority of other mammals—of the visual cortex in the brain registers only
luminance and not colour, so that the sun in the painting would be invisible to it, while it is just
the newer part of the visual cortex—only found in humans and primates—which perceives
colour.
The Starry Night (Painting)
The Starry Night is a painting by Dutch post-impressionist
artist Vincent van Gogh. The painting depicts the view
outside his sanitorium room window at Saint-Rémy-de-
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Provence at night, although it was painted from memory during the day. It has been in the
permanent collection of the Museum of Modern Art in New York City, part of the Lillie P. Bliss
Bequest, since 1941. One of his best loved works, the painting has been much reproduced and
is widely hailed as his magnum opus.The center part shows the village of Saint-Rémy under a
swirling sky, in a view from the asylum towards north. The Alpilles far to the right fit to this
view, but there is little rapport of the actual scene with the intermediary hills which seem to be
derived from a different part of the surroundings, south of the asylum. The cypress tree to the
left was added into the composition. Of note is the fact van Gogh had already, during his time in
Arles, repositioned Ursa Major from the north to the south in his painting Starry Night Over the
Rhone.
Paris Street; Rainy Day
Paris Street; Rainy Day (also known as Paris: A
Rainy Day) is a large 1877 oil painting by the
French artist Gustave Caillebotte. The piece
depicts the Place de Dublin, an intersection near
the Gare Saint-Lazare, a railroad station in north
Paris. One of Caillebotte's best known works, it
debuted at the Third Impressionist Exhibition of
1877 and is currently owned by the Art Institute
of Chicago. Art Institute curator Gloria Groom
described the piece as "the great picture of urban life in the late 19th century."
Caillebotte's interest in photography is evident in the painting. The figures in the foreground
appear slightly "out of focus", those in the mid-distance (the carriage and the pedestrians in the
middle of the intersection) have sharp edges, and then the background becomes progressively
indistinct.
The Card Players
The Card Players is a series of oil paintings from the
French Post-Impressionist artist Paul Cézanne.
Painted during Cézanne's final period in the early
1890s, there are five paintings in the series. The
versions vary in size and in the number of players
depicted. Cézanne also completed numerous
drawings and studies in preparation for The Card
Players series.
The series is considered by critics to be a
cornerstone of Cézanne's work during the early -tomid 1890s period, as well as a "prelude" to his final
years, when he painted some of his most acclaimed work.
Each painting depicts Provençal peasants immersed in smoking their pipes and playing cards.
The subjects, all male, are displayed as studious within their card playing, eyes cast downward,
intent on the game at hand. Cézanne adapted a motif from 17th century Dutch and French
genre painting which often depicted card games with rowdy, drunken gamblers in taverns,
replacing them instead with stone-faced tradesmen in a more simplified setting. Whereas
previous paintings of the genre had illustrated heightened moments of drama, Cézanne's
portraits have been noted for their lack of drama, narrative, and conventional characterization.
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Week 13
Lecture 13
Twentieth Century Key Art Movements
Fauvism
Timeline:
1904—1908
The French term "fauves" means wild beasts, and was first used by the French art critic Louis
Vauxcelles in a review that appeared on 17 October 1905.
The Fauvists were a group of French painters, prominent from the Paris salon of 1905. Their
paintings were characterized by their use of simplified forms, bright or violent colors, and
complementary colors.
While Fauvism as a style began around 1900 and continued beyond 1910, the movement as
such lasted only a few years, 1904–1908, and had three exhibitions.
The leaders of the movement were Henri Matisse and André Derain. Other important Fauvist
artists include Maurice de Vlaminck, Raoul Dufy, Georges Rouault etc.
Fauvism can be classified as an extreme development of Van Gogh's Post-Impressionism fused
with the pointillism of Seurat and other Neo-Impressionist painters, in particular Paul Signac.
Other key influences were Paul Cézanne and Paul Gauguin, whose employment of areas of
saturated colour — notably in paintings from Tahiti — strongly influenced Derain's work at
Collioure in 1905.
The Joy of Life (Painting)
The joy of Life (Le bonheur de vivre) is a painting by Henri Matisse. In the central background of
the piece is a group of figures that is similar to the group depicted in his painting The Dance
(second version).
This painting was Matisse's own response to the hostility his work had met with in the Salon
d'Automne of 1905, a response that entrenched his art even more deeply in the aesthetic
principles that had governed his Fauvist paintings which had caused a furor and which did so on
a far grander scale, too.
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Cubism
Timeline:
1907—1920
Cubism was a French school of art most prominent between 1907 and 1914. Originated by
Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque, it abandoned single-point perspective and instead subjects
were presented from various viewpoints simultaneously. This broke the 'rules' of art that had
been followed since the Renaissance.
Although Cubism is sometimes regarded as being a move away from reality, it was in fact an
attempt to present more reality, showing different sides or facets, as if you were walking
around an object.
In Cubism the subject matter was less important that the way it was represented. Early Cubist
works represented objects, figures, and landscapes. It developed into more cryptic and
indecipherable works, in which overall pattern became most important. Early Cubist works
were mostly in drab colours; later Cubists such as Juan Gris and Fernand Léger, used more
brilliant colours.
The name Cubism was coined by the art critic Louis Vauxelles, from a remark made by Matisse
about Braque's painting of "little cubes." The late work of Paul Cézanne is credited as being a
catalyst for Cubism.
Characteristics of Cubism
The main characteristics of Cubism were the rejection of the single viewpoint in favour of
showing the fragmented subject from several different points of view, combined with the
simplification of forms. The Cubist artists went much further than Cezanne, representing
objects as if they were visible on all sides at the same time.
Conception and origins
Pablo Picasso, Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907, considered to be a major step towards the
founding of the Cubist movement.
Cubism began between 1907 and 1911. Pablo Picasso's 1907 painting Les Demoiselles
d'Avignon has often been considered a proto-Cubist work. Georges Braque's 1908 Houses at
L’Estaque (and related works) prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to bizarreries
cubiques (cubic oddities). Gertrude Stein referred to landscapes made by Picasso in 1909, such
as Reservoir at Horta de Ebroas, as the first Cubist paintings. The first organized group
exhibition by Cubists took place at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris during the spring of 1911
in a room called ‘Salle 41’; it included works by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger,
Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, yet no works by Picasso and Braque were exhibited.
By 1911 Picasso was recognized as the inventor of Cubism, while Braque’s importance and
precedence was argued later, with respect to his treatment of space, volume and mass in the
L’Estaque landscapes. But "this view of Cubism is associated with a distinctly restrictive
definition of which artists are properly to be called Cubists," wrote the art historian Christopher
Green: "Marginalizing the contribution of the artists who exhibited at the Salon des
Indépendants in 1911.
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Phases of Cubism
Two main phases of Cubism include :
(1) Analytical Cubism and
(2) Synthetic Cubism.
Analytical Cubism (1907–12)
Analytical Cubism was concerned with breaking down forms analytically into simplified
geometric forms across the picture. They were almost like drawings in the lack of colour and
monochromatic concentration on line and form.
Synthetic Cubism (1912–20)
Synthetic Cubism is a later development of the Cubist Movement, and the first painting
representative of this style is thought to be Pablo Picasso's 'Still Life with Chair Caning' of 1912.
The main characteristics of Synthetic Cubism were the use of mixed media and collage and the
creation of a flatter space than with analytical cubism. Other characteristics were a greater use
of colour and greater interest in decorative effects.
Cubism is the most radical, innovative, and influential movement of twentieth-century art. It is
complete denial of Classical conception of beauty.
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Week 14
Lecture 14
Arts and Crafts movement, Art Nouveau, Art Deco, Bauhaus
Arts and Crafts Movement
Started in England in the late nineteenth century, the Arts and Crafts movement affected
nearly every aspect of household design, from architecture to pottery, and continues to do so.
The movement was a response to the dehumanizing effects of the Industrial Revolution and the
excesses of the Victorian Age, during which the middle classes collected frilly, mass-produced
knickknacks. Arts and Crafts embraced simplicity of line, good, durable materials, and the
human touch. Proponents were divided over the use of machines for production.
The English poet and artist William Morris, widely considered the movement's founder,
articulated its philosophy, stressing the importance of the dignity and humanity of the work of
craftsmen: "every thing made by man's hands has a form, which must be either beautiful or
ugly; beautiful if it is in accord with Nature, and helps her; ugly if it is discordant with Nature,
and thwarts her." In America, the movement spawned a number of organizations and guilds
dedicated to its ideals. In 1895, a group of artisans established "Roy croft" ("King's Craft"), in
East Aurora, N.Y., a community (which is again functioning) whose mission was to evoke images
of medieval craftsmanship. Other guilds included the Society of Arts and Crafts of Boston and
the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society, both founded in 1897. Guild members represented almost
all aspects of design, including architecture, furniture, gardens, textiles, stained glass, pottery
and cast iron.
In architecture, the first major innovations appeared in Chicago and the Midwest, where Frank
Lloyd Wright designed Prairie Style homes, which used horizontal lines to follow the landscape.
The bungalow, a later architectural development, began in southern California; and it brought
the concepts of the Prairie Style to small, middle-class homes. Built largely in the early
twentieth century, bungalow houses incorporated Prairie Style features such as exposed joinery
and low-hanging eaves.
Gustav Stickley led the way in furniture design. To this day, the factory he founded in upstate
New York turns out Mission Style furniture, which uses strong, simple woods such as oak and
clean, geometric lines with exposed joinery.
The leaders in Arts and Crafts pottery included Henry Chapman Mercer, whose Moravian
Pottery and Tile Works, founded in the 1890s, used local clay and hand craftsmanship to make
mosaic and story tiles. Artus van Briggle invented a matte glaze that resembled ancient Chinese
pottery. His designs are still reproduced at his factory in Colorado.
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Art Nouveau
Timeline:
1880—1914
Art Nouveau has made itself know and present from 1880s to 1910s. This movement walked
under the flag of an art that would break all connections to classical times, and bring down the
barriers between the fine arts and applied arts. Art Nouveau was more than a mere style. It was
a way of thinking about modern society and new production methods. It was an attempt to
redefine the meaning and nature of the work of art. From that time on, it was the duty of art
not to overlook any everyday object, no matter how utilitarian it might be. This approach was
considered completely new and revolutionary, thus the New Art - Art Nouveau name.
An artist should work on everything from architecture to furniture design so that art would
become a part of everyday life. By making beauty and harmony a part of everyday life, artists
make people's lives better. This approach has been represented in painting, architecture,
furniture, glassware, graphic design, jewelry, pottery, metalwork, and textiles and sculpture.
Advertising posters were welcomed into art, and fence has been proclaimed a suitable
exhibition place for this new art. This was a sharp contrast to the traditional separation of art
into the distinct categories of fine art (painting and sculpture) and applied arts (ceramics,
furniture, and other practical objects).
Because of typical flat, decorative patterns used in all art forms, Art Nouveau obtained a
nickname 'the noodle style' in French, 'Le style nouilles'. Visual standards of the Art Nouveau
style are flat, decorative patterns, intertwined organic forms of stems or flowers. Art Nouveau
emphasized handcrafting as opposed to machine manufacturing, the use of new materials.
Although curving lines characterize Art Nouveau, right-angled forms are also typical, especially
as the style was practiced in Scotland and in Austria. Typical for this style was artistic application
of modern industrial techniques and modern materials (unmasked iron in architecture for
example). Principal subjects are lavish birds and flowers, insects and polyformic femme fatale.
Abstract lines and shapes are used widely as a filling for recognizable subject matter. Purposeful
elimination of three-dimensions is often applied through reduced shading. Art Nouveau
artifacts are beautiful objects of art, but not necessarily very functional.
Art Nouveau flourished in a number of European countries, many of which developed their own
names for the style. Art Nouveau was known in France as style Guimard, after French designer
Hector Guimard; in Italy as the stile Floreale (floral style); stile Liberty, after British Art Nouveau
designer Arthur Lasenby Liberty; in Spain as Modernisme; in Austria as Sezessionstil (Vienna
Secession); and in Germany as Jugendstil.
Art Nouveau had its deepest influence on a variety of art and design movements that continued
to explore integrated design, including De Stijl, a Dutch design movement in the 1920s, and the
German Bauhaus school in the 1920s and 1930s.
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Art Deco
Timeline:
1910—1939
Art Deco represented the rapid modernization of the world. While the style was
alreadywidespread and was in fashion in the United States and in Europe, the term Art Deco
was not known. Modernistic or the "1925 Style" was used. The name Art Deco was derived from
the 1925 "Exposition Internationale des Arts Decoratifs Industriels et Modernes", held in Paris.
Art Deco was primarily an elegant design style dominant in decorative art, fashion, jewelry,
textiles, furniture design, interior decoration, and architecture. It began as the Modernist
follow-up style on Art Nouveau but more simplified and closer to mass production.
Different types of wood and precious metals, tortoise shell, lacquer, egg shell, shagreen,
leather, a cross-fertilization of styles either imported from colonial empires and the Orient or
borrowed from art history, all were the characteristic signs of this exceptional craftsmanship
aimed primarily at a rich international clientele. It was an updated look based on very classical
forms. It was a style "at once traditional and innovative". (Bayer) The main elements of Art Deco
architecture were its nonstructural decorative elements and its focus on modernity. It is
characterized by the use of crisp, symmetrical geometric forms. The style is reminiscent of the
Precisionist art movement, which developed at about the same time.
Well-established artists at the time were painter Tamara de Lempicka, a jeweler and
glassmaker, Rene Lalique, fashion illustrator Erte and graphic designer Adolphe
Mouron(Cassandre). New York skyscrapers The Chrysler building and Empire State Building
were examples of 1930s-era of Art Deco style in architecture. The latter, designed by architect
William Van Alen, is considered to be one of the world's great Art Deco buildings.
Art Deco was the showcase of a modern society in which tastes and styles were becoming
international, shared as much by the key players of the Roaring Twenties in the United States as
by Indian maharajahs and the gentry of Old Europe. With its sense of modernity and its simple,
elegant style, it has proven itself through its longevity.
Bauhaus
Timeline:
1919—1933
The Bauhaus is one of the first colleges of design. It came into being from the merger of the
Weimar Academy of Arts and the Weimar School of Arts and Crafts. It was founded by Walter
Gropius in 1919 and was closed in 1933 by the Nazis.
The Bauhaus holds a place of its own in the culture and visual art history of 20th century. This
outstanding school affirmed innovative training methods and also created a place of production
and a focus of international debate. It brought together a number of the most outstanding
contemporary architects and artists. The Bauhaus stood almost alone in attempt to achieve
reconciliation between the aesthetics of design and the more commercial demands of industrial
mass production.
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The teaching program was organized in the form of workshops to produce works that were
both aesthetically pleasing and useful. The creed of this program asserted that the
modernization process could be mastered by means of design. As a result, in 1923 the Bauhaus
turned it attention to industry. The first major Bauhaus exhibition which was opened in 1923
reflected the revised principle of art and technology a new unity spanned the full spectrum of
Bauhaus work. It was Art and Technology, a New Unity, which was also the name of the
workshop in which the art was created.
The Nazi Party and other fascist political groups had opposed the Bauhaus throughout the
1920s. They considered it a front for communists, especially because many Russian artists were
involved with it. Gropius was succeeded in turn by Hannes Meyer and then Ludwig Mies van der
Rohe. School was moved first from Weimar to Dessau, from Dessau again to Berlin, and was
closed on the orders of the Nazi regime in 1933.
The Bauhaus had a major impact on art and architecture trends in western Europe and the
United States in the decades following its demise, as many of the artists involved fled or were
exiled by the Nazi regime.
Week 15
Lecture 15
Art and Design of Bangladesh
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Bangladeshi art
Bangladeshi art is a form of visual arts which is discovered or has been practiced throughout the
history in the land what is now known as Bangladesh. Bangladeshi art has a perennial history
which originated more than two thousand years ago and is practiced even in this date.
History
The recent excavations of the artifacts in the archaeological site of Wari-Bateshwar indicates
that the history of Bangladeshi art dates back to 450 BC.[1] However, more research is being
carried out in this regard as these excavations conflict with the earlier notions about the
existence of early urban civilization in Bangladesh. Proper evidence about the earliest
development of Bangladeshi art refers to the Mauryan age. A number of sculptures have been
discovered in Bangladesh which reflect the rich heritage of Mauryan art.
The most significant development of Bangladeshi art took place during the Pala rule which
existed from 750–1174 CE. The Palas created a distinctive form of Buddhist art in Bangladesh
which even influenced the Chinese, Japanese, eastern Asian and Tibetan art.[2] This progress of
Bangladeshi art was continued to some extent during the Sena rule through the 11th and 12th
centuries.
Bangladeshi art witnessed the influence of Islamic art though the arrival of Muslims in Bengal
beginning from the 11th century. This influence started through the establishment of Sultanate
of Bengal which covered most of the area of present day Bangladesh. However, Islamic art in
Bangladesh mostly flourished during the Mughal rule. The Muslim dynasties mainly contributed
in the architectural field. A huge influence of Islamic architecture can be seen in numerous
mosques, shrines and mazars located throughout Bangladesh.
A new wave of evolution was introduced in Bangladeshi art through the pervading of British
rule. The British left their impact in almost every field of visual arts in Bangladesh. Bangladeshi
art was bolstered through the introduction of Modern art. This period also gave birth to many
famous artists in Bangladesh including the great Zainul Abedin.
Architecture
The remains of the ancient archaeological sites bear ample testimony to the fact that the art of
architecture was practiced in Bangladesh from very early period of her history. The Somapura
Mahavihara, a creation of the Pala ruler Dharmapala, at Paharpur, Bangladesh, is the largest
Buddhist Vihara in the Indian subcontinent, and has been described as a "pleasure to the eyes
of the world."
The Kantajew Temple in Dinajpur, built in navaratna style contains one of the finest examples of
terracotta ornamentation of the late period of the art.
The Sixty Dome Mosque in Bagerhat has been described as "the most impressive Muslim
monument in the whole of the Indian subcontinent." The Lalbagh Fort is considered as one of
the greatest examples of Mughal architecture.
The influence of European architecture is also noticeable which is visible in several colonial
monuments and churches in the country. The most significant one is Ahsan Manzil, the former
residence of the Nawabs of Dhaka, later turned into a museum.In modern context, Bangladeshi
architecture has become more diversified comprising reflections of contemporary architectural
attributes, aesthetic artistic and technologically advanced forms. Since the inception of
Bangladesh, economical advancement has boosted the architecture from its traditional forms to
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contemporary context. With the growing urbanization and modernization, the architectural
form is turning into modernity covering a wide range of its heritage and tradition.
Sculpture
Unlike other parts of the Indian Subcontinent, the art of sculpture in Bangladesh started
through the moulding of terracotta because of the dearth of stone relief and abundance of the
soft alluvial clay. This dates back to the 3rd/2nd century BC.
In course of time, the influence of north and central India began to grow in the sculptural art of
Bangladesh and the introduction of using stones started. From the early three centuries of the
common era, the local sculptors started to make black stone sculptures in the Kusana style,
native to northern India. These sculptures were the images of the deities worshiped by the
followers of the three major religions of the time, namely, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Jainism.
Bronze sculptures began to be assimilated in the 7th century AD primarily from the Chittagong
region. The earliest sculptures of this kind were depictions of Buddhist believes but the art was
later integrated into the Hindu art as well.
In modern times, the theme of sculptural art has been dominated by some historical events,
mainly the Bangladesh liberation war. Aparajeyo Bangla, Shabash Bangladesh are some of the
noteworthy examples of this trend.
Folk art
As in other countries of the world, the people of rustic, and primitive ideas developed folk art in
Bangladesh. Because of this the structure and growth of the folk-art of Bangladesh are filled
with pure and simple vigor and the symbolic representations of hope, aspiration and sense of
beauty of the rural Bangladeshi folk. The environment and the agricultural activities greatly
helped to enrich the traditional folk-art of Bangladesh. It uses traditional motifs reflecting the
land and its people. Different forms of folk art tend to repeat these common motifs.
For instance, the lotus, the sun, the tree-of-life, flowery creepers etc. are seen in paintings,
embroidery, weaving, carving and engraving. Other common motifs are fish, elephant, horse,
peacock, swastika, circle, waves, temple, mosque etc. Many of these motifs have symbolical
meanings. For example, the fish represents fertility, the sheaf of paddy prosperity, the lotus
purity and the Swastika good fortune. Another factor, most important perhaps, that has
influenced the art and culture of this land is the six seasons.
The folk art of Bangladesh has been largely contributed by the rural women because of the
aesthetic value as well as the quality of their work. A key reason behind it was that in most
cases their art has been non-commercial, whereas the folk art produced by men has a
commercial value attached to it. Thus, artists like blacksmiths, potters, cobblers, painters,
goldsmiths, brass-smiths, weavers earn their livelihood from what they produce while
traditionally, from the past, Alpana artists or Nakshi kantha needlewomen were working within
the home and received no monetary recompense for their labor. Both Alpana and Nakshi
kantha are some of the most attractive forms of Bangladeshi folk art. Pottery and Ivory are also
some popular forms of the art.
Modern Painting
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The movement of modern art in Bangladesh has its roots in the early 20th century. Back then
there was no training or educational institutions for arts in Bangladesh. In the late 19th century,
the British started to establish some art schools in Calcutta the then provincial capital of Bengal
which inspired the local art admirers to pursue a particular form of art. The art lovers of
Bangladesh or erstwhile East Bengal were also induced by this. This phenomenon gave birth to
many preeminent figures of arts in Bangladesh whose fame spread all the way through not only
in Bangladesh but in the whole world. Zainul Abedin was from this generation of artists. He is
considered as the pioneer of art movement in Bangladesh.
After the partition of India, Calcutta became a part of West Bengal in India while the current
geographical area of Bangladesh formed the East Pakistan province of Pakistan. Hence, the local
artists felt a dire need of an art institution in Bangladesh. In 1948, Zainul Abedin, along with
other leading local artists like Quamrul Hassan, Safiuddin Ahmed, Anwarul Huq, Khawaja
Shafique established the Dhaka Art Institute to evolve the art tradition in Bangladesh.
Since the establishment of the art institute, the artists in Bangladesh started to gain the much
required professionalism and also started to attach commercial value to it. This prompted them
to organize art exhibitions to showcase their work to the audiences. By the 1960s the artists
started to link with the art traditions of other parts of the world which gained them a pretty
clear understanding of contemporary art in those countries. Many artists went to Europe and
Japan for training and came back with new ideas and latest techniques, but they were also
steeped in the traditions of indigenous art forms.
After the independence of Bangladesh, Bangladesh Shilpakala Academy was set up in 1974
which later started to organize regular art exhibitions and festivals involving both national and
international artists. By this time, Bangladeshi art also began to get international recognitions
and appreciations.
Zainul Abedin
Zainul Abedin (1914-1976) an artist of exceptional talent and international repute. He played a
pioneering role in the modern art movement in Bangladesh that began, by all accounts, with
the setting up of the Government Institute of Arts and Crafts (now Faculty of Fine Arts) in 1948
in Dhaka of which he was the founding principal.
He was well known for his leadership qualities in organising artists and art activities in a place
that had practically no recent history of institutional or professional art. It was through the
efforts of Zainul Abedin and a few of his colleagues that a tradition of MODERN ART took shape
in Bangladesh just within a decade. For his artistic and visionary qualities the title of
Shilpacharya has been bestowed on him.
Born in Mymensingh in 1914, Zainul grew up amidst a placid surrounding dominated by the
river Brahmaputra. The river and the open nature inspired him from his early life. He got
himself admitted in Calcutta Government Art School in 1933 and learnt for five years the
British/European academic style that the school diligently followed. In 1938, he joined the
faculty of the Art School, and continued to paint in his laid-back, romantic style. A series of
watercolours that Zainul did as his tribute to the river Brahmaputra earned him the Governor's
Gold Medal in an all-India exhibition in 1938. It was a recognition that brought him into the
limelight, and gave him the confidence to forge a style of his own.
Zainul's dissatisfaction with the Orientalist style that seemed to him heavily mannered and
static, and the limitations of European academic style led him towards realism. His fascination
with line remained however, and he made versatile use of it in his interpretation of the
everyday life of the people.
In 1943, he drew a series of sketches on the man-made famine that had spread throughout
Bengal, killing hundreds of thousands of people. Done in Chinese ink and brush on cheap
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packing paper, the series, known as Famine Sketches were haunting images of cruelty and
depravity of the merchants of death, and the utter helplessness of the victims.
The sketches brought Zainul all-India fame, but more than that they helped him find his rhythm
in a realistic mode that foregrounded human suffering, struggle and protest. The Rebel Crow
(watercolour, 1951) marks a high point of that style. This particular brand of realism that
combined social inquiry and protest with higher aesthetics was to prove useful to him in
different moments of history such as 1969 and 1971 when Zainul executed a few of his
masterpieces.
In 1947, after the partition of the subcontinent, Zainul came to settle in Dhaka, the capital of
the eastern province of Pakistan. Dhaka had no art institute or any artistic activity worth
mentioning. Zainul Abedin, with the help of his colleagues, many of whom had also migrated to
Dhaka from Calcutta, founded the art Institute. In 1951, he went to Slade School of Art in
London for a two-year training. Zainul's works after his return from London showed the
beginning of a new style a 'Bengali' style, so to say where folk forms with their geometric,
sometimes semi-abstract representations, the use of primary colours and a lack of perspective
were prominent features. Two Women (gouache 1953), Painna's Mother (gouache 1953) and
Woman (watercolour 1953) are some of the notable works of this period.
Zainul Abedin's works throughout the fifties and sixties reflected his preference for realism, his
aesthetic discipline, his predilection for folk forms and primary colours. Increasingly, however,
he came to realise the limitations of folk art its lack of dimensionality, its flat surface, an
absence of the intricate relationship between light and shade, and their lack of dynamism. As a
way of transcending these limitations, Zainul went back to nature, to rural life, and the daily
struggles of man, and to a combination of styles that would be realistic in essence, but
modernist in appearance. Zainul's idea of modernism was not confined to merely abstracted,
non-representational styles, but to a deeper understanding of the term 'modernity' itself in
which social progress and individual dynamism are two leading components.
Thus the powerful figure of men and women struggling against man-made and natural
calamities are a reminder of that essential idea of modernism: realising the limits of the
individual. Zainul's works centralise men and women who labour and struggle against odds, and
realise their potentials.
The 65 feet scroll painting (in Chinese ink, watercolour and wax) Nabanna that he drew in
celebration of the 1969 mass movement or the 30 feet scroll painting Manpura done to
commemorate the hundreds of thousands who died in the devastating cyclone of 1970 show
his dynamic style at work. Zainul, of course, painted nature and the human scene (including the
private moments of village women), but his predilections for speed, movement and an
interactive space are evident in the paintings of late sixties and seventies.
In 1975, Zainul Abedin set up a folk museum at SONARGAON, and a gallery in Mymensingh
(Shilpacharya Zainul Abedin Museum) to house some of his works. He became actively involved
in a movement to preserve the heritage of Bengal, and reorient Bengal art to the roots of
Bengali culture, as he felt the futility of unimaginative copying of western techniques and styles
that modern art somehow inspired in a section of the local artists. His health began to
deteriorate however, as he developed lung cancer. He died on 28 May 1976 in Dhaka.
Fashion & Clothing
Bangladeshi people have unique dress preferences. Bangladeshi men sometimes wear kurta or
fatua on religious and cultural occasions. Bangladeshi men wear lungi as casual wear (in rural
areas) and shirt-pant or suits on formal occasions. The lungi is not considered proper to be worn
outside the house except by the farmers and the low-income families. Shalwar Kameez and
Sharee are the main dresses of Bangladeshi women. The women also have a different
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preference to which types of Shalwar Kameez and Sharee they would like to wear. Whether it
may be silk sharees, georgette sharees, or designer sharees, each particular fabric contributes
to representing the culture overall. Weaving the fabric for these dresses is a traditional art in
Bangladesh.
Graphic Design
Graphic design is largely related to publicity and publication. It can be either the publicity of a
product or an organization, of a professional body or a commercial enterprise, social welfare
organization etc. Graphic design of Bangladesh can be divided into a number of different
branches. For example,
1. Newspaper, magazine and advertisement
2. Poster
3. Book cover design and illustration
4. Typography
5. Logo/monogram
6. Packaging
7. Painted banner, hoarding, neon sign etc.
8. Booklet, leaflet
9. Different types of calendar
10. Cartoon, caricature, comic strip etc.
11. Stamp
12. Currency
...
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