Business Research Methods
CHAPTER 9
Data, Evidence and Sampling
Lecturer’s Guide
This chapter seeks to help students to think sensibly about data, and what makes it
more or less adequate in the context of a specific research question. A key part of this,
for much research, is an understanding of the process of drawing conclusions about a
wider group from a sample, and the caution necessary in this. It also stresses the
importance of a clear argument from data to conclusions. If short of time, you may
wish to give argument mapping practice in conjunction with Chapter 11 rather than
here, but the importance of argument is such that introduction here and development
later warrants consideration.
CHAPTER LEARNING OUTCOMES
The chapter should enable students to:.
 distinguish between data in general and evidence in relation to a particular
investigation
 consider the data and information which are potentially relevant to their business
research project
 distinguish primary data from secondary, qualitative from quantitative, and
measures from indicators, and understand the significance of these distinctions
 understand the basic influences on the significance of data, and start thinking about
how to collect data that is relevant, valid, reliable and representative
 appreciate the different ways in which a sample can be selected, and the advantages
and disadvantages of each

start to consider what evidence might be relevant to their own investigation.
OVERALL LECTURE AIMS
To give students a feel for the different sorts of data (etc) which practical business
researchers typically use, and their different characteristics. To heighten awareness of
data purpose, costs and imperfections. To give practice in argument mapping.
POSSIBLE LEARNING OUTCOMES
A lecture based on this chapter could usefully enable students to:




distinguish primary data from secondary, qualitative from quantitative, and
measures from indicators
make choices about data for their own investigation in the light of an understanding
of the significance of these distinctions
choose a suitable sampling method (if this is appropriate) for their own
investigation
develop confidence in mapping arguments.
Student activity 1
Working in small groups:
1
Discuss why you cannot prove anything about a population from a sample.
2
Consider what might make you more or less sure about any conclusions you
drew from your sample.
Then:
3
Report back key points and discuss in plenary.
Comments
Aim in plenary to establish both the principle of any sample being different in ways
you might not know about from the parent population, and issues to do with the
measures you might be using on your sample. If you feel students might find this
activity difficult in the abstract, suggest a research question from a past student which
involved sampling by way of providing an understandable context.
Student activity 2
Jack is in charge of a team (22 members) which carries out a range of marketingrelated projects for a large number of very different internal and external
customers. There have recently been an increasing number of complaints about
the quality of service his team delivers, from both internal and external
customers. Jack has decided that for his dissertation project he would like to do
something about this.
In a small group, and including in your discussion ideas about types of data and
sampling,
1
Discuss the sorts of data/information that Jack might consider collecting and
analysing at different stages in his project, and how each type might help
him achieve his overall purpose of improving the service provided by his
team.
2
Discuss how Jack might go about deciding which data might be of most use
to him.
Then:
3
Share your ideas in plenary.
Comments
In debriefing this activity, seek to highlight potential uses for both primary (eg
interviews and/or focus groups with potentially both types of customer, and with team
members) and secondary data (eg complaints, costs and benefits of projects against
targets, adherence to time-scales) and the potential differences between data needed for
diagnosis and data needed to make a case for, plan and/or evaluate improvements. In
discussing secondary data, ask what factors might make the data other than what it
seems (eg people covering their own inadequacies, financial motivation for complaints,
team solidarity seeking external scapegoats) and how one might make allowances for
this. Use the opportunity to distinguish between measures and indicators, and to
reinforce the need for triangulation.
Student activity 3
Working in a small group:
1
Map an argument based on the course thus far to support the claim that
‘In practical business research you are likely to need to use many different
forms of data, and from a range of sources’
2
Compare your own map with other people’s, and either alter or justify your
logic if it differs from theirs.
Comments
The maps will depend upon what you have chosen to cover in lectures thus far, but subclaims might include some or all of the following:
a) Practical business problems are usually ‘messes’, dynamic systems of problems.
b) Different questions may be important at different stages in the research.
c) Different stakeholders will have different perspectives, each of which is important.
In supporting each of these there are many further sub-claims, some theoretical
statements and some data that might be used.
It might help to issue two colours of Post-Its – one for claims, one for data (or even a
third for theory) – to focus discussion on what each is. If you have a weak group, you
might provide them with a selection of relevant sub-claims and evidence as ‘starters’,
focusing on the nature of links.
ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Chapter 9 PowerPoint slides
Chapter 9 Student Handout - Activity Sheet
For Activity 3 it might be useful to have a supply of Post-Its in different colours