Therapeutic Adventure Annotated Bibliography
Michael C. Young
Therapeutic Adventure Annotated Bibliography
Michael Young
Spring 2007
Introduction
This bibliography lists empirical studies focused on experiential programs that
generally can be categorized as either Adventure Therapy or Therapeutic Adventure
(AT/TA) Programs.1 Studies were not included here if they already appeared in Moore &
Russell’s lengthy 2002 annotated bibliography: “Studies of the use of wilderness for
personal growth, therapy, education, and leadership development: An annotation and
evaluation,” which is available at: www.its.uidaho.edu/wrc/publications.
Although literature from the juvenile justice field was included, “Boot Camp”
related studies were not. Furthermore, although some studies about camps as interventions
are included here, the camping literature was not specifically queried. Also, even if a study
explored therapeutic constructs, unless it was conducted with an at risk, special needs, or
clinical population, it was not included (a couple exceptions were made due to a study’s
overt attempt to making conclusions relevant to therapeutic programming, see for example:
Kemp (1998) and Neill & Heubeck (1998).
Finally, here are two additional sources that contain AT/TA empirical studies not found
either here or in Moore & Russell (2002):
Shore, A. (1977). Outward bound: A reference volume. Greenwich, CT: Outward Bound.
Richards, K., & Smith, B. (2003). Therapy within adventure: Proceedings of the
international adventure therapy conference (2nd, augsburg, germany, march 20-24,
2000).
1
See: Itin, C. (2000). Adventure therapy vs. Therapeutic adventure. In K. Ricahrds & B. Smith (Eds.),
Therapy within adventure: Proceedings of the international adventure therapy conference (2nd, augsburg,
germany, march 20-24, 2000) (pp. 175-184).
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Michael C. Young
Empirical Studies
1. Citation
Adams, A., Sveen, R. L., & Denholm, C. J. (1998). The aftermath of the port arthur
incident: The response by project hahn to adolescent needs, Exploring the
Boundaries of Adventure Therapy: International Perspectives. Proceedings of the
International Adventure Therapy Conference (1st, Perth, Australia, July 1997).
Abstract
This paper provides background information about the Project Hahn adventure-based
program and its ongoing involvement with the Port Arthur Recovery Group to assist 42
adolescents directly affected by the murders of 36 people by a lone gunman in Tasmania in
1996. Case studies relate personal, social, and community issues faced by these
adolescents, as well as post-course challenges as they attempted to implement personal
changes within their community. The philosophy and practices of the Project Hahn therapy
program are given: work with at-risk and socioeconomically disadvantaged youth, precourse agreement among all participants, promotion of positive peer dynamics,
instructional use of risk-recreation activities, freedom of task choice, peer and leader
support, follow up with participants, and cultivation of moral growth through small-group
peer interaction. One case study documents how participation by a 15-year-old student in
adventure activities helped her to reevaluate her experiences with the Port Arthur shooting
and redefine personal issues of trust, vulnerability, and protective and defensive behaviors.
Project Hahn will use planned intervention throughout each wilderness challenge course to
experiment with a range of new ideas and behaviors; confront salient and pressing issues;
and provide time and opportunity within a supportive and safe environment for adolescents
identified by the Port Arthur Recovery Group to express fears, pain, and the traumatic
impact of the shooting tragedy. (SAS)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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Michael C. Young
2. Citation
Allen, J. S. (1991). The effects of wilderness therapy program on changes in self-esteem
and teacher-rated behavior of youth at risk., California School of Professional
Psychology - Fresno, US.
Abstract
This study examined the effects of a wilderness therapy program--Camp Esteem--on
changes in self-esteem and teacher-rated behavior of youth at risk for emotional and
behavioral difficulties. A quasi-experimental method with treatment and comparison
groups was utilized. Results indicated positive pretest to posttest changes in self-esteem
and teacher-rated behavior. The experimental group demonstrated elevations on two selfesteem scales in contrast to the comparison group.
This investigation also describes initial findings that highlight certain conditions that may
impede the personal change process during a wilderness therapy program. Consideration of
participants' degree of conflict with authority, athletic competency, and camping
experience is suggested. The students' evaluation of the wilderness program revealed an
overall positive response with particular focus on the value of communication, cooperation
and problem-solving groups, relationships with counselors, and physical challenge
activities.
This study provides empirical confirmation of the limited research that reports positive
effects of wilderness therapy on changes in self and behavior of youth at risk. The use of
community-based wilderness programs represents an alternative approach for dealing with
a treatment-resistant population--youth at risk. Suggestions for future research are
discussed.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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3. Citation
Asher, S. J. H., Gayle Quick McNally, Marte. (1994). Therapeutic considerations of
wilderness experiences for incest and rape survivors. Women & Therapy, 15(3-4),
161-174.
Abstract
Examines the relevancy of traditional wilderness programs, such as Outward Bound, to
women who have been violated by experiences of childhood incest and/or adult sexual
assault. Applications to African-American women, women with physical challenges, and
women who are economically disenfranchised are emphasized. A 3-day Colorado Outward
Bound Program was incorporated into a rape assistance and awareness program in Denver.
Although viewed positively, the applicability of the program to women with physical
disabilities and others was questioned. The article contends that wilderness experiences in
their traditional application do not support a feminist, woman-centered approach to life.
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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4. Citation
Autry, C. E. (2001). Adventure therapy with girls at-risk: Responses to outdoor experiential
activities. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 35(4), 289-306.
Abstract
This interpretive study explored the feelings, attitudes, and perceptions of 9 at-risk girls
(aged 13-18 yrs) following their participation in outdoor experiential activities in the
context of adventure therapy. The experiential activities included 4-day backpacking trips
and high and low ropes course initiatives. The girls resided in a same-gender outdoor-based
psychiatric rehabilitation facility. In-depth interviews were conducted and the qualitative
data were analyzed through constant comparison. Four major themes encompassing
perceptions of trust, empowerment, teamwork, and the recognition of personal value were
constructed from the data. Practical and theoretical implications for therapeutic recreation
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Michael C. Young
include concepts surrounding issues of empowerment and constructivism. (PsycINFO
Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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5. Citation
Bandoroff, S., & Scherer, D. G. (1994). Wilderness family therapy: An innovative
treatment approach for problem youth. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 3(2),
175-191.
Abstract
Presents a treatment program (The Family Wheel) designed to integrate wilderness therapy
interventions with family therapy for the treatment of troubled adolescents. Participation in
this 4-day program required parents and their adolescent children (aged 13-18 yrs) to
engage in an intensive experiential family therapy while camping and trekking in the
wilderness. The family intervention group consisted of 27 families. Information on family
functioning, adolescent behavior, and adolescent self-esteem was also gathered from 39
families who decided not to participate in the family program. Ss who completed the
program were administered the Family Wheel Evaluation. An evaluation of the program
revealed positive outcomes for participants. Parent ratings of problem behavior also
improved for both groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
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6. Citation
Behar, L., & Stephens, D. (1978). Wilderness camping: An evaluation of a residential
treatment program for emotionally disturbed children. American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, 48(4), 644.
Abstract
The article reports on an evaluation study of a wilderness camping residential treatment
program for emotionally disturbed boys, involving a follow-up study of 46 camp
"graduates." It utilizes background information and interviews of “significant others” (not
intimate partners but rather parents, social workers, teachers etc.) in clients’ life. Clients
finished program from between 1972 and 1975 but analysis did not indicate which clients’
results coordinated with which time-span post-discharge. Clients improved in all measured
categories except delinquency.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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7. Citation
Barker, A. S. (1995). Success of emotionally disturbed adolescents in a therapeutic
wilderness program. (A report retrieved from ERIC)
Abstract
A study was conducted to determine whether long-term residential therapeutic wilderness
programming best serves males or females. The Hope Center Wilderness Programs in east
Texas use a reality therapy-based peer group culture. Forty emotionally disturbed and
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Michael C. Young
juvenile delinquent youths were surveyed, 20 of each gender. On an 11-item questionnaire,
students indicated that the areas the wilderness program helped them with most were, in
rank order, communicating with family, controlling temper, staying out of legal trouble,
school, and remaining drug free. No significant gender difference was found in participants'
success in the program. Boys had a higher rate of serious incidents and were more likely to
be on probation or parole. Adolescents in placement as well as their families believed that
they benefitted from treatment through the wilderness programs. Appendices include a
brochure describing the Hope Center's Wilderness Programs and the study questionnaire.
(Contains 18 references.) (SW)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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8. Citation
Bickman, L., De Andrade, A. R. V., Lambert, E. W., Doucette, A., Sapyta, J., Boyd, A. S.,
et al. (2004). Youth therapeutic alliance in intensive treatment settings. Journal of
Behavioral Health Services & Research, 31(2), 134.
Abstract
Therapeutic alliance (TA), the helping relationship that develops between a client and
clinician, has received little attention in child treatment studies until recently, though it is
the factor found to be most predictive of clinical outcomes. Furthermore, TA is cited as one
of the most important components to effective therapy according to practicing clinicians.
This study examines the TA that develops between teacher/counselors and children in 2
settings, a partial hospital/day school and a wilderness camp. An important finding in this
study is the lack of relationship between the teacher/counselor's view of TA and the youth's
view. Moreover, this correlation does not improve according to how long the counselors
have known or have treated the youth. The implications of this and other findings are
discussed. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Behavioral Health
Services & Research is the property of Springer Science & Business Media B.V. and its
content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or
email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about
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Michael C. Young
the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the
material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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9. Citation
Boudette, R. D. (1989). The therapeutic effects of outward bound with juvenile offenders.
California School of Professional Psychology, Berkeley, CA.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of an Outward Bound course as a
supplemental component of a traditional probation program. Further, an attempt was made
to examine two premises put forth in a theory explaining the Outward Bound process: (a)
participants must be motivationally ready in order to experience the therapeutic benefits of
an Outward Bound course; and (b) participation in Outward Bound leads to increased selfesteem, self-awareness, and sense of belonging.
The subjects of this study were 69 juvenile offenders who were referred to the Project Way
Outward Bound program by their court counselors or probation officers. Subjects were
randomly assigned to experimental and control groups. All subjects participated in a 1-day
ropes course. Following the ropes course, the subjects assigned to the experimental group
attended a 24-day Outward Bound program and subjects assigned to the control group
proceeded with their probation plans as designated by their court counselor.
To evaluate the impact of the 24-day Outward Bound program, the Jesness Inventory and
the Global Self-Esteem Scale were administered to both groups of subjects at three
intervals. Both groups of subjects completed self-report measures prior to participation in
the ropes course and then 1 and 4 months after this date. Recidivism data were collected at
the follow-up date.
Self-report data were analyzed with a two-way repeated measures analysis of variance.
Results showed significant differences between the experimental and control group only in
the area of self-esteem. Both groups improved significantly on 9 of the 10 Jesness scales
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Michael C. Young
over time. A trend analysis indicated that the changes for the experimental group were
consistently more pronounced than those for the control group. This finding was true for 9
of the 11 scales. Although this finding is the result of an exploratory trend analysis, it is
strongly suggestive and supports reason for further investigation in this area.
Behavioral data were analyzed with a chi-square test. There were five categories of
recidivism: no allegations, runaways, probation violations, robbery charge or assault
charge. The chi-square indicated no significant differences between the experimental and
control group.
In order to study the impact of motivational readiness on Outward Bound participants, the
Student Attitude Questionnaire, a self-report scale, the Instructor Rating Scale, a behavioral
measure, and the Achievement Motivation scale, from the Personality Research Form, were
administered at the pretest. Scores from these measures were combined and subjects were
divided into high and low motivational readiness groups. Changes from pretest to posttest
and follow-up were analyzed with a two-way analysis of variance. No significant
differences were observed between high and low motivation groups.
Implications of the findings were discussed and suggestions for future research were
offered.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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10. Citation
Burg, J. E. (1995). Exploring adventure family therapy: A modified delphi study. Purdue
University, US.
Abstract
The field of adventure family therapy (AFT) was explored utilizing a modified Delphi
Technique. Opinions of AFT practitioners were obtained through the use of: (1) an openended questionnaire, (2) a Likert-scale questionnaire derived from the first questionnaire
(21 panelists completed both surveys), and (3) a qualitative interview with a randomly
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Michael C. Young
chosen sub-sample of four panelists. The results indicated that there was little consensus in
regard to which family therapy theories were the most helpful to the panel's
conceptualization of AFT, with Structural Family Therapy being the only theory agreed
upon. The benefits to families participating in AFT focused primarily on the development
and recognition of strengths and resources (e.g., trust, communication, cohesiveness, and
fun). Step-family issues were also noted as benefiting from AFT. The risks to families
participating in AFT included a lack of processing time and lack of follow-up. The
competence of the therapist produced one of the strongest themes of the study pertaining to
potential contraindications of AFT. AFT was found to be similar to established experiential
therapy methods in that they were both active and required risk taking; AFT differed from
established experiential methods in that it was more active, occurred outdoors, and had
more realistic metaphors. AFT was found to differ from adventure therapy with other
groups due to the existence of strong bonds, previous history, existing culture, and
increased intensity of families. Although strong themes were not found between presenting
problems and interventions, the panelists regarded sharing this information as highly
valuable and informative. The future needs of the field were found to be: the development
of theory; outcome and process research; improved training and skill level of therapists;
accreditation of programs; and collaboration and networking. Two global themes found
with panel respondents were high enthusiasm and a sense of personal res (PsycINFO
Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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11. Citation
Carter, J. D. (1979). A comparative study of two training programs in florida for delinquent
youths: Eckerd wilderness camping and state training schools: University of West
Florida, Pensacola Educational Research and Development Center.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of the Eckerd Wilderness Camping
Program with those of the Florida Training Schools (rehabilitation institutions) on
delinquent youths. Effects of these different treatment modes were measured in terms of
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Michael C. Young
school adjustment and court contact of each group at 6, 12, and 18 months after release or
parole date. The sample population consisted of 120 males (aged 8-15), 60 of whom were
Eckerd camp graduates and 60 of whom were Florida Training School graduates.
Descriptive information derived from institutional records included: offenses committed,
severity of offenses committed, length of enrollment in school, and achievement level in
school. Results indicated: (1) prior to program entry Eckerd campers were younger, had a
lower grade of entry, had more youth convictions one year prior to entry, committed more
severe crimes, had fewer legal referrals for all years, had a greater number of prior youth
commitments, and had a higher IQ than the state group; (2) during the first 6-month period,
Eckerd campers had significantly fewer contacts, did not differ in severity of offenses
committed, remained in school longer, and attained a significantly higher level in school
than the state group; (3) during the second and third 6-month period there was no
difference between the two groups in number of court contacts or in severity of offenses
committed and Eckerd campers remained in school slightly longer and attained a
significantly higher academic achievement level than the state group. (JC)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
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12. Citation
Carter, S., Straits, K. J. E., & Hall, M. (2007). Project venture: Evaluation of an
experiential, culturally based approach to substance abuse prevention with american
indian youth. Journal of Experiential Education, 29(3), 397.
Abstract
An abstract of the study "Project Venture: Evaluation of an Experiential, Culturally Based
Approach to Substance Abuse Prevention With American Indian Youth" is presented. The
study investigated the effectiveness of Project Venture, an outdoor and experiential
education youth development program developed by the National Indian Youth Leadership
Project, in reducing substance use among American Indian (AI) youth. The findings of the
study revealed a difference between substance use patterns of treatment and control
participants across time. Researchers found evidence to support the effectiveness of a
positive culturally based experiential approach to youth development and prevention
programming for AI youth.
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Michael C. Young
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13. Citation
Caulkins, M. C., White, D. D., & Russell, K. C. (2006). The role of physical exercise in
wilderness therapy for troubled adolescent women. Journal of Experiential
Education, 29(1), 18.
Abstract
This study explores the impacts of backpacking as a therapeutic process for troubled
adolescent women participating in wilderness therapy. A qualitative case study approach
was used to investigate the experience of six adolescent women and three female
wilderness instructors at an established wilderness therapy program. Data were collected
through participant observation, client psychological profiles, and semi-structured
interviews. Research explored the emotional, cognitive, and physical impacts attributed to
the backpacking component of the therapeutic process and the relationships between these
impacts. Results revealed eight central impacts of backpacking, each of which fell into
categories differentiated by dimensions of temporality, intensity, and clarity. A conceptual
model captures the flow of the backpacking process and offers insight into this specific
therapeutic element of wilderness therapy. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of
Journal of Experiential Education is the property of Association for Experiential Education
and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without
the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or
email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about
the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the
material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
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14. Citation
Cave, S. R. (1980). Evaluation of level of stress and group cohesiveness in the wilderness
experience using the mmpi and sociograms. University of New Mexico.
Abstract
A study of an experiential treatment program, based on the concepts of Outward Bound, for
the criminal first offender and offenders soon to be placed on probation/parole. The level
of stress and the degree of group cohesiveness were the principal causative factors studied.
Utilizing the MMPI and sociograms on both an experimental and a control group,
significant differences between groups were determined. The low stress conditions
produced significant reductions on the depression (D) scale, and a significant increase on
the masculine-feminine (MF) scale. The high stress group had significant changes on the
K, Mf, Pa, Pt, and Si scales of the MMPI. The high stress conditions also favored the
development of a high level of group cohesiveness, while low stress conditions allowed fro
hostility to develop and for a much lower degree of within group bonding. Erikson's
developmental theory is detailed as a context for understanding the development of
sociopathic behavior and its amelioration (Abstract from Author).
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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15. Citation
Clapp, C., & Rudolph, S. (1990). Adventure therapy with families: The family challenge
program. Paper presented at the Integrating Experiential Education. Proceedings
Manual of the Annual Conference of the Association for Experiential Education, St.
Paul, Minnesota.
Abstract
Examined a structural family enrichment program called The Family Challenge (funded by
Lutheran Social Services). Six families participated and the studies instruments included
the McMaster Family Assessment Device and the F-COPES scale. Findings indicated a
positive impact on families, including discovering family members' strengths and
resources. Also observed was a flattening the family hierarchy and respect for each family
member as part of the problem-solving team. Increases were also noted in communication,
closeness, confidence, and the family's ability to have fun together.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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16. Citation
Clark, J. P., Marmol, L. M., Cooley, R., & Gathercoal, K. (2004). The effects of wilderness
therapy on the clinical concerns (on axes i, ii, and iv) of troubled adolescents.
Journal of Experiential Education, 27(2), 213.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was twofold: (a) to empirically evaluate the effects of a 21-day
wilderness therapy program (WT) on the defense styles, perceived psychosocial stressors
(expressed concerns), dysfunctional personality patterns, clinical syndromes, and
maladaptive behaviors of 109 troubled adolescents, as measured by the Defense Style
Questionnaire-40, Millon Adolescent Clinical Inventory (MACI), and Youth Outcome
Questionnaire-2.0 (Millon, 1997); and (b) to begin to identify the types of clinical concerns
on Axes I, II, and IV for which wilderness therapy is most effective. Wilderness therapy
14
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Michael C. Young
resulted in statistically significant improvement on immature defense and maladaptive
behavior scores, and on the Expressed Concerns, dysfunctional Personality Patterns, and
Clinical Syndromes scores of subjects. Moderate to large effect sizes were found for a wide
range of clinical concerns on Axes I, II, and IV. The most striking finding of this study is
that WT appears to facilitate positive characterological change in adolescents with
clinically elevated MACI Personality Patterns scores. Short-term interventions leading to
characterological change are virtually unheard of in the personality literature. Future
research is needed to confirm whether or not WT is effective for treating budding
personality disorders. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Experiential
Education is the property of Association for Experiential Education and its content may not
be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's
express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of
the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full
abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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Combs, S. (2001). The evaluation of adventure-based counseling with youth-at-risk.
Unpublished Dissertation, Boston College, Boston, MA.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the Adventure Based
Counseling (ABC) program developed by Project Adventure with at risk youth. In addition,
this study attempted to examine the process of change within an adventure therapy program
by employing an ABAB single case design, and utilizing both quantitative and qualitative
analyses. For the 8 week intervention, participants completed the Children's NowickiStrickland Internal External Locus of Control Scale (CNSIE), the Coopersmith Self-Esteem
Inventory (SEI), and Children's Self-Efficacy for Peer Interaction Scale (CSPI) 8 times;
group leaders completed the Social Skills Rating System (SSRS) 7 times for each
participant; and the parents/guardians and group leaders completed the Child Behavior
15
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Michael C. Young
Checklist (CBC) and the Teacher Report Form (TRF), respectively, 3 times for each
participant. Participants, group leaders, and parents/guardians also completed semistructured interviews at the end of the intervention.
The quantitative results demonstrated that there were significant differences pre to post-test
for Group 1 (12 to 14 year old boys) on the CNSIE and TRF Behavior Problems scales. For
Group 2 (9 to 10 year old boys) there were significant differences pre to post-test on the
CNSIE, CSPI, SSRS, and TRF Adaptive Functioning scales. For the repeated measures
ANOVA's the results revealed that the group leaders rated participants as demonstrating a
significant decrease in behavior problems at the end of treatment when compared to the
middle of treatment. For the ABAB single case analyses, there were three participants who
demonstrated changes in the hypothesized directions: one participant demonstrated changes
in the hypothesized directions on the CNSIE, and two participants demonstrated changes in
the hypothesized directions on the SSRS. For the qualitative interviews, there was
significant evidence that the ABC intervention, specifically the ropes course activities, had
a positive effect on participants self-esteem and self-efficacy.
The results demonstrate that ABC interventions should continue to focus on the
enhancement of self-esteem and self-efficacy for at risk populations, and regularly include
ropes course activities or similar "peak experiences." Also, since it appears that longer
interventions are more beneficial than shorter ones, ABC interventions should consider
length of treatment when designing programs.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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Conley, L., Caldarella, P., & Young, E. (2007). Evaluation of a ropes course experience for
at-risk secondary school students. Journal of Experiential Education, 30(1), 21.
Abstract
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Michael C. Young
This study evaluated the effects of a one-day ropes course on students' classroom
involvement and affiliation. Middle and junior high school students who participated in the
ropes course were from classes designed for students at risk for emotional and behavioral
disorders. Using the Classroom Environment Scale (CES) Short Form, students evaluated
their relationships with peers in their classrooms before and after the ropes course. Small
changes in scores were detected using the CES: two classes of students at risk for
internalizing behavior problems had a significant increase (p < .05) in feelings of
involvement, and the middle school classes (in aggregate) had a statistically significant
decrease (p < .05) in their affiliation scores. Responses to an open-ended survey were
mostly positive. Further study with larger groups of students and, perhaps, more intense
and focused intervention at the ropes course seems warranted. ABSTRACT FROM
AUTHOR Copyright of Journal of Experiential Education is the property of Association
for Experiential Education and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However,
users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be
abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the
original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all
Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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19. Citation
Cross, R. (2002). The effects of an adventure education program on perceptions of
alienation and personal control among at-risk adolescents. Journal of Experiential
Education, 25(1), 247.
Abstract
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Michael C. Young
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Cummins, D. M. (2005). Multicultural competence and levels of effectiveness in adventure
based counseling. West Virginia University, US.
Abstract
The current study explored the relationship between adventure based counselor
multicultural competency and their levels of effectiveness as perceived by youth at risk.
The sample consisted of 22 counselors (19 White and 3 ethnic minority) who competed the
Multicultural Knowledge and Awareness Scale and 86 youth at risk participants (52 White
and 34 ethnic minority) who completed the Counselor Effectiveness Rating Scale. Analysis
of the data suggests a very small negative relationship between multicultural competence of
adventure based counselors and their levels of effectiveness as rated by the ethnic minority
and White youth at risk participants. Limitations of the study are addressed and
recommendations are made for future investigation and the field of adventure therapy.
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
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N/A
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21. Citation
Davis, D., Ray, J., & Sayles, C. (1995). Ropes course training for youth in a rural setting:
'at first I thought it was going to be boring…' Child & Adolescent Social Work
Journal, 12(6), 445.
Abstract
266 high risk youth (aged 10-18 yrs) in a remote, rural setting participated in a Ropes
Course. The 1.5-2 day course focused on building attributes such as trust, self-esteem, and
teamwork. The design requires participants to receive some initial communication and
relationship training, and to engage in group problem-solving to address the physical
challenges in a low or high course of outdoor obstacles. Participants are then to apply the
experience to real life. Ss completed a contract regarding group interaction and measures
including the Modified American Drug and Alcohol Survey for Youth and the Ropes
Evaluation Instrument. Also, a recidivism measure, an observer checklist, and a case study
of failed intervention were completed. Data on 266 Ss completing the course between 1992
and 1994 indicated that Ss experienced positive effects immediately after the training. 10 of
12 indices were higher at 6 mo post-intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007
APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
22. Citation
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Duhaime, D. E. (1982). The effects of an outdoor affective education program on the selfconcept, social adjustment, classroom behavior and affective behavior of learning
disabled children. University of Pennsylvania.
Abstract
Problem: The literature indicates that the affective needs of learning disabled children are
particularly acute. Many schools have instituted programs of affective education, but
research on the effectiveness of such programs is meager and inconclusive.
Several survival training and therapeutic camping programs have been reported to produce
improvements in self-esteem, social development, and behavior. Since these are areas of
particular difficulty for many learning disabled children, a program of outdoor affective
education was developed and implemented to determine its effects on a sample of learning
disabled students. Specifically, this research was conducted in an attempt to answer the
following question: Does participation in a carefully structured outdoor affective education
program for learning disabled students affect self-esteem, social adjustment, classroom
behavior, and affective behavior?
Procedure and Methods: Thirty-three boys and 15 girls, aged 10-13, were randomly
selected from the population of a school for learning disabled children in eastern
Pennsylvania. From this number, nine boys and three girls were then randomly assigned to
each of the following groups: (1) Outward Bound, (2) Recreation, (3) No Treatment. The
remaining 12 students were designated as alternates.
Subjects were pretested on measures of self-concept, social adjustment, and classroom
behavior. The Outward Bound and Recreation programs commenced and continued for
seven weeks, each according to a prearranged format and under the direction of the
investigator. Observers were present during all sessions of both groups, keeping notes on
group and individual behavior.
Upon completion of these programs, posttest data were collected from all three groups.
Results and Conclusions: Analyses of covariance indicated no statistically significant
posttest differences in self-concept or social adjustment. In addition, there were no
statistically significant posttest differences in Maladaptive Classroom Behavior among the
three groups. . . . (Author's abstract exceeds stipulated maximum length. Discontinued here
with permission of school.) UMI
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
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23. Citation
Dunkley, C. M. (2006). Nature discipline: The practice of wilderness therapy at camp ewen-akee (vermont). University of British Columbia, Canada.
Abstract
Wilderness therapy, the practice of sending troubled young people into nature in order to
re-socialize them, poses a paradox. Time spent in wilderness is imagined to produce
civilizing effects on young people, rendering them better prepared to live responsible and
productive lives in society. Study of wilderness therapy, therefore, provides insight into
constructions of youth and nature in contemporary American society. This thesis emerges
from ethnographic research conducted at Camp E-Wen-Akee, a therapeutic camping
program for troubled youth, in Benson, Vermont, USA. In addition to living with the three
groups of campers in their rustic camp sites and engaging in camp activities, I facilitated
two camper-run research projects, and interviewed camp staff members, and the state social
workers responsible for sending adjudicated youth to residential programs. I find that camp
life is an achievement of many heterogeneous actors, some of whom are human and others
nonhuman. The resulting work is an ethnography of a nature-culture, wherein I describe
how the camp mobilizes various resources to create the conditions for therapeutic change.
The differing nature narratives of campers and the adults indicated that expectations for
nature are at least in part, outcomes of class processes. Close attention to camp life shows
that therapy is a social strategy brought into being at a number of scales: the material body,
built and temporal architectures, landscape, and 'public' wilderness outside of camp's
borders. I find at each scale a tension between the ordering tactics deployed by camp staff
members and resistance posed by campers and 'nature' alike. Campers' identities are meant
to change as a result of repeated performances of prosocial behavior, and the on-going
circulation of success stories. Together these practices underscore that what one person
does always has effects on others. The irony uncovered in this research is that while
troubled youth are sent to a nature imagined as separate from society, Camp E-Wen-Akee
provides young people with an ecological model for social life. Wilderness therapy is the
outcome not of a separation between nature and society, but of ongoing relations between
the two. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
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Results Reporting
Training Models
Power of Research Design
Instrumentation
Cultural Variability
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Background Literature Support
Replication
Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
24. Citation
Durr, L. I. (2007). Optimal challenge: The impact of adventure experiences on subjective
well-being. University of Wisconsin, Madison.
Abstract
Adventure Therapy and the use of activities and outdoor experiences for educational and
therapeutic purposes have a long and rich history. In recent years, the popularity and use of
adventure programs in schools, clinical treatment facilities, and various other settings has
increased. Although participation is growing rapidly, research on the effectiveness and
impact has been slow to substantiate these claims. Authors typically introduce AT by
offering that the research is sparse and methodologically flawed, but that its effectiveness is
generally accepted and that adventure and wilderness programs can and do result in
positive changes in the participants (Bandoroff, 1989; Gibson, 1979; Gillis & Thomsen,
1996; Moote & Wodarski, 1997). In addition, over the past 25 years, researchers have
called for a new direction of research to answer more specific process-oriented questions
such as how these programs bring about change and what components or activities are most
effective (Bandoroff, 1989; Gibson, 1979; Gillis, 1992; Newes & Bandoroff, 2004; Russell,
2004). Regardless, existing studies still largely evaluate program effectiveness and there
continues to be a paucity of research on the process of Adventure Therapy or Programming
experiences. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between optimal
challenge and psychological outcomes within Adventure Therapy/Programming.
Specifically, the researcher examined whether (a) optimal challenge experiences were
superior at producing better subjective well-being, (b) actual perceptions of challenge level
were more strongly correlated to well-being than predicted perceptions, and (c) there was a
significant correlation between self-report measures of challenge level and observer-rated
measures during task completion. The psychological outcomes of focus in this
investigation were subjective well-being in the form of positive and negative affect. This
study found partial support that optimal challenge experiences are better than non-optimal
experiences at producing positive affect, under the condition of being assessed immediately
after participation. No difference was found in this study between predicted and actual
perceptions of challenge in their effects on subjective well-being. Lastly, no support was
found that observer ratings of challenge level correlated with self-report measures.
Implications of these results will be discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA,
all rights reserved)
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Michael C. Young
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
25. Citation
Edgmon, K. J. (2002). Therapeutic benefits of a wilderness therapy program and
a therapeutic community program for troubled adolescents. Dissertation Abstracts
International: Section B: The Sciences & Engineering, 62(10-), 4781.
Abstract
Wilderness therapy is increasingly seen as a viable treatment alternative for troubled youth,
yet there is a noticeable dearth of research comparing the effectiveness of wilderness
therapy with more traditional treatment programs. To help address this research need, this
study conducted an exploratory analysis of the therapeutic benefits of a wilderness therapy
program, Wilderness Quest (WQ), compared to a therapeutic community program, LifeLine (LL). The WQ and LL programs both are based on a 12-step recovery philosophy and
emphasize the integral role of the family in adolescent treatment. The study employed a
qualitative methodology, beginning with an extended period of observation (approximately
eight weeks) in each program The primary data for the study came from follow-up surveys
with youth and their parents which were conducted about 13-15 months after the time of
enrollment. Twenty-one families were represented in the study (10 from the WQ program
and 11 from the LL program). The WQ program was perceived to be a 'pivotal experience'
for many youth and the most common reported benefit was increased self-confidence. The
most common reported benefit for youth in the LL program was a 'pivotal change' in
lifestyle, with groups and one-on-one talks with staff and peers being the most beneficial.
The study discussed the subtle distinction found with the short-term wilderness program
being a 'pivotal experience' and the long-term therapeutic community program leading to
'pivotal change.' The most common reported benefit for families in both programs was an
increase in communication and closeness. In the follow-up behavior assessments there
were no perceived differences between WQ and LL youth in areas of family relations,
school/education, and job/work. There was a slight difference in peer relations with LL
youth behaviors slightly more positive than WQ youth, and there was a notable difference
in substance abuse with LL youth behaviors being more positive. The data also indicated
that certain post-treatment factors were related to youth progress after leaving the
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Michael C. Young
programs, with aftercare and association with positive peers being the most important for
WQ youth and program graduation and association with positive peers being the most
important for LL youth. Interpretive models were developed to illustrate the developmental
growth patterns of youth in the two programs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA,
all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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26. Citation
Eggleston, E. J. (1994). Wilderness therapy with te whakapakari youth programme.
Community Mental Health in New Zealand, 9(2), 43-52.
Abstract
Following a month-long phase of participant-observation with the Te Whakapakari Youth
Program (TWYP), this article discusses the merits and pitfalls of wilderness therapy
programs for behaviorally problematic and emotionally distressed youth. The group
observed consisted of 17 13-15 yr olds (1 female). Issues concerning therapeutic elements
of the TWYP, problems with target populations, the postprogram benefits of healthy living,
the role and needs of supervisors, cultural learning and personal development, program
duration, and postprogram difficulties with regard to dysfunctional home environments are
discussed. It is concluded that wilderness therapy programs such as the TWYP provide a
positive alternative for coping with such youth. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002
APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
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27. Citation
Eggleston, E. J. (2000). Wilderness rehabilitation: An 18 month follow-up of the
whakapakari youth programme. Social Policy Journal of NZ(14), 164-179.
Abstract
During August of 1993, as a participant observer, I attended Te Whakapakari Youth
programme, on Great Barrier Island in New Zealand, with 12 young people. I interviewed
programme participants at the conclusion of the programme (Eggleston 1996), and in the
present study 10 participants were re-interviewed during late 1994 through early 1995. The
challenge for this study was to organise youth texts on rehabilitation in a way that did
justice to their perspective. This article summarises and analyses the talk of youth as they
reflected on their experience of a wilderness programme and the 18 months that had passed
since then.
The Background section of this paper discusses some of the literature on the use of outdoor
pursuits and adventure therapy programmes. The following sections in turn describe the
Whakapakari programme, outline the methodology of the study and analyse the key themes
of the findings. In the final section I discuss policy implications.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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28. Citation
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Eikenæs, I., Gude, T., & Hoffart, A. (2006). Integrated wilderness therapy for avoidant
personality disorder. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 60(4), 275.
Abstract
Patients with avoidant personality disorder (APD) are difficult to treat because of their
extensive social, emotional and cognitive avoidance. Few studies have addressed outcome
in APD and there is no therapy of choice. In this quasi-experimental study, we integrated
wilderness therapy in an inpatient group program (integrated wilderness therapy, IWT), in
order to enhance outcome for patients with APD. We compared outcome of the IWT group
with a similar inpatient group program without wilderness therapy: the comparison
condition (CC). The subjects in the IWT-group ( n =16) with DSM-IV APD were treated in
11.5 weeks. The subjects in the comparison group ( n =37) were selected from our database
with the same diagnostic criteria. The participants were examined at pre-care, admission,
discharge and 1-year follow-up. Both groups were significantly improved, but there were
no significant differences between them. There were some non-significant trends for males
to gain most benefit from IWT, whereas females were more improved by the CC. The
results indicate that by integrating wilderness therapy we were able to treat more impaired
patients at shorter time with almost the same outcome. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR
Copyright of Nordic Journal of Psychiatry is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its
content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the
copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or
email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about
the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the
material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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29. Citation
Fischer, R. L., & Attah, E. B. (2001). City kids in the wilderness: A pilot-test of outward
bound for foster care group home youth. Journal of Experiential Education, 24(2),
109.
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Abstract
Reports on a pilot study in which foster children participated in an Outward Bound
adventure experience. Overview of previous research on Outward Bound; Background data
on the participants of the study; Feedback from teens and adults who participated in the
Outward Bound experience.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
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30. Citation
Fitzsimmons, P., & Elshof, T. (1998). Scared spitless: The therapeutic power of language,
Exploring the Boundaries of Adventure Therapy: International Perspectives.
Proceedings of the International Adventure Therapy Conference (1st, Perth,
Australia, July 1997).
Abstract
This paper provides a snapshot of the language used by two outdoor instructors and
analyzes its therapeutic components. Following an experience of abseiling with an
instructor friend (Tony), Tony's instructional dialogue with the author and his sons during
the experience was written down and put aside. A year later, a surfing coach (Mark) was
observed to be using the same sort of language while giving instruction to children on the
beach. For the next 3 weeks, Mark's lessons were observed, and his language was recorded
and compared to Tony's. Analysis of the directions, prompts, and feedback given by the
instructors shows that the instructional aims of each language episode were complemented
by therapeutic features. Examples of instructor speech are given that demonstrate the
following therapeutic components: developing empathetic communication and
understanding between instructor and student, encouraging students to confront self-doubt,
building student self-confidence, supporting students' assumption of responsibility as they
move out of the novice stage, and debriefing student accomplishments. The language "inuse" displayed by these instructors is quite similar to that used in counselling approaches
recommended by Rogers, Glasser, and Egan and suggests the instructors' role as change
agents with regard to personal development and self-esteem. (Contains 23 references.) (SV)
27
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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Freeman, P. A., & Zabriskie, R. B. (2002). The role of outdoor recreation in family
enrichment. Journal of Adventure Education and Outdoor Learning, 2(2), 131.
Abstract
Two studies collected quantitative and qualitative data from 24 families participating in an
8-hour outdoor adventure program and from 11 families in a residential family camping
program. Findings demonstrate a strong positive relationship between structured outdoor
family programming and family strength, and suggest that adventure activities typically
used in family therapy are also effective in providing family enrichment experiences.
(Contains 58 references.) (Author/SV)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
Journal can be
purchased
32. Citation
28
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Michael C. Young
Gass, M. A., & McFee, P. J. (1990). Emerging for recovery: A descriptive analysis of
adventure therapy for substance abusers. Journal of Experiential Education, 13(2),
29-35.
Abstract
Examines client characteristics, referral and screening procedures, program characteristics,
treatment goals, financial arrangements, and staff characteristics in 50 programs using
adventure experiences with substance abuse populations. Notes needs for specific program
evaluation research and for the development of prescriptive treatment modalities for
specific client populations. Contains 17 references. (SV)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analyis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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33. Citation
Gillis, H. L. (1987). An exploratory study comparing the strategic use of metaphorical
introductions with traditional introductions in a one-day, adventure workshop for
couples enrichment. University of Georgia, US.
Abstract
34. This is a PhD dissertation that compares the use of metaphor based facilitation (N=20)
with “traditional” facilitation (N=13) of ropes-course-based adventure activities
(i.e., games initiatives, low ropes and high ropes challenges) for the purpose of
relationship enrichment with non-stressed couples. Measures included: the Barrett
Lennard Relationship Inventory, the Marital Communication Inventory, Adjective
Check List, and two investigator-designed measures aimed at assessing trust and
support received as well as the effectiveness of activities fro enrichment. Data was
collected pre-program, post program, and at six weeks following the program. No
significant differecitationnces were found between groups.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
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Background Literature Support
Replication
Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Michael C. Young
2
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35. Citation
Glass, J. S., & Myers, J. E. (2001). Combining the old and the new to help adolescents:
Individual psychology and adventure-based counseling. Journal of Mental Health
Counseling, 23(2), 104-114.
Abstract
Discusses adventure-based counseling (ABC), particularly low-element challenge courses
(LECC). LECCs are group-oriented programs that help participants learn to share
responsibility, develop cooperative problem-solving skills, and increase self-confidence
and well-being. Factors contributing to the success of specific LECCs include equipment,
selection of appropriate interventions, and staff qualifications. LECC outcomes are
consistent with the Individual Psychology tenets of A. Adler. The case study of a group of
14 adolescents with disruptive behavior participating in an LECC based on the Project
Adventure model shows the value of LECCs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA,
all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
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36. Citation
Greenwood, P. W., & Turner, S. (1987). The visionquest program: An evaluation (No. R3445-OJJDP). Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
Abstract
VisionQuest is one of the largest and most controversial private sector corrections
programs designed to handle serious juvenile offenders in the country. Most chronic
delinquents referred to VisionQuest by the juvenile court had failed under prior placements
and were candidates for commitment to the California Youth Authority. VisionQuest
programs consisted of rustic wilderness camps, wagon trains, and extended sailing and
bicycling expeditions. All programs emphasized physical conditioning, accountability for
one's actions, and overcoming personal and physical challenges. In 1981, the San Diego
Juvenile Court began placing delinquents in VisionQuest; this placement was opposed by
the San Diego County Probation Department. A study was conducted to determine why the
court and the Probation Department held such divergent views on the potential risks and
benefits of the program and to examine how recidivism rates for VisionQuest graduates
compared with those of comparable youth from other programs. This document reports the
findings of the VisionQuest evaluation and contains an introduction and sections on the
history and characteristics of the San Diego VisionQuest program; the evaluation design
and data sources; characteristics of the program sample; differences in post-release criminal
behavior; and conclusions and directions for the future.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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Guthrie, H. (2005). Adventure therapy for children with mental disorders: A treatment
outcome study. University of Akron, US.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of Adventure Therapy with
children who have been diagnosed with mental disorders. The researcher used a specific
definition of Adventure Therapy as an experiential method that seeks to help clients change
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Michael C. Young
their thoughts, feelings, and behaviors. A pre-post test design with a control group was
used, comparing the difference in behavioral change between the control group, which
received any necessary services except Adventure Therapy, and the treatment group, which
received Adventure Therapy and any necessary services. A MANCOVA was used to
analyze the data, with an alpha level of .05. Pre-test scores were the co-variants. No
significant difference in post-test scores between the two groups was found, suggesting that
neither Adventure Therapy nor "treatment as usual" was more effective than the other.
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
38. Citation
Hagan, J. D. (2003). An alternative therapy for the behaviorally challenged youth: The
efficacy of wilderness therapy programs., University of Toledo, US.
Abstract
Mental health professionals and researchers are constantly searching for effective
interventions to address severe problem behaviors in adolescents. Given the difficulty in
treating this population, research is needed to identify effective interventions. Wilderness
therapy is an emerging therapeutic intervention for the treatment of problem youth that
combines both traditional therapeutic interventions such as group and individual therapy
sessions with a non-traditional wilderness component. This allows troubled youth to
address and alter maladaptive coping strategies and behaviors in a new and challenging
environment. Currently, however, there is little empirical research supporting the
effectiveness of wilderness therapy. The purpose of this study was to examine the
effectiveness of wilderness therapy in treating problem youth. Nineteen adolescents who
were admitted to one of two wilderness therapy programs participated in the study.
Adolescents completed the Youth Self-Report (YSR) pre and post-treatment to assess for
behavioral and emotional change. Adolescents additionally completed the Personal
Experience Screening Questionnaire (PESQ) to assess for pre-treatment substance abuse.
Parents and wilderness program counselors completed the Youth Outcome Questionnaire
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Michael C. Young
(Y-OQ) pre and post-treatment to assess for adolescent behavioral and emotional change.
Pre-test post-test comparisons on the Y-OQ were performed using paired t-tests. Results
indicated that parents and program counselors perceived significant positive adolescent
change post-treatment. Parents, however, reported significantly higher change as compared
to program counselors at post-treatment. Adolescents did not report significant positive
change at post-treatment as reported on the YSR. However, adolescents' self-report on the
YSR at pre-treatment resulted in no significant clinical elevations on any YSR subscales,
indicating that adolescents at pre-treatment did not perceive themselves as having
significant emotional or behavioral problems. In addition, adolescent self-report on the
PESQ indicated that a large percentage of adolescents admitted to wilderness therapy
programs present with a significant problem with substance abuse. The results of this study
provide some support for the efficacy of wilderness therapy in treating adolescents with
severe emotional and behavioral problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2003 APA, all
rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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39. Citation
Harper, N. J., Russell, K. C., Cooley, R., & Cupples, J. (2007). Catherine freer wilderness
therapy expeditions: An exploratory case study of adolescent wilderness therapy,
family functioning, and the maintenance of change. Child & Youth Care Forum,
36(2/3), 111.
Abstract
This exploratory longitudinal case study aimed to identify practical adolescent and family
outcomes following participation in a 21-day wilderness therapy program for adolescents
with emotional, behavioral, and substance use problems. Results showed gender
differences in presenting issues pre-treatment, significant positive changes assessed twomonths post-treatment in family functioning, and adolescent behavior and mental health
issues. Twelve-month assessments showed maintenance of positive outcomes coupled with
deterioration in some aspects of family functioning and drug and alcohol use. Implications
and suggestions for future research are discussed.
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
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Herbert, J. T. (1998). Therapeutic effects of participating in an adventure therapy program.
Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 41(3), 201-216.
Abstract
Investigates the effects of an adventure therapy program to handicapped individuals
participating in a rehabilitation program that offers supported employment. Principles and
implementation guidelines of the adventure therapy program; Levels self-esteem; Shifts in
internal locus of control; Short and long-term therapeutic effects; Employment attendance.
Supported employment employees were randomly assigned to participate in an
adventure therapy program designed to enhance self-esteem and facilitate an internal locus
of control. Results indicated that persons assigned to the experimental treatment group
gained greater self-esteem and a larger shift toward internality than did the control group.
These therapeutic effects dissipated over a 1-year period and did not result in improving
attendance in supported employment.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
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3
41. Citation
Hickmon Jr, W. A., Protinsky, H. O., & Singh, K. (1997). Increasing marital intimacy:
Lessons from marital enrichment. Contemporary Family Therapy: An International
Journal, 19(4), 581.
Abstract
Both marriage and family therapists and family life educators work to increase marital
intimacy. In this study the effectiveness of two marriage enrichment programs was assessed
with implications for practicing therapists. Participants were randomly assigned to an
Adventure or ACME (Association for Couples in Marriage Enrichment) treatment group or
to a control group. Marital intimacy was assessed before and after treatment. Findings
demonstrated that both enrichment groups had a statistically significant increase in marital
enrichment. Suggestions for adopting adventure-based interventions for traditional therapy
are discussed. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Contemporary Family
Therapy: An International Journal is the property of Springer Science & Business Media
B.V. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv
without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print,
download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty
is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version
of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
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42. Citation
Hillstead, D. R. (2004). A qualitative study of families with an oppositional defiant
adolescent male who is participating in a therapeutic wilderness program: Factors
that lead to relationship disintegration and resolution. Brigham Young University,
US
Abstract
35
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Michael C. Young
The purpose of this qualitative study was to investigate the personality characteristics that
predispose male adolescents to develop Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD), as well the
effectiveness of wilderness therapy in treating ODD behavior. This study also explored
parental factors that exacerbate the manifestation of ODD behaviors in their male
adolescent. Using an analysis of qualitative data from the interviews with 5 male
adolescents and their mothers and fathers, previous research theories were substantiated
and further clarified. Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed using the
analytic induction method. This process was used for the purpose of discovering the
specific interactions that contributed to relationship disintegration or relationship repair.
Results showed that these adolescents who had been diagnosed with Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder or Anxiety disorders were particularly susceptible to the later
diagnosis of ODD. This study found that children and adolescents, who have multiple
experiences of behavior modification with the absence of relationship interventions, often
develop feelings of rejection. This research also clarified the importance of parents
recognizing the emotional state of their adolescent, and the importance of parents and
adolescents developing an effective emotional language to interact with one another. This
study also demonstrated the effectiveness of wilderness therapy in beginning to restore the
damaged relationship between an ODD male adolescent and his parents. Implications for
family therapists working with adolescents with an ODD diagnosis are as follows: (1)
behavior modification exercises are effective when coupled with emotionally focused
therapy techniques, and (2) understanding each parent's personal history (Bowenian Family
therapy techniques) is important in deciphering the expectations/performances that the
parent projects onto their adolescent. This study clarified that a family therapist needs to
implement effective communication techniques to resolve the damaged relationship
between parent's and their adolescent son. Finally, this study documented that a wilderness
based therapy approach was an effective intervention for families with an ODD adolescent.
It appears that wilderness therapy interventions are particularly effective when the
relationship between parent and adolescent has greatly deteriorated. Wilderness
interventions provide space and separation for both the parent and the adolescent. This
allocation of space appears to slow down the destructive communication process, and
makes room for relationship resolution interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007
APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
36
Therapeutic Adventure Annotated Bibliography

Michael C. Young
Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
43. Citation
Hollis, S. S. (1998). Therapy, substance abuse, and a walk in the woods: Avoiding
dropouts in adolescent substance abuse treatment programs. Forest Inst of
Professional Psychology, US.
Abstract
Public health concerns of state, community, and health agencies have dictated expanded
prevention and treatment programs for adolescent substance abusers. Research has
substantiated different concerns in the treatment of adolescents versus adults. The present
study analyzed demographic and psychological data from the client population of a
structured outpatient program with two phases, the first including intake assessment
services, individual therapy, group therapy and education, case management, and overnight
camping trips in Southwest Missouri. The second phase included an extended wilderness
expedition to another state. The sample consisted of demographic and psychometric data
from 217 adolescents admitted to the program between December 1993 and November
1996. Data was obtained using an admission screening form collected as per state of
Missouri regulations. The Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS), Problem Solving
Inventory (PSI), and Symptom Checklist-90-R (SCL-90-R) were administered after
admission. These are self-report inventories designed to reflect the individual's self-image
(TSCS), symptomology (SCL-90-R), and problem-solving approach (PSI). Global Scores
on the TSCS and SCL-90-R were significantly associated with completion when examined
independently (p <), with non-completers showing lower self-concept and higher levels of
psychiatric symptomology. The discriminant analysis equation indicated better prediction
for completers (85%) than non-completers (33%). Forward step-wise discriminant analysis
found the best combination (p =.057) of demographic and psychometric variables to be the
Global Score on the TSCS (lower self-concept among non-completers), previous
admissions to the program (higher among non-completers), and the number of drugs used
(higher among non-completers). No significant relationship was found between type of
drug used and completion status. Chi-square analyses of categorical variables (gender, legal
status, employment, previous admission to CSTAR, and number of drugs used) indicated
none were significant in distinguishing treatment non-completers from completers.
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
37
Therapeutic Adventure Annotated Bibliography




Michael C. Young
Treatment/intervention Fidelity
Background Literature Support
Replication
Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
44. Citation
Hunter, I. R. (1987). The impact of an outdoor rehabilitation program for adjudicated
juveniles. Therapeutic Recreation Journal, 21(Third Quarter), 30-43.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine how the participants in an outdoor
rehabilitation program changed during the program. in order to assure sensitivity to a
broad range of dependent variables, qualitative methods were selected. Specifically, the
data collection and analysis procedures were structured using the constant comparative
method (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). The subjects were ten male adjudicated youths enrolled
in an outdoor activity program. The findings were divided into three sections: (1)
identification of existing rehabilitative stimuli, (2) description of subject behavior changes
which occurred during the program, and (3) identification of the internal processes which
had an impact on the subjects' behaviors (from the author).
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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45. Citation
Jacobson, S. (1993). Family strengths: Effects of participation in an
experiential/adventure-based program for clinically presenting families. University
of Texas, Arlington, TX.
Abstract
The use of ropes courses and other experiential/adventure-based therapy (EABT) as an
intervention with families is increasing, yet little research has addressed the outcome of
such programming. This study used a quasi-experimental design to explore the effects of
one such program. Seven families (n = 20) who were seeking family therapy volunteered to
participate in a five session multi-family EABT program. Differences in pre- and post-test
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Michael C. Young
scores indicated positive change in all measures, with the changes in the Reframing subscale of the Family Crisis Oriented Personal Evaluation Scale (F-COPES) (McCubbin,
Larsen, & Olson, 1982) demonstrating statistical significance. Scores for the Hudson Index
of Family Relations (1986), completed at each meeting, evidenced significant improvement
with each successive measure, and substantial improvements in comparison with scores of
the comparison group. Participating families cited a number of additional positive changes
in program questionnaires. The discussion of these findings includes recommendations for
practice, research, and policy.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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46. Citation
Jelalian, E., Mehlenbeck, R., Lloyd-Richardson, E. E., Birmaher, V., & Wing, R. R.
(2006). Adventure therapy combined with cognitive-behavioral treatment for
overweight adolescents. International Journal of Obesity, 30(1), 31.
Abstract
Objective: Since peers have such an important influence on adolescents, we evaluated the
efficacy of adding peer-based adventure therapy to a standard cognitive-behavioral weight
control program for overweight adolescents.
Methods:Adolescents (N=76) aged 13-16 years and 20 to 80% overweight (M=60.56%,
s.d.=15.17%), were randomly assigned to one of two treatment conditions: cognitivebehavioral group treatment with adventure therapy similar to Outward Bound (cognitivebehavioral treatment with peer-enhanced adventure therapy (CBT+PEAT)) or cognitivebehavioral group treatment with aerobic exercise (CBT+EXER). Anthropometric and
psychosocial measures were obtained at baseline, at the end of the 16-week intervention,
and at 10 months following randomization.
Results: Adolescents assigned to both treatment conditions demonstrated significant weight
loss over time, F=29.06, df=2, 53, P<0.01. Average weight loss did not differ significantly
between groups (5.31 kg for CBT+PEAT and 3.20 kg for CBT+EXER) at the end of
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Michael C. Young
treatment. There was a significant difference in the percentage of participants maintaining a
minimum 4.5 kg (10 pounds) weight loss (35% in the CBT+PEAT condition vs 12% in the
CBT+EXER condition, P=0.042) 10 months from randomization. We also observed a
significant age by treatment group interaction, such that older adolescents randomized to
CBT+PEAT demonstrated more than four times the weight loss of older adolescents
assigned to CBT+EXER (M=7.86 kg vs M=1.72 kg) at the end of treatment.
Conclusions: Peer-based adventure therapy is a promising adjunct to standard cognitivebehavioral weight control intervention for adolescents, and may be most effective for older
adolescents. International Journal of Obesity (2006) 30, 31–39.
doi:10.1038/sj.ijo.0803069; published online 13 September 2005 ABSTRACT FROM
AUTHOR Copyright of International Journal of Obesity is the property of Nature
Publishing Group and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted
to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may
print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No
warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original
published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
2
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47. Citation
Jones, C. D., Lowe, L. A., & Risler, E. A. (2004). The effectiveness of wilderness
adventure therapy programs for young people involved in the juvenile justice
system. Residential Treatment for Children & Youth, 22(2), 53-67.
Abstract
This study examines a sample of 35 male children and adolescents involved with a
northeastern district of the Georgia Department of Juvenile Justice. Subjects who
participated in wilderness adventure therapy programs are compared to those who
participated in group home programs. The study examines the rates of recidivism among
the subjects within each group. Pearson correlations, t-tests, and ANOVA were used in the
data analysis. No significant differences were found in recidivism rates. ABSTRACT
FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Residential Treatment for Children & Youth is the property
40
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Michael C. Young
of Haworth Press, Inc. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or
posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However,
users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be
abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the
original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all
Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
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 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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Kelly, F., & Baer, D. (1969). Jesness inventory and self concept measures for delinquents
before and after participation in outward bound. Psychological Reports, 25, 719724.
Abstract
60 male delinquents served as Ss [note: individual delinquents were assigned to groups of
non-delinquent students]. Significant changes were found on 6 Jesness Inventory Scales
indicating more favorable social attitudes and evaluation of feelings. Significant
improvements were also observed for 3 of 10 concept measures: (a) "I am," (b) "I would
like to be", and (c) "Boys who don't get into trouble." Results suggest that Outward Bound
is a desirable short-term means of promoting positive change in the social attitude and selfconcept of male delinquents. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights
reserved)
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 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
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 Power of Research Design
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49. Citation
Kemp, T. (1998). Panacea or poison? Building self-esteem through adventure experiences,
Exploring the Boundaries of Adventure Therapy: International Perspectives.
Proceedings of the International Adventure Therapy Conference (1st, Perth,
Australia, July 1997).
Abstract
Many outdoor educators and adventure therapists share the belief that adventure
experiences improve participant self-esteem. Recently, researchers have begun to question
this widespread belief, suggesting that a mismatch between the level of physical or
psychological risk and the level of client readiness may produce negative outcomes. A
study of 61 college students in South Australia examined the effects on self-esteem of
participation in an adventure learning course based on Group Adventure Initiative Tasks
(GAITS). The experimental group participated in a 15-week college course on group
dynamics incorporating GAITS, a series of group adventure tasks such as "spider's web"
that require minimal equipment and no specialized skills from participants. Each 2-hour
task was followed by a debriefing that explored the processes used to complete the task and
participant behaviors within the task. A control group studied group dynamics in a
lecture/tutorial format. Pretests and posttests with the Coppersmith Self-Esteem Inventory
(SEI) found no significant change in self-esteem in either group. Experimental participants
were categorized as very low, low, moderate, or high self-esteem according to their pretest
SEI scores. At posttest, self-esteem was unchanged in the very low group, increased in the
low and moderate groups, and decreased in the high group. Subgroup behaviors and
participant perceptions of course effects on their own self-esteem are discussed. (Contains
17 references.) (SV)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
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50. Citation
Kessell, M. J. (1994). Women's adventure group: Experiential therapy in an hmo setting.
Women & Therapy, 15(3-4), 185-203.
Abstract
Discusses a group for women with a program consisting of 3 sessions of yoga, a dance
therapy session, an initiatives course in the woods, and a 4-day rock climbing experience.
Women with diagnoses of major depression, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), anxiety,
and adjustment disorder participated. The group is based on the theory that women with
these diagnoses have learned in our culture to make decisions based on fear, to be
unassertive, to feel little control over their lives, and to isolate themselves from the
community. Long-term follow-up indicated that this was an ignition experience, sparking
changes in lifestyle and attitudes of many of the women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c)
2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
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Kopf, D. M. (1997). The effects of activity sequencing on challenge course group
development. Texas Tech University, US.
Abstract
In the rapidly expanding field of adventure-based therapy, group development has long
been recognized as a cornerstone for success. One of the critical factors considered
important by most theorists for successful group development is sequencing, or the order in
which activities are presented to participants. By sequentially ordering events so that they
are successively more challenging, adventure-based intervention theorists agree that group
development is facilitated. However, this theory, like many in this field, has not been
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Michael C. Young
experimentally tested. The current study seeks to investigate the relationship between
group development on a challenge course and sequencing of activities. In a typical
challenge course, activities can be divided into four stages: orientation, team activities,
advanced team activities, and termination. Each is designed to encourage the development
of different factors associated with successful group development. If sequencing is as
crucial as hypothesized, then altering the sequence of activities should have a measurable
impact on the development of groups as they progress through a challenge course. To
explore this hypothesis, three experimental groups proceeded through a challenge course.
Each experimental condition progressed through a normally ordered challenge course
sequence, but had a different stage omitted. Only the control condition groups participated
in all four stages. Using the Expressiveness, Anger/Aggression, and Order/Organization
subscales from the Group Environment Questionnaire (Moos, 1994) and the Engagement
and Avoidance dimensions from the Group Climate Questionnaire Short Form
(MacKenzie, 1983), 12 planned comparisons were made between the different
experimental conditions to see where differences lay. Preliminary analyses indicate there
were no differences based on ethnicity, age or gender on the variables of interest. Primary
results indicate that the only significant differences occurred on the experimental condi
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
52. Citation
Kraus, I. W. (1983). The effectiveness of wilderness therapy with emotionally disturbed
adolescents., Georgia State University, US.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
44
Therapeutic Adventure Annotated Bibliography
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Training Models
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53. Citation
Lambie, I., Hickling, L., Seymour, F., Simmonds, L., Robson, M., & Houlahan, C. (2000).
Using wilderness therapy in treating adolescent sexual offenders. Journal of Sexual
Aggression, 5(2), 99-117.
Abstract
Describes a follow-up study of 14 adolescent sexual offenders who had attended a
community treatment programme. A core component of their treatment included outdoor
wilderness group therapy. Interviews were conducted with adolescents and parents and
tapped several areas including social skills and peer relationships, victim empathy,
cognitive distortions, safety plans and coping with high risk situations, sexual offending
cycle, perceived level of risk, intimacy and sexuality. The study also examined the child
protection service records of the 14 adolescents. Data from child protection service
computer records showed that none of the adolescents had reoffended. Interviews with
adolescents and families focusing particularly on the wilderness component of the
programme showed positive changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all
rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
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Larson, B. A. (2007). Adventure camp programs, self-concept, and their effects on
behavioral problem adolescents. Journal of Experiential Education, 29(3), 313.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of an adventure camp program on the
self-concept of adolescents with behavioral problems. Subjects in the study included 61
randomly selected male and female adolescents ranging in age from 9 to 17 years with
behavioral problems. The treatment group of 31 adolescents was randomly selected from a
population (N = 85) of behavioral problem adolescents who voluntarily attended an
adventure camp. The control group of 30 adolescents was randomly selected from a
population (N = 80) that underwent treatment for behavioral problems. Analysis of
variance was utilized to determine if significant differences existed between the treatment
and control groups. The paired t test was utilized to determine within group differences
between pretest and posttest scores on both groups. Alpha for both tests was set at the .05
level. Analysis demonstrated a significant difference between the experimental and control
9- to 11-year-old age group's self-concept
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
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Lavine, A., & McAlpin, D. (1985). A follow-up study of releases from four delinquent
youth programs in florida. Rockland, ME: Hurricane Outward Bound School.
Abstract
This report, on file with Dr. Gass at the University of New Hampshire, was prepared by
independent research consultants for Outward Bound. The report is a follow-up to a
preliminary report on the recidivism rates of graduates of the Florida based Outward Bound
STEP program for juvenile offenders. The report compares these recidivism rates with
four other program models that were concurrently running in Florida: Halfway Houses,
START, STOP, and Training Schools. Results indicated that STEP was an effective and
cost efficient option when compared to the other models.
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
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 Power of Research Design
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56. Citation
Levine, D. (1994). Breaking through barriers: Wilderness therapy for sexual assault
survivors. Women & Therapy, 15(3-4), 175-184.
Abstract
Presents wilderness therapy (WT) for sexual assault survivors. WT combines counseling
with rigorous outdoor activities, creating situations that relate metaphorically to the original
assault. Women engage in activities that promote trust, self-esteem, confidence, intimacy,
and personal growth. They are faced with physically challenging situations which evoke
the same feelings of helplessness as the assault, but this time they are provided with the
chance to conquer them. The author hopes to build more widespread acceptance and
subsequent use of this model for survivors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all
rights reserved) [Author utilizes feedback from personally facilitated workshops and
sessions]
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
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57. Citation
Long, A. E. (2001). Learning the ropes: Exploring the meaning and value of experiential
education for girls at risk. Journal of Experiential Education, 24(2), 100.
Abstract
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
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Lorent, G., Peeters, L., & Debaenst, T. (2004). The adventure of engaging traumatic brain
injured patients in a therapeutic challenge course program. In S. Bandoroff & S.
Newes (Eds.), Coming of age: The evolving field of adventure therapy (pp. 182194). Boulder, CO: The Association for Experiential Education.
Abstract
A Challenge Course Program for Traumatic Brain-Injured (TBI) patients of a psychiatric
hospital was organized. The authors focused on high frequency of anosognosia (lack of
awareness due to TBI) and its different behavioral symptoms such as refusal to participate
in revalidation, incapability to learn from feedback, communication problems about
relevant functionality issues, and difficulties dealing with confrontation. These symptoms
are evaluated in view of the patients’ participation in an Experiential Outdoor Learning
Program. The complex clinical picture of anosognosia is analyzed, and a program that was
developed to address this challenging condition is reviewed. Working principals of the
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Michael C. Young
program are described and program findings are presented along with recommendations for
future efforts to treat this population through experiential program (abstract from the
authors).
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
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Martinez, M. C. (2003). A wilderness therapy program for a diverse goupof at risk
adolescent boys" changes in self esteem and locus of control and their relationship
to group affiliation. Unpublished Dissertation, Alliant International University, San
Francisco, CA.
Abstract
This dissertation examined the impact of a wilderness therapy program, R. M. Pyles Boys
Camp, on changes of self-esteem and locus of control and their relationship to group
affiliation. The study examined 223 at-risk adolescent boys between the ages of 12-16. A
pretest, posttest, and 9-month follow up experimental design was used. At each testing
period the adolescents completed the Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1979) and
the Nowicki-Strictland Locus of Control Scale (Nowicki-Strictland, 1973). At the second
administration, the Group Climate Questionnaire (McKenzie, 1981) was also administered.
The results demonstrated significant increases in self-esteem over time from pretest to
posttest and from pretest to nine month follow up. A significant change towards an internal
locus of control from pretest to posttest was found and from pretest to nine month followup. Significant change in self-esteem and locus of control was also found across three
ethnic groups (Caucasians, Latinos and African Americans) and across geographic regions
(Bakersfield County, Ventura County, and Los Angeles County). The changes in selfesteem and locus of control were not significantly related to perception of group affiliation;
however, the relationship was positive. The results of this study reveal that at risk
adolescents who participated in the wilderness program experienced a positive significant
change in their lives and that this well designed short-term program is effective.
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
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Case studies or clinical examples included
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Replication
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60. Citation
McCord, D. M. (1995). Toward a typology of wilderness-based residential treatment
program participants. Residential Treatment for Children and Youth, 12(4), 51-60.
Abstract
The MMPI profiles of 46 adolescent males admitted to a wilderness-based residential
treatment program were submitted to a cluster analysis procedure in an effort to discern
meaningfully different "types" of program participants. Three clusters emerged: Group I
(Nonconfomist), with an elevated scale 4 and a secondary mild elevation on scale 5, was
described as angry, resentful, passive-aggressive, immature, and narcissistic; Group II
(Party Animal), with mild to moderate elevations on scales 4 and 9, was described as
hedonistic, extraverted, rule-avoidant, and defiant toward authority; Group III (Emotionally
Disturbed), with significant elevations on scales F, 4, 8, 6, 2, and 9, were the most highly
distressed. While these results are consistent with clinical experience, they should be seen
as quite preliminary. Cross-validation studies should be conducted using participants in
other treatment programs and subject variables other than MMPI scores.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
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61. Citation
McNamara, D. N. (2002). Adventure-based programming: Analysis of therapeutic benefits
with children of abuse and neglect. University of South Carolina, US.
Abstract
Adventure therapy, also known as wilderness therapy, adventure based counseling (ABC),
or outdoor experiential learning, has been systematically implemented for nearly 60 years.
Although there is a significant amount of research that has demonstrated several benefits of
adventure based programs, the tendency to focus exclusively on outcome variables and
ignore the process and theory behind adventure based programs has precluded a thorough
understanding of how and why adventure programs work. A review of the literature also
demonstrates the lack of attention given to adventure based counseling with pre-adolescent
age children, and the need to systematically explore the use of adventure programming
with this population is clear. The purpose of this study was to the process of a local
adventure based program entitled 'Adventure Challenge 2000.' Participants in the program
were boys, 9-11 years of age, who had suffered from abuse and/or neglect. Using a case
study approach, how and why 'Adventure Challenge 2000' impacts participants' selfconcept and interpersonal skills was examined in detail. Results demonstrate some support
for 'Adventure Challenge 2000's' positive impact on dimensions of self-concept and
particular interpersonal skills. Specifically, general competence, physical, and social
dimensions of self-concept appears to have been impacted. Analysis of the data also
reflected that such interpersonal skill as cooperation ('working together'), problem
solving/conflict resolution, sharing, asking/giving help, anger management, responsibility,
communication, and trust were positively influenced. Staff identified the 'experiential
framework', 'challenging components', and 'cooperative tasks' as characteristics thought to
be responsible for therapeutic gains. Results from this study were used to develop a
hypothesized model that represents the process of change in this particular adventure
program. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
62. Citation
51
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Michael C. Young
Michalski, J. H., Mishna, F., Worthington, C., & Cummings, R. (2003). A multi-method
impact evaluation of a therapeutic summer camp program. Child & Adolescent
Social Work Journal, 20(1), 53-76.
Abstract
This article reports on a multi-method impact evaluation of a therapeutic summer camp
program for children and youth with learning disabilities and related psychosocial
problems. The study examines the degree to which program objectives were achieved
through a pre-camp, post-camp, follow-up design using a series of standardized
instruments, camp evaluations, and interviews with parents. The results indicate that the
campers reported less social isolation, experienced modest improvements in self-esteem,
and expressed high levels of satisfaction with the camp. The measures for social skills
generally failed to register significant changes, although parents reported improvements in
the areas of cooperation, responsibility, and self-control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
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 Replication
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63. Citation
Moote Jr., G. T., & Wodarski, J. S. (1997). The acquisition of life skills through adventurebased activities and programs: A review of the literature. Adolescence, 32(125),
143-168.
Abstract
This paper discusses the definition of at-risk elementary and secondary school students and
identifies incidence and prevalence of various related stressors and behaviors. Assessment
issues for at-risk students are highlighted. Theoretical issues that pertain to early
adolescence and educational adventure-based program approaches that have been used to
intervene or assist in risk remediation for the identified student are addressed. A
comparison between the adventure-based programs and the more traditional life skills
approach is presented. Empirical evaluations and limitations of adventure programming
and adventure-based counseling as well as practice implications and suggestions for further
research are reviewed.
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
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64. Citation
Mossman, E., & Goldthorpe, C. (2004). Adventure development counseling research study:
Some "hows" and "whys" of doing research. In S. Bandoroff & S. Newes (Eds.),
Coming of age: The evolving field of adventure therapy (pp. 156-171). Boulder,
CO: Association for Experiential Education.
Abstract
In order to describe the research and evaluation suggestions indicated by the title of this
chapter, the authors present the “development and findings of the Adventure Development
Counseling (ADC) Research Study. The ADC Research Study evaluated the outcomes and
processes of a community-based multi-modal adolescent mental health programme, known
as the ‘Adventure Development Counselling’ programme. This programme integrates
individual and family therapy with a 9-day, group wilderness therapy experience. The
research methodology adopted combined quantitative and qualitative methods.” Significant
and clinical improvements by program participants were found.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
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65. Citation
Mulholland, R., & Williams, A. (1998). Exploring together outdoors: A family therapy
approach based in the outdoors, Exploring the Boundaries of Adventure Therapy:
International Perspectives. Proceedings of the International Adventure Therapy
Conference (1st, Perth, Australia, July 1997).
Abstract
The Exploring Together Outdoors Program is an Australian program that integrates family
therapy interventions with adventure therapy, providing an opportunity for mother/child
dyads that have conflictual relationships to develop more positive connections. This paper
focuses on a group of four mothers and their four daughters who participated in 2 adventure
therapy weekends and a family day 1 year later. A description of program activities focuses
on the changed context of mother-child interaction, support and influence of the group, and
creation by mother-daughter pairs of more positive narratives about each other.
Questionnaires about changed perceptions of competence in self and other, and changed
relationships within the mother-child dyad were completed after each occasion. All parties
reported important changes in how they saw themselves and the other family member:
these changes included more positive feelings for each other, less conflict, more
communication, a greater sense of physical competence, and increased personal
confidence. These results are discussed in terms of blending certain family therapy
practices with adventure therapy, which triggers thoughts about aspects of life quite
different from everyday matters, and promotes quite different perspectives from which to
view one's parent, one's child, or oneself. Nine tables present comparisons of the mothers'
and daughters' responses to nine questions. Appendices include additional tables of
responses. (Contains 22 references.) (TD)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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66. Citation
Neill, J. T., & Heubeck, B. (1998). Adolescent coping styles and outdoor education:
Searching for the mechanisms of change, Exploring the Boundaries of Adventure
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Michael C. Young
Therapy: International Perspectives. Proceedings of the International Adventure
Therapy Conference (1st, Perth, Australia, July 1997).
Abstract
The coping responses of 251 Australian high school students involved in outdoor education
programs were examined using a modified version of the Adolescent Coping Scale (ACS).
Coping includes all strategies, whether cognitive, emotional, or physical, that a person uses
to negotiate a stable balance between the internal psychological state and external stressors.
The students, aged 14-15, participated in a 9- or 10-day Outward Bound program as a
school requirement and later indicated which of the 79 coping strategies on the ACS had
been used to handle problems encountered during the program. Findings show that
adolescents reported a more productive coping profile during the outdoor education
experience than adolescents in normative settings. Open-ended responses showed use of
some coping strategies specific to the situation, such as thinking about home, writing in a
diary, sharing concerns around the campfire, and going to bed early. The strongest
predictor of psychological distress and decreased well-being was the use of nonproductive
coping strategies such as ignoring the problem or wishful thinking. On the other hand,
participants who reported using problem-solving strategies were more likely to experience
positive mental states during the program. The study concludes that practitioners should
help participants find positive and functional alternatives to nonproductive coping
responses. (Contains 22 references.) (SAS)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
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67. Citation
Neill, J. T. (2003). Reviewing and benchmarking adventure therapy outcomes:
Applications of meta-analysis. Journal of Experiential Education, 25(3), 316.
Abstract
Summarizes evidence from meta-analyses of outdoor education, psychotherapy, and
education which can be used to help determine the relative efficacy of adventure therapy
programs. Key steps for advancing adventure therapy; Definition of effect sizes;
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Michael C. Young
Contextualization of adventure therapy outcomes; Limitations of meta-analysis;
Conclusions.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
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68. Citation
Newes, S. L. (2004). Predicting recidivism among juvenile offenders participating in an
adventure-based therapy intervention. Pennsylvania State University, US.
Abstract
Juvenile crime is a problem of national concern. Given the high level of recidivism among
this population, it is important to identify variables that may be predictive of recidivistic
behavior. The present study examined whether the predictive value for variables found
previously in the non-intervention literature is the same or different in the context of an
intervention designed to positively impact recidivism. In addition, this study examined
whether any additional predictive value was attributed to novel predictors. Specifically, this
study investigated whether the demographic/historic variables of age of first convicted
offense and number of previous offenses, and the psychological characteristics of pre-test
levels of MMPI-A scales 4 and 9, pre-test and adjusted post-test levels of the Tennessee
Self-Concept Scale Total, and pre-test and adjusted post-test levels of the sensation seeking
Disinhibition subscale were predictive of recidivism among juvenile offenders court
mandated to an adventure-based therapy program. Results indicated that age of first offense
and the adjusted post-test Disinhibition subscale were significant predictors. Examinations
such as this have applied implications, as they may ultimately allow us the ability to more
effectively provide individuals with the most appropriate treatment or correctional setting.
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was able to
acquire this study
but the copy I
received was
incomplete.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
56
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Michael C. Young
Results Reporting
Training Models
Power of Research Design
Instrumentation
Cultural Variability
Treatment/intervention Fidelity
Background Literature Support
Replication
Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
69. Citation
Nicholls, V. (2004). Busy doing nothing: Exploring the merits of inactivity within an
activity-oriented wilderness program. In S. Bandoroff & S. Newes (Eds.), Coming
of age: The evolving field of adventure therapy (pp. 172-181). Boulder, CO: The
Association for Experiential Education.
Abstract
The “Doing” of Wilderness Therapy that is generally associated with overt and specific
change dominates both the literature and research. The “Being” of Wilderness Therapy
associated with stillness, silence, ruminative thinking, and spontaneous and initiative
learning is acknowledged but not generally recognized as an alternate and valid way of
knowing, despite recent findings in the cognitive sciences. This paper outlines the author’s
doctoral research into participant experiences of “Stillness” within a challenge-based and
action-oriented Wilderness Therapy program. The personal experiences that motivated the
study and the use of photography as part of the qualitative methodology are described. The
paper concludes with extracts from early data collection and analysis.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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70. Citation
Orren, P. M. (2003). The effects of brief wilderness programs in relaion to adolescents
particpants' ethnicity., Alliant International University, San Francisco, CA.
Abstract
This research assessed the effects of brief wilderness programs on adolescent participants'
self-concepts, internalizing and externalizing behaviors, and environmental attitudes. This
study also explored whether the effects of these programs differed in relation to the
ethnicity of the participant.
This study used a pretest-posttest design with existing groups. Treatment group participants
( n = 67) consisted of active wilderness program participants who were recruited from brief
wilderness programs primarily within California. Comparison group participants ( n = 76)
consisted of adolescents waiting to participate in brief wilderness outings in the same
region.
Adolescent participants completed the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale and a shortened
version of the Children's Environmental Response Inventory at baseline and posttest, two
weeks to one month after baseline. A supplementary questionnaire was administered to the
treatment group youth at posttest only. Adolescents' primary caregivers completed a
demographic questionnaire at baseline only and the Child Behavior Checklist at baseline
and posttest. Treatment group outing leaders completed the Wilderness Therapy Checklist
at posttest for youth in the treatment group.
Results were not consistent with the central hypothesis: no differential improvement was
found in self-concept, environmental attitudes, or internalizing/externalizing behaviors for
the treatment group. However, within the treated group, differential change in reported selfconcept between baseline and posttest was found based on the ethnicity of the wilderness
program participant. From baseline to posttest, African Americans' self-concept scores
dropped, whereas those of members of other ethnic groups did not. Differential changes in
internalizing and externalizing behaviors and environmental attitudes were not found based
on the ethnicity of the wilderness program participant.
The overall findings suggest that brief wilderness programs may not be beneficial in
creating change in the self-concept, behaviors, or environmental attitude of adolescent
participants. This lack of beneficial effects appears to be related to the finding that youth
did not report experiencing the presumed effective ingredients of wilderness programs,
such as learning from experiences, in these brief programs. Results of analyses considering
participants' ethnicity suggest the potential usefulness of continued and expanded research
on ethnicity as a factor in reactions to wilderness programs.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
58
Therapeutic Adventure Annotated Bibliography
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Michael C. Young
Results Reporting
Training Models
Power of Research Design
Instrumentation
Cultural Variability
Treatment/intervention Fidelity
Background Literature Support
Replication
Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
71. Citation
Parker, M., & Stoltenberg, C. (1995). Use of adventure experiences in traditional
counseling interventions. Psychological Reports, 77(3), 1376-1379.
Abstract
Use of adventure as an intervention in traditional counseling was explored with 84
adolescent clients from two community-based counseling agencies and residents from two
boys' homes. The adolescents were assigned to conditions of counseling plus adventure
experiences, counseling only, adventure only, or a control. Analysis indicated limited
support for increasing self-esteem and social skills by adding adventure experiences to ongoing counseling.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
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72. Citation
Parzen, M. D. (2001). 'culturally appropriate' mental health care: Wilderness therapy and
navajo youth. Dissertation Abstracts International Section A: Humanities & Social
Sciences, 62(1-), 226.
Abstract
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Michael C. Young
Despite the rapid proliferation of wilderness therapy programs throughout Native America,
there have been no in-depth studies to support, contradict, or modify the hypothesis that
wilderness therapy is a culturally appropriate mental health intervention for American
Indian youth. Seeking to fill this gap in the cross-cultural counseling literature, this
dissertation reports upon a year of ethnographic fieldwork with the Nat'aani Trails
Wilderness Challenge (NTWC), a wilderness therapy program for troubled Navajo youth
run by the Indian Health Service (IHS) in Ft. Defiance, Arizona. The overall objective of
the dissertation is to provide a critical examination of the complex intersections among
wilderness therapy as an ethnopsychiatry, Navajo cultural psychology, and youth coming
of age in contemporary Navajo society. The study thus not only documents an emergent
mental health care treatment alternative in Native America, but also problematizes the
assumption that wilderness therapy is a culturally appropriate therapeutic modality for
Navajo and other American Indian youth. More generally, the dissertation serves as a case
study in the cross-cultural delivery of mental health services and the discourse of 'culturally
appropriate' mental health care that surrounds it. Illustrating the potentially paradoxical
relationship between therapeutic efficacy and cultural compatibility, the dissertation
encourages readers to question both how we define culturally appropriate mental health
care and how we go about evaluating it. Ultimately, the dissertation suggests a fundamental
re-orientation of our discursive practices around the critical issue of community ownership.
(PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
73. Citation
Pawlowski, M. H., Gwili, H., & Julian, R. (1993). Wilderness therapy for psychiatric
disorder. Mental Health in Australia, 5(1), 8-14.
Abstract
Evaluated the efficacy of wilderness therapy for 17 psychiatric hospital patients with
schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. Both diagnostic groups reported substantial benefits, and
these were attributed mainly to the physical and psychological challenges of spending 5
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Michael C. Young
days hiking and camping in low mountain ranges. Ss were also required to cooperate and
socialize with others. Benefits were reflected in statistically significant changes in scores
on questionnaires (including the Brief Symptom Inventory) and reductions in hospital
readmission rates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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74. Citation
Plakun, E., Tucker, G., & Harris, P. (1981). Outward bound: An adjunctive psychiatric
therapy. Journal of Psychiatric Treatment and Evaluation, 3, 33-37.
Abstract
The authors report on three years experience with an Outward Bound Program modified for
psychiatric inpatients. Fifty-two consecutive patients completed a questionnaire before and
after their initial half-day experience. Demographic, diagnostic, and personality data were
gathered. Patients were divided into "improved," "got worse," and "no change" groups by
their difference in response to one questionnaire item that assessed patients' expectation of
Outward Bound related improvements in their overall coping ability. Internal locus of
control (as measured by the Adult Nowicki-Strickland Scale), and possibly maleness, were
associated with an improved expectation of coping ability after the experience.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
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Replication
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1
2
1
0
75. Citation
Pommier, J. H. (1994). Experiential education therapy plus family training: Outward
bounds school's efficacy with status offenders., Texas A & M, College Station.
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact on several behavioral, family and
self-perception variables of an Outward Bound School program for adolescent status
offenders that included a family training component (Family In Need of Structure; FINS).
Adolescent self-perceptions were assessed with Harter's Self-Perception Profile for
Adolescents (SPPA) and Self- Perception Profile for Parents (SPPP). Eight specific
domains and global self-worth were measured. The youth's behavioral problems were
assessed by parents using the Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI). Thirty-six problem
behaviors and an overall intensity score were assessed using the instrument. Family
cohesiveness and adaptability data were collected from both the adolescents and their
parents using Olsen's Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation Scale-II (FACES-II).
Data were collected for both the experimental group (n = 39) and control group subjects (n
= 40) before the program started, twenty-eight days after the program started, and four
months after the start of the treatment program.
A 2 x 3 analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to determine interaction
effects between Group (experimental students and control students; or experimental
students and experimental parents) and Time (pre-test, post-test, and four-month post-test)
scores. The Scheffe multiple comparison test was used to determine the pattern of
differences for the Group x Time interaction if the interaction was found to be significant
(p <.05). A one-way analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to determine
differences for each Group over the three time periods. If significant, the pattern of
difference between the three time periods were analyzed by the Scheffe test.
Results revealed that the Outward Bound School program with family training was
effective in reducing problem behavior and problem behavior intensity score perceptions,
increasing family adaptability and cohesiveness, and increasing adolescent self-perception
score perceptions. Results also revealed that experimental parent and student interaction
effects were not significant for the majority of the variables
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
Rubric Score
2
0
2
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Results Reporting
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Replication
Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Michael C. Young
0
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76. Citation
Post, D. M. (2003). A national examination of processing techniques and staff
characteristics in outdoor behavioral healthcare programs. Journal of Therapeutic
Wilderness Camping, 3(1), 16-34.
Abstract
A study examined therapeutic techniques and staff characteristics in outdoor behavioral
healthcare (OBH) programs for delinquent adolescents. Surveys of 32 OBH programs
indicated that most counseling was done by non-clinical field staff. Therapeutic techniques
most used were verbal, written, active, metaphoric transfer, generalization and transfer,
solo experiences, and artistic. (Contains 224 references.) (TD)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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77. Citation
Price, R., & DeBever, M. (1998). The windana therapeutic community's action adventure
program, Exploring the Boundaries of Adventure Therapy: International
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Michael C. Young
Perspectives. Proceedings of the International Adventure Therapy Conference (1st,
Perth, Australia, July 1997).
Abstract
The Windana Society is a drug and alcohol agency in Victoria (Australia) that operates,
among other things, a residential drug rehabilitation program in a rural setting. The
program utilizes a holistic approach that addresses health and physical fitness; education;
vocational and re-integration support; and psychological, emotional, spiritual, and
environmental needs. The regime includes individual and group therapy, physical work on
the property, domestic routines, relaxation, arts and crafts, health and fitness, recreation,
and an action adventure program. The regular outdoor recreation program and the
adventure program use adventure experiences as a therapeutic process to complement
mainstream methods within the residential program. To evaluate the program, a trek was
organized in 1996 in conjunction with the Australian Therapeutic Communities
Association conference. Four females and six males from the residential program spent 2
weeks on initial fitness training and orientation, 1 week on a coastal trek, 1 week on an
alpine trek, 1 week rafting, and 2 weeks traveling to and trekking the Strezlecki Desert.
Evaluation results found a "very high" increase in social competence; a "high" increase in
time management and task leadership; "outstanding" and "very high" increases in
achievement motivation and emotional control; and "below average" nonsignificant
findings for self-confidence, active initiative, and intellectual flexibility. Recommendations
for further evaluation and more complete integration into the treatment process are
discussed. (TD)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
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78. Citation
Richardson, E. D. (2003). Adventure-based therapy and self-efficacy theory: Test of a
treatment model for late adolescents with depressive symptomatology. Virginia
Polytechnic Inst And State U., US.
Abstract
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Michael C. Young
The primary objective of the current study was to propose and test a model for
conceptualizing changes that occur as a result of adventure-based therapy (ABT), using
self-efficacy theory as the conceptual foundation. Other objectives were to test the effects
of ABT on depressive symptomatology and related psychosocial variables (e.g., anxiety,
self-esteem). One-hundred and nine college freshmen participated in the screening
procedure. Subjects who indicated mild to severe depressive symptomatology on a selfreport measure and did not report past history of trauma were invited to participate in the
study. Forty-one individuals were randomly assigned to either the adventure-based therapy
(ABT) condition (i.e., a one-day ropes course experience) or to a placebo-control condition
(i.e., an extended walk outdoors in a group). Subjects were divided into two cohorts, each
with treatment and control groups, because of safety requirements related to capacity on the
ropes course. Self-report instruments were completed immediately prior to participation
(i.e., pretest), immediately following participation (i.e., posttest), and at 2-weeks and 2months post participation. Primary multivariate analyses of variance performed on state
and trait dependent measures did not yield statistically significant interactions; therefore,
results indicated that ABT may not significantly decrease depressive and anxious
symptomatology in late adolescents with depressive symptomatology. However, data were
further analyzed for exploration in light of the generally low statistical power and group
differences suggested by graphic displays of data. Exploratory analyses suggested that
ABT may increase efficacy for coping with anxiety created by novel situations and efficacy
for working and problem-solving in a group. It was therefore suggested that self-efficacy
theory warrants further consideration as a theoretical framework for explaining changes
that occur as a result of ABT. In addition, exploratory analyses suggested that ABT may
also reduce anxiety and general psychological distress. Finally, depressive symptomatology
decreased for individuals in the ABT treatment group and the placebo-control group
according to exploratory analyses; however, there were no differences between groups.
Further exploration of the potential effects of ABT on depressive and anxious
symptomatology and general psychological distress is warranted. (PsycINFO Database
Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
65
Therapeutic Adventure Annotated Bibliography
Michael C. Young
79. Citation
Romi, S., & Kohan, E. (2004). Wilderness programs: Principles, possibilities and
opportunities for intervention with dropout adolescents. Child & Youth Care
Forum, 33(2), 115-136.
Abstract
Wilderness Programs (WP) are specialized frameworks for group therapy in an unfamiliar
environment. The participants progress through a series of increasingly difficult challenges
which seem unsolvable, yet are structured in such a way that success is guaranteed. The
present article will describe the principles of WP, followed by the findings of a field
research which examined the effect of a WP on a group of dropout youth in Israel,
comparing them to an alternative therapy program and a contrast group. The assumptions
of the research were that self-esteem and locus of control in the Wilderness group would be
improved in comparison to the alternative group and to the contrast group. The research
findings partially supported these assumptions, pointing to a significant progress of both
experimental groups compared to the contrast group. The WP group stood apart in its
results, showing increased self-esteem in four out of six factors compared to the contrast
group, but there was no significant change compared to the Alternative Program group. In
both experimental groups a clear significant improvement was found in locus of control
after the intervention, in contrast to a decrease in those who did not take part in the
activities. The discussion will address the research findings and the possibilities and
opportunities presented by WP.ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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80. Citation
Ross, S. (2003). The therapeutic effects of an adventure challenge program on the personal
empowerment of women survivors of sexual trauma. Journal of Experiential
Education, 25(3), 350.
Abstract
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Michael C. Young
Provides information on a study that examined the effects of a three-day adventure therapy
program, Survivors of Abuse Growing Experientially through Therapeutic Recreation and
Experiential Education or SAGE TREE, on the personal empowerment of women survivors
of sexual trauma. Methodology of the study; Results and discussion on the study.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
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81. Citation
Russell, K. C., & Phillips-Miller, D. (2002). Perspectives on the wilderness therapy process
and its relation to outcome. Child & Youth Care Forum, 31(6), 415-437.
Abstract
This study examined the wilderness therapy process in order to better understand how the
intervention effects change in problem behavior of adolescent clients. A review of literature
reveals multiple definitions of wilderness therapy, numerous studies evaluating treatment
outcomes, and a need to focus research on how the process facilitates change. This study
investigated four established wilderness therapy programs using a multisite case study
approach and a variety of qualitative data collection methods to carefully examine the
wilderness therapy experience of 12 clients in four wilderness therapy programs. Findings
indicate that physical exercise and hiking, primitive wilderness living, peer feedback
facilitated by group counseling sessions, and the therapeutic relationship established with
wilderness guides and therapists were key change agents for adolescents. These factors
helped adolescents come to terms with their behavior and facilitated a desire to want to
change for the better.ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
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Power of Research Design
Instrumentation
Cultural Variability
Treatment/intervention Fidelity
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82. Citation
Russell, K. (2003). An assessment of outcomes in outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment.
Child & Youth Care Forum, 32(6), 355-381.
Abstract
Outdoor behavioral healthcare (OBH) is an emerging treatment that utilizes wilderness
therapy to help adolescents struggling with behavioral and emotional problems. The
approach involves immersion in wilderness or comparable lands, group living with
wilderness leaders and peers, and individual and group therapy sessions facilitated by
licensed therapists in the field. OBH also offers educational and psychoeducational
curriculum all designed to reveal and address problem behaviors, foster personal and social
responsibility, and enhance the emotional growth of clients. The extant studies on the
effectiveness of OBH and wilderness therapy reveal consistent lack of theoretical basis,
methodological shortcomings and results that are difficult to replicate. This publication
reports the results of an outcome assessment for adolescent clients who received treatment
in seven participating OBH programs that averaged 45 days in length from May 1, 2000 to
December 1, 2000. Adolescent client well-being was evaluated utilizing the Youth
Outcome Questionnaire (Y-OQ) and the Self Report-Youth Outcome Questionnaire (SR YOQ) (Burlingame, Wells, & Lambert, 1995). Complete data sets at admission and
discharge were collected for 523 client self-report and 372 parent assessments. Results
indicated that at admission clients exhibited presenting symptoms similar to inpatient
samples, which were on average significantly reduced at discharge. Follow-up assessments
using a random sample of clients found that on average, outcomes had been maintained at
12-months posttreatment.ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
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83. Citation
Russell, K. C. (2003). A nation-side survey of outdoor behavioral healthcare programs for
adolescents with problem behaviors. Journal of Experiential Education, 25(3), 322.
Abstract
Provides information on a study that conducted a nationwide survey to improve
understanding about outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment services for adolescents with
problem behaviors. Methodology of the study; Results and discussion on the study;
Conclusions.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
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Russell, K. (2005). Two years later: A qualitative assessment of youth well-being
and the role of aftercare in outdoor behavioral healthcare treatment. Child & Youth
Care Forum, 34(3), 209.
Abstract
This study evaluated youth well-being 24-months after the conclusion of outdoor
behavioral healthcare (OBH) treatment and explored how youth transition to a variety of
post-treatment settings. OBH treatment involves integrating clinical treatment approaches
with wilderness expeditions that average over 50 days. Transition from OBH treatment
often requires that youth and family utilize aftercare services, which are typically: (a)
outpatient services, which are comprised of individualized, group or family therapy, or (b)
residential services, which are comprised of residential treatment centers, therapeutic
boarding schools, and others. The results suggest that 80% of parents and 95% of youths
perceived OBH treatment as effective, the majority of clients were doing well in school,
and family communication had improved. Aftercare was utilized by 85% of the youths and
was perceived as a crucial component in facilitating the transition from an intensive
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Michael C. Young
wilderness experience to family, peer and school environments. Results also indicated that
many continued to use alcohol and/or drugs to varying degrees, had legal problems, and
still had issues forming friendships with peers. OBH treatment was perceived as being a
necessary and effective step in helping youths address, and eventually overcome, emotional
and psychological issues that were driving destructive behavior prior to OBH treatment.
ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of Child & Youth Care Forum is the property of
Springer Science & Business Media B.V. and its content may not be copied or emailed to
multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written
permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This
abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users
should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract.
(Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
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Russell, K. C. (2006). Evaluating the effects of the wendigo lake expeditions program on
young offenders. Journal of Juvenile Justice and Youth Violence, 4(2), 185-203.
Abstract
This study reports an evaluative case study of Wendigo Lake Expeditions (WLE), a
continuous intake, open custody program for young offenders that uses a positive youth
development approach. Four objectives guided the case study: (a) describe and illustrate
WLE's approach to working with adjudicated youth, (b) identify and report perceptions of
the program and process, (c) assess changes in their well-being utilizing the YouthOutcome Questionnaire (Y-OQ), and (d) track postprogram recidivism rates. Results
indicated a significant improvement in youth well-being indicated by significant score
reductions on the Y-OQ. Of the 40 youths contacted at the follow-up assessment, 21 (53%)
had been charged with a criminal offense during this period, including those charged for
administrative offences such as breaching conditions of probation, whereas 19 (47%) had
not been charged. Implications of positive youth development programming for adjudicated
youth are discussed.
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Michael C. Young
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Russell, K. C., & Harper, N. (2006). Incident monitoring in outdoor behavioral healthcare
programs: A four-year summary of restraint, runaway, injury and illness rates.
Journal of Therapeutic Schools and Programs, 1(1), 70-90.
Abstract
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
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87. Citation
Russell, K. C. (2006). Examining substance use frequency and depressive symptom
outcome in a sample of outdoor behavioral healthcare participants, technical
report 1: Outdoor Behavioral Healthcare Research Cooperative, University of
Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
Abstract
Outdoor behavioral healthcare (OBH) programs subscribe to a multimodal treatment approach
within the context of wilderness environments and backcountry travel to facilitate progress toward
individualized treatment goals. The approach incorporates the use of evidence-based clinical
practices including individual client assessment, individual and group psychotherapy conducted
and/or supervised by licensed clinicians, and the development of individual treatment and aftercare
plans. The myth of the “continuum of care” talked about by behavioral healthcare experts that
consists of services in schools, outpatient, inpatient, day treatment, and accessible residential
facilities is a growing concern among behavioral healthcare experts and presupposes the demand
for services like OBH. The growing demand and increased awareness of OBH services makes the
evaluation and assessment of outcomes critical.
The four specific aims that guided this study were to assess: 1) the readiness and motivation to
change problem behaviors of adolescent clients at admission and discharge, including treatment
satisfaction at discharge; 2) client’s substance use histories and the prevalence of substance use
disorders at admission, discharge, and follow-up; 3) depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms at
admission, discharge, and follow-up; 4) and the therapeutic alliance between client-to-client and
client-to-therapist and two distinct periods during the treatment process.
A total of 872 clients were involved in the study. The median treatment length was 49 days; the
study population was predominantly male (68%) and Caucasian (81%), with one-third being female
and approximately 15% representing other ethnic origins. Three-quarters of all clients received
some type of substance use diagnosis (75.2%), one-fifth were diagnosed with only a mental health
diagnosis, and one-half were dual diagnosed with both a substance use and a mental health
diagnosis. Three-quarters of all clients in this sample had tried at least some form of outpatient
counseling services prior to OBH.
Readiness to change results at admission suggested that 44% of the sample demonstrated a lack of
action on addressing any problem issues in their lives, and were not actively thinking about any
personal problems they may have had. They were merely going through the motions and
maintaining the status quo. An additional 30% of the sample was characterized as being reluctant to
take action on a problem, although they had begun to think about it to some degree. Almost onethird (28%) of the sample were in the participating profile and demonstrated an active participation
to address issues they personally felt were important to their well-being. At discharge, 90% of the
sample had shifted to either an active participation or a maintenance profile, suggesting a shift to
actively working on issues that may have brought them to treatment.
Depression, anxiety and stress domains showed significant improvement for males and females
from admission to the six-month follow-up period and remained in the mild category for both
genders at 6 months, suggesting maintenance or continued improvement in these domains after
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Michael C. Young
treatment. No significant differences were found between those that utilized inpatient or outpatient
services for aftercare across these three domains.
Regarding substance use frequency outcomes at six months, it appears that OBH treatment may be
an effective treatment for reducing the frequency of substance use, especially the more serious
substances, following the intervention. This is evidenced by the data that showed significant
reductions in frequency of use across the range of mental health diagnoses and aftercare types used
following treatment. However, though use was significantly reduced, as much as half the sample of
adolescents had reported using substances in the previous three months. Those clients who were
currently in residential aftercare reported significantly less use than did those in outpatient settings.
Study participants were asked at 6 months post-treatment to rate their relative satisfaction with the
treatment process. The majority (67%) would recommend the program to friends in trouble, and
58% stated their problems were a great deal better, with 33% stating they were somewhat better.
Over 60% said they would return to the program if they ever had a need, while 23% said they
would not. When asked about aftercare plans and their value to helping them post-treatment, over
80% said they remembered staff assisting them with their aftercare plan, and 70% said the plan was
helpful. (Abstract is from Author’s “Executive Summary”)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
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Sallans, D. (1999). Nancy's story. Journal of Experiential Education, 22(3), 162-163.
Abstract
This short publication details the personal experience of previously psychotic patient's
participation on a five-day outdoor adventure program. The participant describes the
positive effects it had on her confidence and her development of hope. The article also
connects specific aspects of the program to these outcomes.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
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Stich, T. F., & Sussman, L. R. (1983). Outward bound--an adjunctive psychiatric therapy:
Preliminary research findings. In Outward bound in alcohol treatment and mental
health (pp. 7). Greenwich, CT: Outward Bound.
Abstract
According to a small study, Outward Bound can enhance the treatment of hospitalized
psychiatric patients. Researchers measured the effect of a therapeutic Outward Bound
program of prescribed physical and social tasks on the contentment and self-esteem of
seven patients undergoing short-term treatment at the Veterans Administration Hospital in
White River Junction, Vermont. After selection by the medical staff, the seven male
patients, all between the ages of 25 and 50, participated in three weekly, 4-hour Outward
Bound sessions that included a ropes course, rock climbs, and a rappel. Pre- and post-test
results indicated a statistically significant effect of Outward Bound on contentment and a
positive but statistically insignificant effect on self-esteem. Results of a comparison to a
control group were insignificant. Effects of the Outward Bound program did not dissipate
during treatment and the Outward Bound patients had a shorter mean stay in the hospital. A
questionnaire and self-rating scale completed by 45% of the test group after four months
confirmed the findings at the time of hospitalization. Further research is suggested. (SB)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
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90. Citation
Stopha, B. (1994). Women on the ropes: Change through challenge. Women & Therapy,
15(3-4), 101-109.
Abstract
Discusses using the ropes course as a powerful tool for learning and increasing self-esteem
and awareness for many women in society. Leadership development is stifled in some
women while others feel the pressure of having to lead. The all-women ropes course
experience presents opportunities for women to explore their fears, trust themselves and
others, and try out their leadership skills in a safe and supportive environment. Women
gain a new sense of possibility by seeing other women do what society claims they should
not be doing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2002 APA, all rights reserved) Utilizes
feedback from participants in trainings facilitated by author.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
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91. Citation
Svobodny, L. A. (1979). Increasing self concept through outward bound. Paper presented
at the Annual International Convention, The Council for Exceptional Children,
Dallas, Texas.
Abstract
The study investigated the outcomes of two intervention programs for 60 male juvenile
offenders (aged 13-17 years). Group I (30 Ss) were placed at a correctional camp facility
modeled after the Outward Bound program, which incorporates a particular treatment
concept designed to increase self esteem. Group II participants (30 Ss) were placed on
probation within their home community. Pre- and post-treatment self concept scores were
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Michael C. Young
employed for both groups. Group I was given additional cognitive and social assessments.
Research findings indicated that there was a significant difference in post-treatment self
concept scores between Group I and Group II. The adjusted mean score for Group I was
significantly higher than the adjusted mean for Group II. Group I made significant gains in
self concept scores from pre-treatment to post-treatment assessment. Group II did not make
significant gains. Investigation of the use of pre-treatment cognitive variables to predict
post-treatment social adjustment scores for Group I revealed a significant proportion of the
variance can be predicted. The single best predictor was pre-treatment arithmetic scores.
(Author/SBH)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
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92. Citation
Tillotson, S. M. (1994). The effect of experiential family therapy (ropes) on changes in
attributional and defensive communication patterns for adolescent sexual offenders.
Saint Louis University.
Abstract
This study examined the dimensions of interpersonal processes between adolescent sexual
offenders and their families in the beginning stages of treatment. The treatment of
adolescent sexual offenders is still in the initial stages of research. The research in this area
has traditionally been focused on victims, potential victims, and adult sexual offenders.
Key factors to address have been the affect of treatment on defensive behaviors,
attributions, and family environment. Adolescent male sexual offenders of a two-parent
family from the ages of 12-18 were included in this study. Data analysis included the Beck
Depression Inventory, the Moos' Family Environmental Scale, a modification of the
Fincham and O'Leary attributional questionnaire, and the Defensiveness and
Supportiveness Coding manual designed by Dr. James Alexander at the University of Utah.
Findings indicated that with respect to the four dispositional attributions of communication,
boundaries, anger, and power/control there was no significant difference over all and over
time. There was a marginal significant tendency for dispositional attributions to decrease
regarding communication problems for those in the ropes challenge course. This finding
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Michael C. Young
suggests that sexual offender families in ropes might be beginning to improve
communication skills by improving support, participation, and involvement in this
modality.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
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93. Citation
Vissell, R. (2005). Effects of wilderness therapy on youth at risk's concept of self and
other: A deeper understanding of the journey. Inst Transpersonal Psychology, US.
Abstract
This research evaluated the success of three wilderness therapy programs on their youth
participants. The purpose was to test the hypothesis that all three programs would benefit
the participants, but that Sage Walk (SW) because of its spiritual orientation would be more
effective. The three programs, Synergia Learning Ventures (SLV), Catherine Freer
Wilderness Therapy Expeditions (CFWTE), and SW each met criteria of participants ages
12-18 years old, a physical component, a therapeutic intervention, and occurring in a
wilderness setting. The programs differed from each other with CFWTE and SW having
the highest at risk youth participants, CFWTE being the most therapeutic and SW being the
most spiritually oriented. The three programs, which selected their own participants,
produced a total N of 55 for this study. The research method was quantitative and
qualitative. Five assessment scales were used: The Nature Experience Scale (NES)
specifically constructed for this study, Ego Grasping Orientation (EGO), CES-D, a
Psychopathy Scale (PS), and Rosenberg's Self-Esteem Scale (RSES). Measures were
administered before and after the wilderness program. The data were analyzed using
MANOVA and paired sample t tests. T tests showed that the effects for the measures were
not uniform across groups. The PS and the NES were the best overall indicators of change
in the study. Significance was found for group effects on all the scales except the CES-D,
for time effects on all but the CES-D and EGO, and group by time effects for all but the PS
and RSES. The qualitative component examined the participants' written statements about
their unique experience and analyzed them using Grounded Theory. The hypothesis was
supported in that all the programs' participants showed improvement, but SW appeared to
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show the greatest overall change. The relevance of wilderness therapy programs with youth
at risk was supported. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
94. Citation
Walsh, J., & Aubry, P. (2007). Behavior management through adventure. Reclaiming
Children & Youth, 16(1), 36.
Abstract
Behavior Management through Adventure (BMTA) works to create a healthy community,
empowering young people to develop responsibility for self and others. It was initially
developed by Project Adventure (PA) for a residential treatment program for courtinvolved youth. This model moves beyond immediate behavior control to foster social
emotional learning. Over the past twenty years, the methodology has been extended to
other alternative education and juvenile justice programs. This article explores the theory,
practice, and evaluation of the model. ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR Copyright of
Reclaiming Children & Youth is the property of Crisis Prevention Institute and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright
holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles
for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy
of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full
abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
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95. Citation
Wendell, N. S. (2004). Wilderness therapy as a viable treatment for emotionally and
behaviorally disturbed children and adolescents. Spalding University, US.
Abstract
The growing field of wilderness therapy has gained increased attention over the past twenty
years. However, there remains disagreement as to the utility of these programs. A review of
the literature was conducted with four major goals. The first goal was to examine the
history and present state of mental health care for emotionally and behaviorally disturbed
children and adolescents in the United States. The second goal was to establish a clear
definition of what constitutes wilderness therapy. Historically, wilderness therapy has
lacked a common definition and has been referred to under a wide variety of titles, with
programs offering vastly different services to participants. The third goal was to examine
the literature evaluating the outcomes of participation in wilderness therapy programs and
to critically review these studies in terms of methodology and design. Finally, areas of
future research and development are discussed in relation to the continued pursuit of
widespread support and acceptance of wilderness therapy as a viable form of treatment for
seriously emotionally and behaviorally disturbed children and adolescents. (PsycINFO
Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
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96. Citation
Wick, D. T. (1997). Improving self-esteem of elementary school children with adlerian
adventure therapy. Our Lady of the Lake University, US.
Abstract
The effects of Adlerian Adventure Therapy and a pretest instrument on the self-esteem of
school children were studied. Fifth grade students (N = 66) from a multicultural urban area
participated. Apparatus included bricks, boards, towels, basketballs, and a backpacking
tent. Using random assignment in a Solomon Four-Group design, approximately half of the
participants were pretested with the Piers-Harris Children's Self Concept Scale and
approximately half of the students participated in a group intervention that combined
Adlerian theory with adventure therapy. No significant difference was found in total scores
for the intervention or pretest. Significant improvements were found in two subscales
scores, Behavior (p <) and Popularity (p <). Findings are congruent with the focus of
Adlerian theory. Suggestions for future research are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record
(c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
NOTE: I was unable
to acquire this study.
The first 24 pages
can be viewed for
free and the entire
study can be
purchased at
www.umi.com
97. Citation
Williams, I. (2004). Adevnture therapy or therapeutic adventure. In S. Bandoroff & S.
Newes (Eds.), Coming of age: The evolving field of adventure therapy (pp. 195208). Boulder, Co: The Association for Experiential Education.
Abstract
Controversy and debate continues with respect to the appropriate naming of practices that
make use of adventure activities in therapeutic settings. Implications for the use of two
alternative terms are discussed: adventure therapy and therapeutic adventure. Results from
a study involving a large-scale, community-based sample of Australian adolescents are
presented. Findings support the argument for distinguishing between these two descriptive
terms.
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Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
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N/A
98. Citation
Willman, H. C., & Chun, R. Y. F. (1973). Homeward bound: An alternative to
institutionalization of adjudicated juvenile offenders. Federal probation
(September).
Abstract
This article describes a Outward Bound derived program set up in Massachusetts as an
alternative to more institutionalized settings fro juvenile offenders. The Authors also
describe a follow-up study they did with graduates from both the Homeward Bound
program as well as another Massachusetts “Training School.” Results supported Kelly and
Baer’s (168) findings of reduced recidivism.
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
2
0
2
0
N/A
1
1
N/A
0
1
2
1
3
99. Citation
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Winterdyk, J. A. (1980). A wilderness adventure program as an alternative for juvenile
probationers: An evaluation. Simon Fraser University.
Abstract
A true experimental design with 60 male probationers, ages 13-16, was used to evaluate the
viability of an Ontario-based 21-day wilderness adventure program as an alternative for
adjudicated juveniles placed on probation. Participants were randomly assigned to a control
group and an experimental group. The experimental group was subdivided into 3 groups of
10 boys. The groups were matched on age, sex, frequency of prior offense, and various
background characteristics. The Jesness Inventory and an adapted Piers-Harris Self-Esteem
Measure were used in pre, post, and follow-up tests. Self-report data on recidivism,
background characteristics, and behavioral and attitudinal changes were gathered from both
groups. The three experimental groups were also evaluated by the staff. Data did not
indicate a significant relationship between exposure to the program and subsequent
attitudinal or behavioral changes. A noticeable, but not significant, difference was that the
offenses committed by the recidivists tended to be fewer and of a less severe type for the
experimental groups. Staff and parent reports recommended using the program as a
supplement to probation, introducing a process evaluation, improving referral and
screening procedures, and implementing some form of post structure for juveniles after
they complete such a course. Appendixes include tests, evaluations, contracts, form letters,
activity outlines, sample schedules, questionnaires, follow-up surveys, testing procedures,
and written responses from parents. (CM)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
0
0
3
2
1
2
3
2
0
2
2
1
1
100. Citation
Witman, J. (1992). Outcomes of adventure program participation by adolescents involved
in psychiatric treatment. Paper presented at the Coalition for Education in the
Outdoors. Research Symposium Proceedings, Bradford Woods, IN.
Abstract
83
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Michael C. Young
The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of adventure program participation
upon adolescents in psychiatric treatment. All adventure programs included goal setting,
awareness, cooperative and trust activities, and group and individual problem-solving.
Participants' total hours of program participation ranged from 8-22 hours. A random
sample of 42 program participants at 12 residential sites (hospitals, treatment centers) were
individually interviewed by program leaders a week following the conclusion of their
adventure experiences. The purpose of the interview was to identify the extent to which
participants had shared the experience with others and had applied the attitudes and skills
gained in the program. Results indicate that participants reported communicating about the
adventure experience with peers (71.4%), family (57.1%), staff (28.6%), and others
(11.9%). Only 7.1% did not communicate with anyone. All but one of the participants
reported applications of the adventure experience in other life situations. The contexts of
these applications included other treatment (66.7%), interaction with peers (47.6%), selfawareness (23.8%), and interaction with family (16.7%). This study suggests that adventure
program participation both complements and supplements psychiatric treatment in
changing attitudes, affect, and behavior of adolescents in psychiatric treatment. (LP)
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Rubric Score
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
3
2
1
0
101. Citation
Witman, J. (1987). The efficacy of adventure programming in the development of
cooperation and trust with adolescents in treatment. Therapeutic Recreation
Journal, 21(Third Quarter), 22-29.
Abstract
This article presents the findings of a controlled study of the impact of "adventure" and
"social recreation" programs on adolescents involved in psychiatric treatment. Scores on a
Cooperation and Trust Scale, as well as observations of behavior were analyzed. Both
suggest that "adventure" programs can create enhanced attitudes and actions regarding
cooperation and trust and are superior to traditional "social recreation" programs in this
regard (from the author).
84
Therapeutic Adventure Annotated Bibliography
Bibliography Rubric Categories
 Evidence Based Research Evaluation
 Case studies or clinical examples included
 Experimental Design
 Benefit-Cost Analysis
 Results Reporting
 Training Models
 Power of Research Design
 Instrumentation
 Cultural Variability
 Treatment/intervention Fidelity
 Background Literature Support
 Replication
 Length of Treatment Effectiveness Assessed
Michael C. Young
Rubric Score
2
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4
0
1
1
3
2
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3
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