English 350-436
Writing for Computer Technology
Instructor: Bill Van Pelt
Maria Cristina Bernacchi
5.18.2000
MINI-RESEARCH PAPER
LOCALIZATION AND THE TRANSLATION PROFESSION
This paper will mainly focus on the historical perspective of localization and translation,
or, in other words, on translation as a fast growing industry and to the technical
communication fields contributing to its development. The paper will also provide a brief
analysis of how these current phenomena are and should be approached in the “real
world”. An evaluation of the references available on the topic “localization and
translation” used for the Website project (and for this paper) closes the analysis.
From “Translation” to “Language” Industry
Translation has always represented a strategic resource in international communication,
especially in the past half century, as it has evolved along with the development of
different societies. Over the past decade, translation has also become one of the fastestgrowing professions and it has developed side by side with the technical-communication
profession.
A series of factors are enhancing translation growth and challenge as a profession.
The volume of textual media has increased incredibly, with unusual formats and delivery
methods, from traditional printed to electronic media such as “materials captured in
video, multimedia documents, Web pages, software programs, databases and data streams
of all kinds” (Gregory M. Shreve, 1999 – p.5).
The increasing differentiation of text types creates a real challenge for translators,
who have to deal with the new terminology and linguistic usages that are embedded in
them. Furthermore, the growth of science and technologies has introduced a new
specialized terminology and concept system that make the task of the translator, as well
as of the technical communicator, more and more difficult.
These factors along with the increase in the global trade have been contributing to
the development of a “language industry”, of which translation is only a component.
Along with free-lance or in-house translation, it also involves lexicography or
terminology management, software localization, editing and proofreading, as well as
project management. This radical change in the “language industry” involves demand for
a set of sophisticated and diverse skills and high-targeted training, which will help the
language industry rapidly mature.
Software Localization: Brief History
The growth of the translation and the technical communication profession, in the U.S. in
particular, has paralleled American high-technology companies. At the beginning of the
last decade the global marketplace of computer software started to open up and develop
rapidly, owing to such events as “the consolidation of the European Community, the
restoration of Hong Kong as a part of China, and the infusion of money into various third
world countries around the world”. (Taylor.1992 – p. IX)
In the early days, most computer users were highly educated professionals, who had
studied texts, and had experience in working with programs, written in English. With the
development of the market of computers, especially personal computers, the typical users
were no longer software experts but started to include a broader audience. The new users
created new expectations and needs to be met in the software design and development.
As the marketing of software gradually expanded to non-English-speaking countries,
new issues emerged: not only did the new international “mass” markets share the same
needs as the national users but they also expected that the software had the same features
as though it had been designed and produced in their own country.
To many companies the cost involved in producing software in many languages
became a real investment for potential markets. In this way, the global market has rapidly
increased and has brought about a series of complex problems involved in converting a
“software package” from one language and culture to the other.
Here is how Localization came into being, as the process that involves translating,
adapting and customizing a U.S. software product to the foreign market it will be
exported to.
Software translation
The most challenging aspect about “translating” software is that software is dynamic.
“The translated software becomes an ongoing mechanism in the target language just as
the original software is a mechanism in its source language” (Uren, Howard, and
Perinotti. 1993. - p.1).
The software package to be translated usually includes on-screen user-interface,
namely menus, dialogs, help, error messages, and status messages, as well as printed
documentation.
In the localization process, translation therefore becomes the most expensive
component. Depending on the width of the product market (and also on the company
budget), the business company may consider doing partial or full translation:

Partial translation may or may not include user-interface, on-line help, tutorials, or
printed documentation. It is usually developer oriented only; therefore, it is aimed at a
narrow market.

Full translation both of the user-interface and of documentation is required for most
end-user-oriented products. This broad audience segment includes people not familiar
with English.
In a localization project translators are responsible for the linguistic translation of the
product, the creation and maintenance of glossaries, language/style and terminology
consistency, as well as testing of the product for linguistic translation quality. All these
tasks demand not only profound language knowledge but also high technology skills, or
in other words effective training.
In the “Real World”
My interest in localization and internationalization mainly derived from my brief
professional experience in the domain of technical translation: from the problems I
encountered when dealing with legal and cultural features to adapt to the target text, and
from the necessity to create a glossary for terminology consistency, or store text strings to
reuse for similar manuals I translated later on.
Therefore, I firmly believe that the goals both internationalization and localization
have in mind are fundamental to develop information worldwide, or better to achieve
high quality, as well as cost and time effective international technical communication.
Furthermore, I find references on the subject very accurate in discussing strategies, tools,
and current issues.
However, after my research on the topic I am still wondering what happens in the
“real world”: “To what extent is it possible to combine real constraints with these
valuable principles?” and “Are professionals in the field really aware of these current
technical communication phenomena?”
When coping with time pressure both the business and the translation companies find
it hard to focus on “long run” issues such as time saving, money investment, style and
terminology consistency.
However, an increasing number of businesses use such strategies as the creation of
style guidelines, multilingual glossaries and terminology lists. Furthermore, owing to
competition, most translation agencies and companies have a high standard quality. They
generally use terminology management and translation memory tools, as well as glossary
databases, which help them perform translations at a higher speed and ensure high quality
and consistency. Some have expanded their services and may offer a whole service
“package”, including management of the translation project, publishing and production,
creation or update of specialized terminology databases and translation memories, etc.
Software companies tend to give the translation task of all the product components to
a single agency, usually with strong professional experience. This choice will guarantee
consistency in the use of terminology of the entire translation work and allow better
negotiations about schedule changes and total costs. It is recommendable, though, that
target native speakers do the translation, because they know different language nuances
and usage.
Conclusion
As Nancy Hoft maintains (1995), translation companies and technicalcommunication departments of business companies can and should work together to
ensure high-quality information for international use. To this purpose, the translation
industry can bring a valuable contribution to the client throughout the project:

It can educate the client to keep in mind nuances of language and cultural concerns.

It can help the client discover and use tools and techniques that enable high-quality
globalization of their product.

It can help the client write and design information products with translation in mind.
“Translation companies can offer [the client] a wealth of expertise on the process for
creating international technical communication, the information product’s design and
translatability, and on the needs and cultural expectations of [the client’s] target
audience” (Hoft. 1995 – p.106).
By listening to representatives of major translation agencies and technical-writing
departments in the Milwaukee and Chicago area, I realized that in the “real world” people
may not have an overall idea of such current phenomena as localization or
internationalization, especially of the profound academic research and concepts they
involve. However, technical communication and translation companies are aware of the
practical goals of the two processes, namely strive for consistency of style and
terminology, as well as “translatability”, by using all the strategies and tools available to
achieve these goals.
Technical communicators and translators still need to work on developing a strong
and effective relationship to work well and “economically” together.
LITERATURE REVIEW
This literature review focuses on books providing comprehensive information on
internationalization and globalization processes, with an emphasis on localization
sections. I arranged the references reviewed based on the extent to which they discuss the
localization and translation subjects. I reviewed each book according to the following set
of criteria: purpose of the book, topics discussed, whom the book is written for and whom
it may interest, structure and features of the book, brief comment, and possible
shortcomings.
Although I consider it as one of the most valuable references for my Website project,
I did not include Nancy Hoft’s International Technical Communication in my literature
review.
Esselink, Bert. A Practical Guide to Software Localization.
The purpose of A Practical Guide is to focus on daily tasks and responsibilities of project
managers, localization engineers, and translators.
The book provides an overview of the most current issues, procedures, and tools
related to software localization, from a translator’s, engineer’s and project manager’s
point of view. It covers such topics as software translation, documentation and online
help translation, Web site localization, translation software tools, project management,
and terminology management.
In addition to translators, the book may interest everyone involved in the localization
“team” such as software developers, project managers, localization engineers, technical
writers, and top managers.
A practical Guide is structured in seven chapters.

The first chapter gives a brief introduction to such concepts as localization,
internationalization, globalization, and translation. It features localization
applications (software, online help, and documentation), people involved in the
process, history and future of localization.

The second chapter focuses on software translation (dialog boxes, menus, and
strings), both for Windows and Macintosh platforms.

The third chapter discusses translation of online help documents such as Windows
Help, HTML files, and Macintosh Help files.

The fourth chapter describes translation of printed documentation belonging to the
“software package” such as manuals and the creation of online documentation. It also
focuses on strategies for accuracy such as final proofreading.

The fifth chapter presents a range of the most helpful and current translation
software tools such as translation memory tools, machine translation tools, and
terminology management tools.

The sixth and seventh chapters are more targeted to software localization
engineering and localization project management
The book gives several examples of software localization and terminology
management tools, with screen displays and precise task instructions that better help the
reader have an overview of the range of tools available.
It also includes two appendixes on terminology management, glossaries, and tools,
as well as localization resources and organizations.
I think A Practical Guide can be a valuable companion for translation professionals.
However, a beginner, like me, would find it overwhelming with details as a first approach
to the subject. A more general introduction would provide more helpful information.
The shortcoming of the book is that, as the author himself argues, writing about
software localization is like fighting against time: the software tools described will be
soon updated or even replaced by more sophisticated ones and soon the book will not be
as useful as it was when it was published. However, in the Preface the author makes
reference to the Language International Web site (www.language-international.com) for
regular updates about the most recent developments.
Uren, Emmanuel, Robert Howard, and Tiziana Perinotti. Software
Internationalization and Localization: an Introduction
The purpose of Software Internationalization and Localization is to provide concepts and
examples of how to design global software products, ready for worldwide customers.
The book discusses a survey of design problems. With this in mind, it provides
plenty of details about international standards and local exceptions to those standards.
The book target audience includes translators, but also “marketers, product
managers, and developers.” It is aimed both at the expert, as a review list of current
issues in the field, and at beginners, as a start in the field.
It includes: software features required by users outside the US, popular environments
such as DOS, Windows, Unix and Macintosh, and organizational and business issues,
also concerning Europe, Middle East and Asia.
Software Internationalization and Localization consists in an extensive introduction,
and four main parts:

The introduction discusses such issues as translating software and its documentation,
as well as their relation to the internationalization and localization processes.

Part one analyzes localization issues from a user’s perspective. It covers such topics
as characters, text expansion, icons, dates and times, different measurements, colors,
and other specific translation issues.

Part two describes different localization approaches to Western European languages,
by discussing general and then specific topics, including translation strategies and
tools.

Part three discusses computer environments other than IBM PC, issues related to
other languages and possible solutions, as well as standards and standard
organizations.

Part four focuses on organizational and logistical business considerations; cost and
international regulations, issues involved in introducing software from Europe to U.S.
The book provides many appendixes on paper sizes, Unix, Macintosh, software and
hardware, localizers, organizations, character sets, etc. It ends with an extensive
bibliography of other references in the field.
I think this book gives an accurate and detailed overview of very current issues in the
global business.
Luong, Tuoc V., James S. H. Lok, David Taylor, Kevin Driskoll.
Internationalization: Developing Software for Global Markets
The purpose of Internationalization is to represent a “hands-on” guide to the
internationalization and localization processes. It provides real examples and practical
solutions to problems encountered.
As the authors point out in the foreword, the book provides information about “why,
when, where, and how to internationalize and localize” software products.
The target audience mainly includes multinational information developers. However,
the book is written both for “beginners” in the domain and people already familiar with
the process.
Internationalization is structured in 14 chapters:

The first chapter gives an extensive and clear introduction to the internationalization
and localization concepts, to how they are related to each other, how important is to
internationalize a software product before customizing it to and localizing it for
international markets. It also focuses briefly on translation with the end-users in
mind.

Chapters 2 through 6 mainly discuss the internationalization process, development,
its application to documentation production, and how it enables high quality
international information.

Chapters 7 through 13 focus on localization:
-
Definition of a “locale”;
-
Localization decisions such as full or partial localization according to the
product market, in-house or external localization and translation based on
cost effectiveness;
-
Localization-enabling strategies and tools such as using resource files
called dynamically loaded libraries (DLLs);
-
Management of the localization process, including localization planning,
translation preparation, and diverse people involved throughout the
localization project.
-
Localization techniques, including localization and translation tools.
-
Localization Quality assessment (QA) in Europe and Asia.
The information given is platform-independent with examples for DOS, Windows,
and UNIX.
The book also includes appendixes on international tables, date formats, sample
locale and character map. It ends with a bibliography for further reading.
I focused my attention on the localization section and I noticed that the book
extensively analyses all issues related to localization and translation from a realistic a
practical perspective.
Martin O’Donnel, Sandra. 1994. Programming for the World: A Guide to
Internationalization.
The purpose of Programming for the World is to provide guidelines to learn how to write
internationalized software, or modify existing ones to use internationalized interfaces and
techniques.
The book covers in detail such topics as international linguistic and cultural
conventions that affect software use worldwide, current concepts involved in
programming languages, international standards, industry specifications, and
international software market requirements.
The book is intended for computer programmers, technical writers, project managers,
and translators. The author thinks that familiarity with the C programming language and
Unix are helpful, but readers with other backgrounds can understand the text as well.
Programming for the World is structured in twelve chapters.

The first chapter gives an overview of the main concepts discussed, with an emphasis
on “worldwide markets and local needs”.

Chapter 2 focuses in detail on international alphabets and other cultural conventions.

Chapter 3 describes such concepts as customization and localization, including
advantages and drawbacks.

Chapters 4 through 10 focus more in detail on various aspects involved in designing
internationalized software such as encoding characters, creating locales, and other
specific issues. Chapter 9 also gives clear and useful examples on such translation
issues as message clarity, length, and type.

Chapter 11 discusses designing documentation for international audiences.

Chapter 12 describes multilingual and distributed computing requirements in
designing internationalized software.
The book provides many helpful examples and tables summarizing the main
concepts. It also includes appendixes locale definition, input methods, standards,
organizations, references for further reading, and acronyms, as well as a glossary of the
terms used.
I did not use this reference for my Website, but I think it gives a very extensive and
detailed approach to the topic, which makes it a valuable source to keep in mind for
consultation.
Taylor, Dave. 1992. Global Software: Developing Applications for the International
Market
The purpose of Global Software is to give guidelines to target software for a foreign
market and explain why this needs to be done. With this in mind the book covers the
following topics: cultural, social, political, and linguistic differences, as well as varying
national and international standards. It discusses these issues at all stages of software
development: planning, programming, marketing, packaging, and presentation.
The book primary target audience includes anyone involved in creating, designing,
programming, or distributing software for an international market. The secondary target
audience involves people less interested in the technical aspect of the book, who can skim
through the programming section and focus on the concepts.
Global Software is structured in four main sections:

Section one introduces and discusses internationalization and localization concepts, as
well as advantages and pitfalls.

Section two focuses on different approaches to internationalization, and other related
issues.

Section three provides information about tools and organizations.

Section five focuses on the internationalization current situation and its future
development.
The book gives real examples (supported by real pictures), focuses on common
errors and suggests clear and effective solutions. It also includes appendixes on
organization and programming codes, references and a glossary of the terms used.
Only the short chapter “Internationalization versus Localization” (Section One,
Chapter 3), in the introductory section to localization, directly addresses my Website
topic. Yet I included this reference in my literature review because not only does it give a
very clear and extensive definition of both internationalization and localization processes,
but it also presents their interaction to each other from an unusual perspective. This in
fact represented the most significant reference for the concept page of my Website.
REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING
Books
Esselink, Bert. 1998. A Practical Guide to Software Localization. John Benjamins
Publishing Company.
Hoft, Nancy. 1995. International Technical Communication: How to Export Information
About High Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York, NY.
Luong, Tuoc V., James S. H. Lok, David Taylor, Kevin Driskoll. 1995.
Internationalization: Developing Software for Global Markets. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
New York, NY.
Martin O’Donnel, Sandra. 1994. Programming for the World: A Guide to
Internationalization. Prentice Hall. Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Taylor, Dave. 1992. Global Software: Developing Applications for the International
Market. Springer-Verlag. New York.
Uren, Emmanuel, Robert Howard, and Tiziana Perinotti. 1993. Software
Internationalization and Localization: an Introduction. VNR. New York, NY.
Articles
Shreve, Gregory M. 1999. “Translation at the Millennium: Prospects for the Evolution of
a Profession.” 30th Anniversary Conference of the Monterey Institute for International
Studies, CA.
(http://shreve.mcls.kent.edu/projectmanage/Read…/Translation%20%at%20%the%20Mi
llennium.htm)