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Psychology and Conservation Conflicts:
Classified Bibliography and Special Topics
Herbert H. Blumberg
Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London
E-mail: h.blumberg@gold.ac.uk
(rev. 12 February 2014)
A chapter on psychology and conservation conflicts by Blumberg (in press)
refers to three sectors of material that are largely excluded from the chapter itself in
order to conserve space. The three sectors are (a) "other" specific environmental
issues and topics, (b) works concerned with a specific geographic area (with a
geographic index appended as section b2) and (c) additional topics largely excluded
from the chapter to conserve space (including, at the end, before the References) a
section describing conflict resolution related to sustainability. In addition, after
section (c) this document includes addenda consisting of several matters: (1)
“Introductory examples”, (2) “Zooming in and out, fractal-like”, (3) “Conflict resolution
and sustainability”, (4) “Bibliometrics”. Also, Addendum (5) Conservation and
neighbouring environmental topics; and (6) Taxonomy of additional topics.
The present classified bibliography provides details of the mainly 2002-2012
literature covered in these three sectors - along with a listing of the corresponding
References.
(a) Other Specific Environmental Issues and Topics
A fairly wide variety of other specific conservation topics are dealt with in the
present literature. Some main examples are as follows.
Biodiversity: West, Igoe, and Brockington (2006).
Conservation per se: Carvalho, dos Santos, and Vidal (2006); Castro et al.
(2010).
Corporate responsibility: Bird, Hall, Momentè, and Reggiani (2007); Ibaba
(2007); Jo and Harjoto (2012); Koerber (2009).
Disasters: Cohen and Werker (2008); Kalayjian, Shigemoto, and Patel (2010);
Kirmayer, Kienzler, Afana, and Pedersen (2010); Musani and Shaikh (2006); Sorel
(2007); Tierney (2007).
Energy: Carvalho, dos Santos, and Vidal (2006); Gurses (2011); Ihlen (2006);
Taebi and Kadak (2010).
Framing and pesticides: Gunter (2005); Smith and Sharp (2005).
Forests: Crawford and Wilson (2005); Fighel (2009); Macias (2008); Ribe
(2006).
Human-wildlife conflicts: Haider (2008).
International organizations (and NGOs): Hafner-Burton, von Stein, and
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Gartzke (2008); Roué (2003); Santos and Zobler (2012); Scarce (2008).
Land use (and land conflict): Blackett, Hume, and Dahm (2010); Böcher
(2008); Meyers (2003); Nash, Lewis, and Griffin (2010); Peters (2010); Upreti (2004);
West, Igoe, and Brockington (2006).
Miscellaneous: Becchetti and Costantino (2010); Ciarlo (2009); Corsair, Ruch,
Zheng, Hobbs, and Koonce (2009); Ebner and Getz (2012); Fischer (2007); Font
(2011); Harville, Taylor, Tesfai, Xiong, and Buekens (2011); Heider (2005); Jackson
(2011); Joireman (2005); Matthews (2011); Nixon (2011); Ogan (2007); Schroeder
and Fulton (2010); Tal and Linkov (2004); Young, Birrell, and Stanton (2011).
Nature and rural identity (and biodiversity): Alkon and Traugot (2008); Clayton
and Opotow (2003); Hochman (2007a); Koole and Van den Berg (2004); Natori and
Chenoweth (2008); Stoddart (2011); Talley (2005); Winter (2007).
Public health: Culley, Zorland, and Freire (2010); Henningsen and Priebe
(2003); Lane et al. (2008).
Resource conflicts: Le Billon (2008); Medin, Ross, and Cox (2006).
Risk: Böcher (2008); Gregory, Failing, Ohlson, and McDaniels (2006);
Guastello et al. (2008); Löfstedt and 6 [6 is the surname!] (2008); Meyer (2009).
Sustainability: Alexander (2007); Celino and Concilio (2011); Eid (2003);
Epstein and Widener (2011); Giorgi (2003); Grunkemeyer and Moss (2004);
Lundegård and Wickman (2007); Mohamed, Murray, and Mohamed (2010); Pelletier,
Baxter, and Huta (2011); Romice (2003); Spring (2009).
Tourism: Alexander (2007); Concu and Atzeni (2012); Cruz, Baltazar, Gomez,
and Lugo (2005); D'Amore (2009); Ospina (2006).
Transport: De Carlo (2006); Lenior, Janssen, Neerincx, and Schreibers
(2006).
(b) Work Focused on a Particular Geographic Location or on Geographic Place
Generally. Listings below show the topic (in alphabetical sequence), location and
citations corresponding to the References list. A geographic index is appended after
this listing.
Andean bear protection - Ecuador (Espinosa & Jacobson, 2012).
anglers, problems and coping - Minnesota (Schroeder & Fulton, 2010).
animals (standards for exhibiting) - New South Wales (Crane, 2007).
biodiversity - Pacific Islands, Marovo Lagoon (Hviding, 2006).
black bear-human interactions - Adirondack Park, New York (Kretser, Curtis,
& Knuth, 2009).
black bears (attitudes toward) and population recovery - Texas (Morzillo,
Mertig, Garner, & Liu, 2007).
cartography (social) for conflict analysis = the Afro-Colombian community of
Robles (Bastidas & Gonzalez, 2008).
climate change - Australia (Rodrigues, 2012).
climate not to blame for civil wars - Africa (Buhaug, 2010).
coastal erosion management - New Zealand (Blackett, Hume, & Dahm, 2010).
coca fumigation (futility in) - Colombia (Sherret, 2005).
commodity markets (international) and local land markets and class conflict Mexico (Meyers, 2003).
conservation and common property - the Waorani of Ecuador's Amazon (Lu &
Wirth, 2011).
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conservation attitudes - Kaziranga National Park, Assam, India (Heinen &
Shrivastava, 2009).
cross-cultural values and multisource feedback - two Latin American countries
(Varela & Premeaux, 2008).
cultures tight and loose - 33-nation study (Gelfand et al., 2011).
development and sustained dialogue - rural South Africa (Nemeroff, 2008).
disaster and conflict - Eastern Mediterranean region (Musani & Shaikh, 2006).
disasters - Turkey (Kasapoglu, Turan, & Dönmez, 2009).
earthquake coping - Soviet Armenia (Kalayjian, Shigemoto, & Patel, 2010).
ecotourism (and war) in National Parks - Colombia (Ospina, 2006).
ecotourism - Lacandon Forest (Cruz, Baltazar, Gomez, & Lugo, 2005).
environment ('New Old') - Eastern Europe (Petritsch, 2003).
environmental NGOs and the Cree - USA (Roué, 2003).
environmental security and comparative risk assessment - the Middle East
(Tal & Linkov, 2004).
fair trade - Italy (Becchetti & Costantino, 2010).
feral pigs and ecology - Hawai'i (da Cunha Nogueira et al., 2007).
Forest National planning contexts - rural US Mountain West (Crawford &
Wilson, 2005).
forest resources - New Mexico (Macias, 2008).
forestry alternatives - US Pacific Northwest (Ribe, 2006).
global climate change - developed and developing countries (Anderson &
DeLisi, 2011).
habitat quality and age and kinship - Siberian jays (Nystrand, 2006).
hazardous industrial waste (conflict over incineration) - Portugal (Jerónimo &
Garcia, 2011).
hot waste - Utah (Plowman, 2008).
hurricane Katrina and intimate partner violence - USA (Harville, Taylor, Tesfai,
Xiong, & Buekens, 2011).
ice storm - Montérégie (Maltais & Robichaud, 2009).
irrigators' emotions, water policy and sustainable development - Australia
(Keremane & McKay, 2011).
land conflict - Nepal (Upreti, 2004).
land disputes urban - Vietnam (Gillespie, 2011).
land use conflict - general (Nash, Lewis, & Griffin, 2010).
legal geography of the geostationary orbit - space's most valuable real estate
(Collis, 2009).
mapping (stakeholder frames) - Lower Kishon River Basin (Shmueli &
Ben-Gal, 2003).
national culture and management - Switzerland (Chevrier, 2009).
nature conservation policy - Poland (Grodzinska-Jurczak, 2008).
nuclear weapons plant secrecy - Rocky Flats (Ciarlo, 2009).
oil company-community conflicts - Niger Delta (Nigeria) (Ibaba, 2007).
participatory environmental conflict resolution - Cyprus (Jarraud & Lordos,
2012).
pollution and a gas-fired power plant - Norway (Ihlen, 2006).
resource conflict and social aggression - the Bolivian Amazon (Rucas,
Gurven, Winking, & Kaplan, 2012).
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resource wars - general (Le Billon, 2008).
rural identity and environmental decision making - general (Alkon & Traugot,
2008).
settings creation and the future societies - general (Langhout, Regina., 2012).
spatial environments and cultural assimilation - general (Parisi, Cecconi, &
Natale, 2003).
sustainable urban communities - general (Eid, 2003).
trains (high-speed) decision process - France (De Carlo, 2006).
transition contrasts - Pacific Islands (Marsella, Austin, & Grant, 2005).
trapper attitudes and industrial development - West-Central Alberta (Webb,
Davidson, & Boyce, 2008).
tsunami and risk perception - Southeast Asia (Guastello et al., 2008).
urban natural area place meanings - general (Spartz & Shaw, 2011).
urban natural areas (environmental experience and attachment to) - general
(Ryan, 2005).
water conflicts - Middle East (Abukhater, 2010; Shaw & Danielski, 2004).
wetlands and forest fragments (attitudes toward) - Kibale National Park,
Uganda (Hartter, 2009).
wildlife and conservation - Africa (Browne-Nuñez & Jonker, 2008).
wildlife, damage compensation, conservation, and predators - a Maasai
community (Rodriguez, 2008).
wildlife-human conflicts - various locations (Haider, 2008).
World Heritage - river Elbe (Santos & Zobler, 2012).
(b2) Geographic Index for Section (b) Above
-- (General): cultures tight and loose (33-nation study).
-- (General): global climate change (developed and developing countries).
-- (General): land use conflict.
-- (General): resource wars.
-- (General): rural identity and environmental decision making.
-- (General): settings creation and the future societies.
-- (General): spatial environments and cultural assimilation.
-- (General): sustainable urban communities.
-- (General): urban natural area place meanings.
-- (General): urban natural areas (environmental experience and attachment to).
-- (General): wildlife-human conflicts (various locations).
Africa: climate not to blame for civil wars.
Africa: wildlife and conservation.
Armenia, Soviet: earthquake coping.
Asia, Southeast: tsunami and risk perception.
Australia: climate change.
Australia: irrigators' emotions, water policy and sustainable development.
Australia (New South Wales): animals (standards for exhibiting).
Bolivia (Bolivian Amazon): resource conflict and social aggression.
Canada (Montérégie): ice storm.
Canada (West-Central Alberta): trapper attitudes and industrial development.
Colombia (Afro-Colombian community of Robles): cartography (social) for conflict
analysis.
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Colombia: coca fumigation (futility in).
Colombia: ecotourism (and war) in National Parks.
Cyprus: participatory environmental conflict resolution.
Czech Republic and Germany (river Elbe): World Heritage.
Ecuador: Andean bear protection.
Ecuador's Amazon (the Waorani): conservation and common property.
Europe, Eastern: environment ('New Old').
France: trains (high-speed) decision process.
Germany and Czech Republic (river Elbe): World Heritage.
India (Kaziranga National Park, Assam): conservation attitudes.
Israel (Lower Kishon River Basin): mapping (stakeholder frames).
Italy: fair trade.
Latin American countries: cross-cultural values and multisource feedback.
Mediterranean, Eastern region: disaster and conflict.
Mexico: commodity markets (international) and local land markets and class conflict.
Mexico (Lacandon Forest): ecotourism.
Middle East: environmental security and comparative risk assessment.
Middle East: water conflicts.
Nepal: land conflict.
New Zealand: coastal erosion management.
Nigeria (Niger Delta): oil company-community conflicts.
Norway: Pollution and a gas-fired power plant.
Pacific Islands: transition contrasts.
Poland: nature conservation policy.
Portugal: hazardous industrial waste (conflict over incineration).
Siberian jays: habitat quality and age and kinship.
Solomon Islands (Marovo Lagoon, Pacific Islands): biodiversity.
South Africa (rural): development and sustained dialogue.
space's most valuable real estate: legal geography of the geostationary orbit.
Switzerland: national culture and management.
Tanzania/Kenya (a Maasai community): wildlife, damage compensation,
conservation, and predators.
Turkey: disasters.
Uganda, Kibale National Park: wetlands and forest fragments (attitudes toward).
United States: environmental NGOs and the Cree.
United States: hurricane Katrina and intimate partner violence.
United States (Colorado, Rocky Flats): nuclear weapons plant secrecy.
United States (Hawai'i): feral pigs and ecology.
United States (Minnesota): anglers, problems and coping.
United States (New Mexico): forest resources.
United States (New York, Adirondack Park): black bear-human interactions.
United States (Mountain West, rural): Forest National planning contexts.
United States (Pacific Northwest): forestry alternatives.
United States (Texas): black bears (attitudes toward) and population recovery.
United States (Utah): hot waste.
Vietnam: land disputes urban.
(c) Taxonomy of Additional Topics
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Some additional matters of potential interest have been largely excluded from
this chapter for want of space. Much of this material is as follows, with citations
included for the benefit of readers with particular interests in these matters
Theory and general principles. See Bean, Fisher, and Eng (2007); Bercovitch
and Foulkes (2012); Blunden (2005); Böcher (2008); Boehnke, Schmidtke, and
Shani (2011); Boyd and Richerson (2006); Brett (2007); Carpenter and Cardenas
(2011); Castro, Batel, and Devine-Wright, Karine Wagner (2010); Chakraverti
(2009); Chevrier (2009); Dhir (2007); Dodds (2011); du Plessis (2012); Eksvärd and
Rydberg (2010); Flynn (2011); Galtung (2010); Ganiel, Malesevic, Lynch, and
Galtung (2012); Gelfand et al. (2011); Goldberg (2009); Howes and Gifford (2009);
Joireman (2005); Kim et al. (2009); Klinke and Renn (2012); Langhout (2012); Levy,
Hipel, and Howard (2009); Liu and Sibley (2009); Mansfield and Pevehouse (2008);
Marsella (2009); McDevitt, Giapponi, and Tromley (2007); Parisi, Cecconi, and
Natale (2003); Raines (2010); Van Lange and Rusbult (2012); Wakano, Nowak, and
Hauert (2009); Weston (2007).
Although it has not explicitly been cited above, a substantial part of the
present chapter might have been organised according to Parsonian functional
theory, holding that in analysing any behavioural system or conflict one must pay
particular attention to, or at least consider, four aspects: resources (including both
economic and informational), interpersonal relations, goal-attainment (including
motivation, leadership and simply getting on with the tasks at hand) and parties'
values. See e.g. Hare (1983) and, for a reasonable contemporary overview, "AGIL
Paradigm" (2012).
Methods - research and practice. See Bastidas and Gonzalez (2008);
Brummans et al. (2008); Jarraud and Lordos (2012); Li, Hipel, Kilgour, and Noakes
(2005); Nemeroff (2008); Sauer (2008); Thomas-Slayter (2009).
Animal species and ecosystems. Studies concerned with psychological
aspects of conservation of animal species and human interaction with ecosystems
are too numerous to review here in detail. See Andino, Reus, Cappa, Campos, and
Giannoni (2011); Arnold, Owens, and Goldizen (2005); Bayma (2012); Brown,
Spetch, and Hurd (2007); Browne-Nuñez and Jonker (2008); Crane (2007); da
Cunha Nogueira et al. (2007); Eldakar, Dlugos, Pepper, and Wilson (2009);
Espinosa and Jacobson (2012); Heider (2005); Hill and Webber (2010); Hockings
(2009); Hudenko (2012); Kaplan, O'Riain, van Eeden, and King (2011); Kaswamila,
Russell, and McGibbon (2007); Kretser, Curtis, and Knuth (2009); Levi et al. (2012);
Magellan and Magurran (2006); Mathews (2010); McMichael (2012); Morzillo, Mertig,
Garner, and Liu (2007); Nystrand (2006); Rabin (2003); Rodriguez (2008); Ruxton,
Fraser, and Broom (2005); Sopinka, Marentette, and Balshine (2010); Tieleman, van
Noordwijk, and Williams (2008); Wittemyer, Getz, Vollrath, and Douglas-Hamilton
(2007); Wong (2011); Wong et al. (2012).
"The little pile of papers that doesn't fit in". Occasionally one sees a film that
gives the impression that a good parallel film might have been composed from the
celluloid (or electronic equivalent) left on the cutting-room floor. Here, rescued from
the "cutting-room floor" (with an indication of content for some of the first few), is a
"taster" consisting of material dealing with psychological aspects of conservation
conflict that did not, however, fit in with even the sweeping taxonomies above.
See Addor, Cobb, Dukes, Ellerbrock, and Smutko (2005) (program of an
institute for leadership development related to natural resources, linking theory to
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practice); Banka (2005); Cullen (2004) (mathematical models to link status needs
with the status effects of consumption); Curtis (2007); Estes (2010) (analyses
historical rich-poor nation gap in meeting people's needs and describes positive
trends in the latter's quality of life); Grodzinska-Jurczak (2008); Hoogland, de Boer,
and Boersema (2005); Knezevic (2009); Marsella, Austin, and Grant (2005);
Petritsch (2005); Plowman (2008); Ryan (2005); Schuster, Hammitt, Moore, and
Schneider (2006); Sharma (2007); Sherret (2005); Spartz and Shaw (2011);
Villarreal (2004).
Addendum 1: Introductory Examples
Let us start with a couple of examples of conservation conflicts with which
psychologists might be concerned. For example, can signs confronting visitors to
national parks be presented so as to maximize compliance to conservation goals
and avoid conflicts between visitors’ behavior and park managers’ conservation
goals? This example, representing an implicit conflict between the management’s
conservation ethos and many visitors’ desire to take “souvenirs”, will be considered
in more detail below, but one somewhat counter-intuitive suggestion is to avoid
widely implying that many visitors are motivated to violate conservation norms.
Another example: Laws thought to promote biodiversity can be variously
interpreted by people with particular vested interests or may have unintended
effects. Government subsidies for wood pellets, for instance, were favoured even by
some environmentalists (if sourced from properly managed forests they have a lower
carbon footprint than coal, thereby having less impact on global warming) and are a
boon for coal-fired power stations that can also burn the pellets, but their use pushes
up the price of timber for carpenters and other users, seems unlikely to reduce
carbon emissions in total, and fails to encourage people favouring new energy
technologies, according to a recent analysis (Wood, 2013). Thus Environmental
groups have been pitted against those favouring government subsidies and warn
that incentives for wood-based (and some other) bio-energy can trigger dramatic
biodiversity loss, as forests and grasslands are converted to monocultures. The
groups may urge governments to immediately end subsidies and other support for
bio energy productions .
There would seem to be no single best way to approach the use of
psychology for resolving – or at least helping people to understand - conflicts related
to conservation. One approach might be for truth-seeking or clashing parties to tap
general processes for better quality decisions. For an overview rooted in decision
theory see Edwards et al. (2007). One might here also note examples of specific
processes such as Cialdini's (2003) analysis of latent and explicit norms in
communications (stressing the need to avoid implicit "messages" that can sabotage
intended meaning). Another approach – of obvious use, for example, to
environmentalists who may disagree with one another as regards the conservation
implications of different sources of energy - is Johnson and Johnson's (2000)
analysis of concurrence-seeking procedures: whereby, for instance, debating the
virtues of nuclear energy can produce better informed results than trying to suppress
conflict by inhibiting discussion and disagreement. Both of these approaches
(Cialdini’s and Johnson and Johnson’s) are discussed below. To focus exclusively or
largely on even a few such approaches would, however, severely limit the
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presentation of what is known from the overall field. The present aim, therefore, is
not to suggest a limited purview, nor indeed to provide answers, but rather:
1)To describe how the information for this chapter was retrieved – and how it
could be updated (bibliometrics) so that interested parties can select what is most
relevant to their own situations;
so that 2) anyone doing relevant research or wishing to apply the material will
have at least a brief idea of intersections, and a clear idea of where to go for further
information.
Where feasible, the discussion below refers to core psychological
paradigms. Much of the relevant work, however, simply deals with often-multiple
relevant (sometimes interacting) variables, which might or might not obviously
conform to, say, a homeostatic-systems or stimulus-response paradigm.
Addendum 2: Zooming In and Out, Fractal-like
Some principles of conservation conflict seem to have analogues at
microscopic and also perhaps (not here considered) cosmological levels, though it
might well be a mistake at present to dwell for very long on the matter.
Bacteria might not be obvious candidates for psychological research, but (as
with some non-primate animal studies and computer simulations of systems) may
provide "baselines" to aid one's broader understanding of the dynamics of conflict
and other phenomena. Study of the microbiome, for example - the system of trillions
of bacteria that each of us harbours - has attracted some attention from mainstream
biologists. Apparently the bacteria are not parasites nor merely living in symbiosis
with us, but actually function as a kind of "organ" which is moreover in part heritable
but, in an almost Lamarckian sense ("soft" inheritance of acquired characteristics),
susceptible to modification by the introduction of additional "healthy" varieties of
bacteria. Psychology gets into the matter because of the evidence for providing and
evaluating a baseline of both stability and competition without anyone needing to
"think" about it - that is, without any obvious "cognitive" component.
"A well functioning microbiome is not one without internal conflicts - there is
competition in every ecosystem, even stable, productive ones. Clostridia kill bacteria
competing for their niches with chemicals called phenols (carbolic acid, the first
antiseptic, is one such). But phenols are poisonous to human cells, too, and thus
have to be neutralized. This is done by adding sulphate to them. So having too many
Clostridia, producing too many phenols, will deplete the body's reserves of sulphur.
And sulphur is needed for other things - including brain development. If an unusual
microbiome leads to the gut needing extra sulphur, the brain may pay the price by
developing abnormally" (Me, myself, us. 2012, p. 64).Conservation and
Neighbouring Environmental Topics
Addendum 3: Conflict Resolution and Sustainability
It may be helpful to distinguish between two overlapping kinds of conservation
conflict with which psychologists might be concerned, if only to note that the same
general principles of resolution may be applied to both. One type is conflict among
parties who have mixed motives - that is, interests that partly overlap cooperatively
and partly do not. In a given arena, such parties might (for example) include:
conservationists; companies that deal in a natural resource; media; and various
sectors of the general public. All of these parties have an interest in the ongoing
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presence of trees but obviously may have different interests for weighting short-term
profits, recreation, sustainable biodiversity, or publicity. A typical publicized conflict
might be manifest, for instance, in the social interaction between forest
conservationists and timber companies, or describe irrigation decisions that pit fish
(or rather, their lobbyists) against farmers.
The second type of dispute arises mainly among parties advocating different
approaches to conservation. At its best, this represents a dispassionate search for
truth. What (if anything) represents the best way to prevent the spread of fungal
dieback in ash trees or at least to favour the medium-term regeneration of the
species? Even for this latter type of problem, psychology gets into the mix partly in
terms of studying processes of optimal decision-making, dispersion of knowledge,
communication, and the values and knowledge of concerned parties (for example,
as regards the nature of timber supply chains).
The present book focuses, of course, on conflict related to conservation and
neighbouring environmental matters. For more general consideration emphasizing
psychological findings relevant in principle to essentially all conflict resolution:
Deutsch, Coleman and Marcus's (2006) handbook conveniently provides
comprehensive coverage of both theory and practice at all levels from international
to intra-individual. Virtually all of the content can be applied, however, to conflict
related to conservation and other environmental issues.
A more recent work edited by Coleman and Deutsch (2012) is concerned
explicitly with sustainable peace, and most of the volume's topics and delineated
principles also apply directly or indirectly to conservation. Relevant desiderata
include (among other things): effecting cooperation, processes for constructive
conflict resolution (such as avoiding escalation and using trusted third parties),
creative problem solving, transforming communication (e.g. so as to facilitate
consensus), use of peaceful language, striving for equality in negotiations, avoiding
bias due to gender or ethnicity etc., reconciliation between groups, a dynamic
systems (multivariate) perspective, fostering global community awareness, and
education for sustainability.
As publicized by the Conflict Information Consortium (whose web gateway is
at http://conflict.colorado.edu), another work by Deutsch (1998) summarizes factors
that push conflicts toward constructive or destructive outcomes. Relevant
constructive skills include (a) those for establishing effective working relationships
among parties, (b) establishing a cooperative problem-solving approach to the
conflict, (c) developing effective group processes and decision-making processes,
and (d) gaining substantive knowledge of the relevant issues.
Some research that is rather more specific to the present topic, but also
generally applicable, has been carried out under the rubric of Environmental Conflict
Resolution (ECR) (Dukes, 2004; see also Emerson, O'Leary, & Bingham, 2004).
ECR work in effect advocates processes such as building consensus, working
together and community-based conservation. These help provide education,
understanding and flexibility about diverse perspectives. Many research works also
stress the importance of a systems approach - recognizing the interconnectedness
of biosphere-related, economic, political and social systems (natural and human).
Ideally ECR evaluation should, according to Foley (2007), often include but
go beyond traditional measures such as whether agreement is reached and
participants are satisfied, and should ask questions such as: Are the process and
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outcome "tranformative" of participants and attentive to actual environmental
outcomes?
Emerson, Orr, Keyes and McKnight (2009) looked at 52 ECR examples as
regards outcomes - reaching agreement, quality of agreement and improved working
relationships. In such conflicts, the main determinant of a positive outcome was
somehow to achieve "effective engagement of parties". This could be accomplished,
directly or indirectly, by (a) "actual involvement" of parties, (b) the skills and practices
of ECR mediators and (c) incorporation of relevant high-quality information.
For other key general perspectives on ECR and other approaches to conflict
resolution see works such as: reflections by Oskamp (2007); Winter (2003) on
Schwebel's work; also Orr, Emerson and Keyes (2008) on legislative frameworks for
ECR; and Vraneski and Richter's (2003) research on media framing of intractable
conflicts.
The boundaries of the present topic should, however, be kept in perspective.
One might expect conflict resolution to play an important part in those aspects of
peace psychology that deal broadly with sustainable development. However, my
own chapter on sustainable development surveying the peace-psychology literature
as a whole (which tends to emphasize international matters) makes only occasional
reference to "conflict". There are 10 mentions out of about 4000 words (Blumberg,
Hare, & Costin, 2006, chapter 14), though these 10 do on the whole represent
concerns that are explicitly related to conservation and neighbouring matters, such
as different parties' conflicting views regarding biodiversity and also sustainable
resources.
Addendum 4: Bibliometrics
The first part of this addendum was also included in Blumberg (in press)
But without the final paragraph and Table that are shown below.
Research on conservation conflict in the psychological literature began mainly
in the 1980s and has been increasing gradually since then. The present chapter
focuses on work published in the decade from 2003-2012, especially work retrieved
via records in the PsycINFO database that include both the words "environment*"
(that is, including environment, environmental, etc.) and "conflict". About 90% of
such records are not relevant to, nor included in, the present review (mainly because
they deal with people's "environment" unrelated to conservation or sustainability).
The remaining 10%, however, include most of the retrievals also found from a
narrower search on "conservation" and a variety of other relevant materials as well.
Readers interested in the conservation of specific species in particular might,
however, find some work additional to the present review by looking up material
explicitly on the specific species of concern, perhaps narrowed by the co-presence
of "conservation*". (For future updating of the present overview, one might also wish
to take key publications and trace their future use – by means of citation indexes
such as Thomson Reuters’ Web of Knowledge including the isi Social Sciences
Citation Index.)
Altogether and depending on one's criteria, in the 2003-2012 decade there
have been approximately 270 publications on psychological aspects of conservation
conflict - plus a like number accumulated over several preceding decades.
The present chapter is hardly the place for citing in excess of 250 works! I
have, therefore, arranged a supplementary taxonomy of this more recent work and
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placed it in an ancillary location on the Web for interested readers (That is, the
present document: Blumberg, 2013b). The research that is most pertinent or is
useful as examples is, though, covered in the original chapter.
The output pace of relevant literature has been gradually increasing, at least
over the early part of the 2000s - as shown in Table 1, particularly in the column of
three-year rolling averages, which are more stable than yearly figures. The
psychological literature as a whole - in common with, to some extent, the volume of
all publications worldwide - has been increasing too, which accounts for some of the
increase in the corpus of present concern. From the 1970s until about 2006, though,
work on conservation and environment conflict grew (perhaps unsurprisingly) even
relative to the overall psychological literature, as shown in the final column of Table
1. Readers who wish to stay up to date about details may, therefore, especially need
the foregoing information about how the main part of the present literature search
was effected.
Readers interested in the conservation of specific species in particular might,
however, find some work additional to the present review by looking up material
explicitly on conflict related to a specific species of concern, perhaps narrowed by
the co-presence of "conservation*". (For future updating of the present overview,
one might also wish to take key publications and trace their future use – by means of
citation indexes such as Thomson Reuters’ Web of Knowledge including the isi
Social Sciences Citation Index.)
========================
Table 1 about here
(see at end, below)
Addendum 5: Conservation and neighbouring environmental topics
Psychologists have of late paid particular attention to (existing and potential)
conflicts related specifically to climate change, to related concerns about water
conservation, and, to a lesser extent, a substantial number of other issues related to
conservation and similar matters (e.g., see above and below).
Climate change. A search for PsycINFO records with both "climate" and
"change" in the title, for nearly ten years from 2003, yielded 16 records (all but 2
from the most recent five years) with implications for conservation conflict. Of these,
14 also turned up in a more general search related to climate change, and 12 from
the main search used as a basis for the present chapter (environment* and conflict
in the record), including 10 records present in both searches. This provides some
confidence that coverage of the matter in the present chapter is reasonably thorough
and bounded.
One major resource is a special issue of American Psychologist (vol. 66(4),
2011) on Psychology and Global Climate Change. In a summary article, Doherty and
Clayton (2011) describe three classes of conflict-laden psychological impacts:
(a) direct, such as acute traumatic results of extreme weather and changed
environments,
12
(b) indirect, such as threats to well-being and uncertainty about future risks,
and
(c) psychosocial, including chronic social effects of heat, drought, migration,
climate-related conflicts and the like.
They note that researchers need to recognize the complexity of the relevant
systems and be on the lookout for mediators (intervening variables) and moderators
(essentially catalysts) of impacts. (See Figure 1). They suggest that training and
resources are needed to enhance practitioners' competence in dealing with these
largely psychological matters.
======================
Figure 1 about here
======================
In her edited book on climate change and human well-being Weissbecker
(2011) suggests that it is the indirect and psycho-social effects (as delineated in
Figure 1), some of which can give rise to contention and indeed strive, that are less
well understood. The book analyses what is known globally and discusses the value
of collaboration among different sectors of society and among a variety of
disciplines. Dealing with relevant conflicts requires expertise in short- and long-term
effects of climate change, cultural competence in relief efforts, and entails a variety
of recommendations at local, national and global levels.
Special consideration should also probably be given to the poor, as Romar
(2009) points out, citing probable scenarios, philosophical underpinning, and
examples such as (a) the tragic Darfur clash between marginal farmers and
herdspeople and (b) alteration of the maple sugar cycle as a harbinger of other
stresses on plant and animal life. Also discussed are matters such as the prospect
of increased corporate moral responses to climate change.
Careful research can uncover unexpected truths in different directions and,
moreover, suggest remedies. Hsiang et al. (2011) confirmed that quasi-random
weather events are associated with conflict levels. During El Niño years (warmer
than normal surface temperatures across the eastern tropical Pacific) the rate of
new civil conflicts doubles relative to La Niña (cooler than normal) years.
In contrast, contemporary African civil wars are apparently not related to
climate but to contextual properties such as ethno-political exclusion, poor economy,
and post-Cold War realignments.
See also: Anderson and DeLisi (2011); Agnew (2012); Fritsche et al. (2012).
Some additional psychological aspects of climate change and conflict:
cross-disciplinary contributions to security implications (Briggs and Weissbecker,
2011); media cross-cultural contrasts (Brossard et al., 2004); effects on mental
health (Wilmoth, 2012); facilitative dialogue communication techniques (Regan,
2007); and different classes of effects and of remedial tools (Rubin, 2010).
Minimising conflict by rational synthesis of different parties’ views is not
always straightforward. Notwithstanding a substantial consensus about the broad
features of global warming, some well-funded interest groups attempt to shed doubt
on the matter (Jurin, 2012), thus sometimes leading to conflicting public views.
Various simulations of climate change using very different methods seem to reach
remarkably similar conclusions though the magnitude of predicted change may differ
by a factor of say two or three, partly due to the complexity of the systems
concerned. Moreover, because various climate models show differences of degree
13
(in both sense of the word!) though not of kind, and because of the difficulty of
modeling some of the relevant phenomena, it is hard though not impossible to
describe the present understanding accurately for a lay audience (as accomplished
by the article "Climate change: A sensitive matter": Anonymous, 2013).
There is at least some cause for optimism. Climate change problems can
easily represent "super-ordinate goals" which can bring diverse peoples together to
form solutions. Koger et al. (2011; cf. Rodrigues, 2012) suggest reframing
"environmental" problems as psychological and public health challenges, highlighting
a broad spectrum of potentially successful components - acknowledging moral,
ethical, religious, and altruistic matters. (For a partly amusing analysis of the use of
two kinds of fish symbols on the rears of cars, one bearing a religious cross and the
other representing evolution, see Caiazza, 2007.) Finally, von Stein (2008) analyses
the (surmountable) legal challenges for international environmental agreements
linked to climate change.
Water conservation. A search for relevant PsycINFO records with both
"water" and "conflict" in the title, for nearly ten years from 2003, yielded 9 (5 of them
from the most recent five years). Of these, 6 turned up in a more general search
related to water conflict and 5 from a search related more generally to resource
conflicts, including 2 records present in both searches.
Examining water conflicts in the Middle East, Shaw and Danielski (2004)
emphasize the particular need for mediators (the human, not statistical, variety) to
appreciate the complex, interdependent nature of such disputes. Interventions
require a "sophisticated understanding" of parties' perceptions and socio-historical
background.
In a different context, harmful pollutants in the water in some American urban
centres seem to "demand" action (Samuelson et al., 2003). A major link between
need and action may often relate to group identity - which may, for instance, require
redefinition as representing, in part, a common social identity shared by conflicting
parties.
For other studies relevant to conflict and water resources see: Shmueli and
Ben-Gal (2003), Sumathy (2009), Abukhater (2010), Keremane and McKay (2011),
and Cole (2012).
More generally: Professionals are often called in to manage natural resource
conflicts, sometimes in a difficult litigious and legislative environment. Education in
relevant skills is provided, for instance, by the substantial Cooperative Extension
programmes in America. Singletary et al. (2008) analyse a wide variety of skills
needed by such professionals "if they are to engage communities in collaborative
processes".
For a case example of dealing with resource conflicts in the Bolivian Amazon,
see Rucas et al. (2012).
Other Specific Issues and Topics
A fairly wide variety of other specific conservation topics are dealt with in the present
psychological literature on conflict. There are too many references to cite here,
nearly a hundred, but for the citations corresponding to conservation conflict in the
psychological literature for the following topics, see the first of the three sections of
an ancillary web-based document compiled by Blumberg (2014): biodiversity,
conservation per se, corporate responsibility, disasters, energy, framing and
14
pesticides, forests, human-wildlife conflicts, international organizations (and NGOs),
land use (and land conflict), miscellaneous, nature and rural identity (and
biodiversity), public health, resource conflicts, risk, sustainability, tourism, transport.
Geographic Region (and Time)
Many of the articles in the present literature are focused on a particular geographic
location as well as a fairly specific topic. An alphabetical listing of these 65 or so
topics, the citations for each, and a corresponding geographical index forms the
second section of Blumberg's (2014) ancillary document. It is apparent that both the
topics and places are very diverse and vary in the extent to which findings are likely
to be generalizable.
Addendum 6: Taxonomy of Additional Topics
Some additional matters of potential interest have been largely excluded from this
chapter for want of space. For the benefit of readers with particular interests in these
matters, the third main section of Blumberg's (2014) ancillary document lists nearly
100 relevant citations under the following headings: Theory and general principles;
Methods, including research and practice; Animal species and ecosystems; and
"The little pile of papers that doesn't fit in".
As regards the theoretical paradigms: Although it has not explicitly been cited
above, a substantial part of the present chapter might have been organized
according to Parsonian functional theory, holding that in analysing any behavioural
system or conflict one must pay particular attention to, or at least consider, four
aspects: resources (also including both economic and informational), interpersonal
relations, goal-attainment (including motivation, leadership, and simply getting on
with the tasks at hand) and parties' values. See e.g. Hare (1983) and, for a
reasonable contemporary overview, "AGIL Paradigm" (Anonymous, 2012).
As regards "The little pile of papers that doesn't fit in": Occasionally one sees
a film that gives the impression that a good parallel film might have been composed
from the celluloid (or electronic equivalent) left on the cutting-room floor. Here (as
extracted in the final part of section c of Blumberg, 2014), rescued from the
"cutting-room floor" (with an indication of content for some of the first few), is a
"taster" consisting of material dealing with psychological aspects of conservation
conflict that did not, however, fit in with even the sweeping taxonomies above. To
name just a couple of the diverse examples: an institute for leadership development
related to natural resources; and mathematical models to link status needs with the
status effects of consumption.
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Table 1. Bibliometrics: Frequency of Records
Year
Frequencya 3-yearc
(1963)
(1973)
(1983)
(1993)
2003
(00)
(02)
(09)
(16)
16
--
08
21
23
32
34
34
27
37
50b
15.0
17.7
25.3
29.7
33.3
31.7
32.7
38.0
--
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
relative rated
(0.000%)
(0.011%)
(0.087%)
(0.109%)
-0.044%
0.038%
0.062%
0.063%
0.065%
0.057%
0.059%
0.060%e
--
a
Number of PsycINFO records (excluding dissertations) with environment*
and conflict in record for 2003-2012 publications (N = 2910); after clearly irrelevant
records (c.90%) were excluded, sum = 270.
b
Records added as of 24 August 2012: figure here doubled to approximate
pro-rated portion of year and also lag in entries added to database.
c
Three-year rolling average centred on the year in the first column.
d
As a proportion of all non-dissertation records having the word psychology
(30-60K per year), a marker for size of the database; table shows three-year rolling
average for this percentage.
e
Estimated for the 2012 component.
33
Thomas J. Doherty & Susan Clayton. (2011). The
psychological impacts of global climate change.
American Psychologist, 66, 265-276.
(in special issue on psychol. & global climate change)