Evaluating
Evaluation is 25% of your finial grade and is part of the written examination you take.
The exam consists of a video presentation, where you watch video clips of various
activities, read a question and write the answer. For the evaluating section of the exam,
you will be required to do two things:
1. Describe
When describing actions you should remember to;




Say what you see
Give details
Use numbers / labels / descriptive words to make it clear which performer you are
referring to e.g number 8, GD
Use descriptive words to express directions / type of pass e.g. square pass to left,
diagonal shot to middle of court, lob to back of court
Style:
Direction:
Walk
Run
Hop
Skip
Jump
Side-step
Twist
Roll
Dive
Turn
Upside down
Lunge
Move
forward
Backwards
Right
Left
Upwards
Downwards
Over
Under
Sideways
Diagonally
Shape:
Speed:
Other:
Straight
Slowly
Left hand/leg
Tucked
Arched
Wide
Narrow
Streamlined
Symmetrical
Quickly
Steadily
Explosively
Accelerating
Right hand/leg
Overhead
Underarm
Above
Below
Powerful
Soft
Heavy
Light
Smooth
Together
Jerky
Apart

If asked to “describe the actions of the performer, one has been given for you”, use the “one
given” as a reference point for your first viewing of the action.

If asked to “describe the actions in order” look for the first and last action during your
first viewing of the action.

If asked to describe a series of skills here is an example:
Hockey Short Corner
A diagonal pass was made to the top of the circle. The next player made a low down
stop with his stick before making a short, square pass to a teammate on his left.
The ball is controlled; the player dribbled forward and hit the ball into the left
corner of the net.
2. Analyse
When analysing the action, you should remember to;


Be positive e.g. ‘the boy should keep his legs straight’ rather than ‘the boy shouldn’t
bend his legs
Be specific make sure you answer the question
1


Use information from earlier parts of the question. This could give you clues.
Relate activities you have not done in your course to ones you have e.g. if the piece of
action shows tennis think badminton. If the piece of action shows diving think
gymnastics.
What if you haven’t performed the activity in your PE?
You may want to use your knowledge of a similar activity or action to make
judgements about performances. For example –
Badminton – to help you judge – Tennis
Gymnastics- to help you judge – Trampolining
Basketball – to help you judge - Netball
Knowledge and Understanding
For the knowledge and understanding section you will be required to use your knowledge of
the theory content to demonstrate understanding. At credit level, the level of understanding
you will be required to demonstrate is much more detailed than general level. Therefore
expect to fill the space given and more.
1. Use knowledge
This is where you will be asked to state, define, list, describe. It is important therefore that
you learn definitions for your exam, e.g. ‘a skill is the purpose of a linked series of
movements’, ‘four principles of training are frequency, intensity, duration, progressive
overload’.
2. Demonstrate understanding
These are often the questions that pupil’s struggle with because they require you to think for
yourself. You are unlikely to have been given the exact answer for these questions during
your course. You must use your knowledge to answer the question.
e.g.
Actions in many activities require movement from either the hinge joint of the knee or
the elbow.
Select an activity. Name a skill / technique and the main hinge joint used.
Muscles, tendons and bones work together to produce the movement for this skill / technique.
(i)Describe the movement required for the skill / technique you have chosen.
(ii)Describe how this movement is produced.
To successfully answer this question, you must have knowledge of joints, tendons, muscles
and bones. You must also understand how these parts work together to produce movement.
Finally you must beable to link this with a skill / technique of your choice.
This is not easy. A number of association ideas are given below to try to help you to be more
successful with this in the exam. These were discussed during your theory lessons:
i
ii
iii
iv
Take note of the area of theory being assessed this will be noted in the top right
hand corner of the page
Link areas to activities for example, you will have done a lot of work on feedback in
swimming, you will have done a lot of fitness work in football
Use activities from your course as you should have a better understanding of these
activities
Draw on your experiences from your course. For example, you will beable to think
about a time that you were a referee so think about the personal quality you needed
2
and why it was important, or you will have given a partner feedback so think about
how this helped them improve their performance.
Finally, always remember to ANSWER THE QUESTION. This cannot be emphasised
enough.
GOOD LUCK.
Revision Checklist
Before your exam, you should have knowledge and understanding of the following topics:
1.
Nature and purpose of Activities
Nature and purpose
Creativity
Principles of play
Tactics
2.
Written and unwritten rules
Rules
Conduct and behaviour
Scoring
Adapting activities
Small sided games
3.
Roles and functions
Roles and responsibilities
Personal qualities
Physical qualities
4.
Structure and function of the body
Oxygen transport system
Body structure
Joints
Movement
5.
Aspects of fitness
Physical fitness
Cardiovascular endurance, speed, strength, flexibility
Power, agility, muscular endurance
Skill-related fitness
Co-ordination, balance, reaction time
Mental fitness
Concentration, visualisation
6.
Training and its effects
Warm up
Warm down
Principles of training
Methods of training
7.
Skills and techniques
Definition of
skill
technique
Open / closed skills
3
Easy / complex skills
8.
Ways of developing skills
Preparation / action / recovery
Stages of skill learning
Principles of effective practice
Feedback
9.
Mechanical principles
Balance
Transfer of weight
Application of force
Rotation
Resistance
Follow through
4
PHYSICAL EDUCATION STANDARD GRADE INFORMATION SHEETS
ADAPTING ACTIVITIES
Individual or Team Activities
Look at the pictures of the two activities below. They are different because of the
number of people involved.
Individual Activity – performing on your own (example badminton)
Team Activity – several people working together to achieve the end result
(basketball)
Competitive / Non – Competitive Activities
Activities can be competitive or non-competitive. A competitive activity involves
two or more people involved in a contest which each is trying to win. Individual and
team activities can be competitive e.g. badminton singles.
Non –competitive activities are done for either enjoyment, fitness or a sense of
achievement. There is no winner in these activities as there is no contest e.g. hill
walking.
5
Task 
For each activity place a tick () under the appropriate headings, the first one is
done for you.
Activity
Gymnastics
Rugby
Javelin
Football
Volleyball
Walking
Tennis
(singles)
Basketball
Jogging
Individual
Team
Competitive

Non-Competitve

Competitive activities are either directly competitive or indirectly competitive.
Directly Competitive – you have a direct bearing or influence on what your opponent
does i.e. if you are playing a variety of shots in badminton your opponent will have to
move to return them and this would create space for you to play winning shots.
Task 
Choose a different directly competitive activity and give an example of how your
actions affected what your opponent was doing.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Indirectly Competitive – your performance does not affect the performance of your
opponent e.g. running 100m.
Task - under the following headings list as many activities as you can.
Non Competitive
Indirectly Competitive
Directly Competitive
1. ______________
______________
______________
2. ______________
______________
______________
3. ______________
______________
______________
4. ______________
______________
______________
5. ______________
______________
______________
6
Scoring Systems
The outcome of different team and individual activities which are either directly
competitive or indirectly competitive is decided by a variety of objective or subjective
scoring methods.
Objective Scoring – the outcome of an event or competition is based on fact and can
be measured e.g. most goals, runs and points.
Subjective Scoring – is based on opinions and values of those judging performances.
Task 
Name two activities where a low score means success: _______________ and
_______________.
Name two activities where a high score means success: _______________ and
_______________.
Some competitive activities end in a tie/draw. In the event of a tie in basketball an
extra period of five minutes is played, then as many 5 minute periods as are necessary
to break the tie.
Task 
Explain how the winner would be decided in a different activity of your choice in the
event of a tie or draw.
Activity: __________________
Explanation:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Tactics / Strategies
In all competitive activities, the aim is to win. To do this you need to make the best
use of your strengths and identify and exploit your opponent’s weaknesses.
Often the competitors have a ‘game plan’ worked out before the activity begins. This
can be adapted at anytime to cope with what is happening in the activity e.g. time left
& score.
Examples of tactics that could be employed




In badminton you could try to move your opponent out of position to create
space in order to play an attacking shot.
In cycling one competitor may tuck in behind a leader to protect themselves
from the wind (slipstreaming).
In an activity which requires batting and fielding the team will place the
players who are the best catchers on the bases while those who can throw far
will field deep.
In a team game like football the team will try to have width and depth to their
attack so as to give them more options when playing the ball.
Task / Learn
Choose an Activity. Describe an attacking tactic and a defending tactic you could
use within your chosen activity.
Activity: _______________________
Attacking tactic / strategy
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Defending tactic / strategy
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Roles & Responsibilities
Player – this is the person who takes part in the activity
Official – These are the people who are responsible for the activity taking place
within the rules and who make sure the score, etc, is kept accurately.
There are many different officials. Some examples are shown below.
Referee
Timekeeper
Judge
Starter
Task 
Think of two other officials and fill in the chart below.
Official
Activity
Description of Job
Coach – this is the person who works on the skill level and works out the tactics for
the activity
Supporter – In some activities it is useful to have someone who is able to hold you in
position while you practice a skill e.g. while leaning a headstand in gymnasticcs. This
person supports you.
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Helper- Supporting is not the only way of helping someone. You may also feed the
ball/shuttle to a partner to help them practice a skill or you may use a checklist to note
down points about their performance so that they can find out what to improve.
Team-mate – Sometimes when you are practising you may work with someone as a
member of the same team to practice a skill or tactic.
Opponent – In some situations you are required to act as an opponent so that the skill
can be practiced in a game-like situation. Initially you may take on a passive role in
order to give the performer a chance as they progress you could become more active
in your role as an opponenet.
Task 
Role
Activity
How I fulfilled the role
Player
Official
Coach
Supporter
Helper
Team – mate
Opponent
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Physical Qualities
The physical qualities a person has will have an impact on the activities and positions
they play in sport.
Examples of physical qualities include: height, strength, weight, shape, and agility.
Task 
Complete the table below giving a physical quality needed to be successful in the
activity/role given.
Activity/Role
Rugby (Prop)
Physical Quality
Judge in Javelin Competition
High Jumper
Gymnast
Personal Qualities
These are the qualities which you can’t see by looking at a person. However, they
make the person who they are, and have an effect on their performance in any given
activity/role.
Co-operation, fairness, concentration and determination are some of the most
common personal qualities required in different activities.
Sportsmanship
This is not a personal quality. However a person who co-operates, plays fair, is
determined is said to be a good sportsperson or is demonstrating good
sportsmanship.
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Task 
Complete the table below giving a physical quality needed to be successful in the
activity/role given.
Activity/Role
Spotter at a trampoline
Personal Quality
Gymnastics learning a new skill
Marathon runner having a bad race
Captain of a hockey team
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Body Type
Identifying body type is called somatotyping. Not every body is the same shape.
Each person is a mixture of endomorphy (how round the body is), mesomorphy (how
muscular the body is) ectomorphy (how lean the body is).
Task 
Different body types are suited to different activities. Look at the pictures and select
which body type would be most suited to each activity.
Sprinter
High Jumper
Body Type: _______________
Body Type: _______________
Summo Wrestler
Basketball
Body Type: _______________
Body Type: _______________
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Creativity
Creativity occurs in most activities where you devise and create solutions to different
problems. Being creative is important at all levels of performance.
In directly competitive team games such as football or basketball using imagination
and creative flair can create attacking advantages and create uncertainty in those who
are trying to mark you.
In indirectly competitive activities such as gymnastics you could use your imagination
and creative flair to ensure that space is used effectively by covering all parts of the
floor space available.
Task 
For the activities identified below give your own example of how you could use
creativity to beat an opponent.
Basketball
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Badminton
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Rules





Activities have rules to ensure fair play and ensure the activities run smoothly
There are different types of rules: safety rules, official / written or unofficial /
unwritten rules and specific rules for different types of activities
The offside rule in football is an official / written rule
Kicking the ball out of play if a player is injured is an unofficial / unwritten
rule in football
Unofficial / unwritten rules are expected to be followed so that activities can
be played in a fair and reasonable way.
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Safety rule
In the activity below a defender’s unfair tackle has ‘brought down’ an attacker.
Why will the referee stop play?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Why does a rule like this exist?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Shaping Activities
Some rules restrict the amount of movement allowed in the activity for example in
shot putt the competitor must begin and end his putt within a specified area (the
circle). After the throw has been made you must exit out the back of the circle. The
shot must be pushed not thrown and land within a specified scoring area.
What effect do rules like these have on the activity?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
15
In netball each player is only allowed in certain areas of the court and if they stray out
of position then they are offside. For example only the Goal Attack and Goal shooter
are allowed to shoot. Only the Goal Keeper and Goal Defence are allowed to defend
in the circle.
AREA OF COURT
GS = 1, 2
GA = 1, 2, 3
WA = 2, 3
C = 2, 3, 4
WD = 3, 4
GD = 3, 4, 5
GK = 4, 5
What effect do rules like these have on the activity?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Name two activities and an informal rule for each.
Activity _____________________________________________________________
Informal Rule
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Activity _____________________________________________________________
Informal Rule
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
16
Skills
Because of the rules you sometimes have to learn a certain skill, e.g. reverse stick in
hockey because you are not allowed to play the ball with the round side of the stick.
Name one activity and rule. Say why this rule makes you learn a certain skill.
Activity ___________________
Rule ________________________________________________________________
Why you have to learn the skill
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Adapting Activities
It is not always possible for young children to take part in the adult version of an
activity. Sometimes the activities need to be adapted to allow children to take part
successfully.
These adaptations can take various forms.
1. the playing area may be too large and may need to be made smaller so that the
child can reach shots and will not get too tired trying to play on a full size
area.
2. The equipment may be too big or heavy and smaller, lighter equipment can be
used to allow the child to take part.
3. There may be too many complex rules for a child to understand. Only the
basic rules may be used to allow the child to take part.
4. The scoring system may be complicated and a simplified version may need to
be used.
5. The time allocated to the activity may be too long for a child and a shorter
time may be played.
6. The number of players involved in the adult version may be too high so a
smaller number may take part so that the child will get more touches of the
ball and will not feel left out.
Often more than one of these adaptations needs to be used to allow children to take
part successfully.
17
Task 
Choose an activity and describe how you would adapt it to allow young children to
take part.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Benefits of small-sided games



More opportunity to transfer skills from practice to games
More time and space to perform skills
In football, for example, small-sided games of 5v5 or 7v7 players can be more
suitable than 11 v 11 games
18
BODY IN ACTION
Structure & Function
The body is given a framework by the skeleton. The skeleton is made up of 206
bones. This gives:



the shape of the body
somewhere for the muscles to be attached
protection for the internal organs e.g. heart/lungs
19
Joints
Anywhere that two bones meet is a joint. It is because we have joints that our body
can move. Movement occurs at the joints with the help of muscles.
There are various kinds of joints. We have fixed (immovable) joints where there is no
movement, slightly moveable joints where little movement occurs and freely
moveable joints where a lot of movement occurs.
The joints which affect our performance most in PE are the freely moveable joints.
Freely moveable joints
The hinge joint and the ball and socket joint are both freely moveable joints.
Hinge Joint
This type of joint is found at your knee and elbow as well as in your fingers and toes.
It works like the hinge of a door.
It allows you to bend your arm/leg (flexion) and to straighten your arm/leg
(extension).
20
Ball and Socket Joint
This type of joint is only found at your hip and your shoulder. It allows movement
and rotation in all directions.
Task 
Fill in the chart below to show which types of freely moveable joint are required for
activities.
Activity
Throwing a javelin
Kicking a football
Shooting a basketball
Arm Action in swimming
frontcrawl
Joint
Shoulder
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Type
Ball & Socket
Muscles
Muscles always work in pairs. One muscle causes the movement and the other
controls it. Muscles can only cause movement by pulling on the bones which move
it. The muscle gets shorter (contracts). The bone which is moving gets nearer to the
other bone. At the same time the muscles on the other side control the movement by
getting longer (relaxing).
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






Muscles are attached to the bones of the skeleton by a connective tissue known
as a tendon.
Cartilage acts as a buffer to protect bones
Ligaments join bones to other bones and help provide stability in joints by
preventing over-stretching and over-twisting.
The tendon that is attached to the bone that does not move is known as the
origin.
The tendon which is attached to the bone that moves is known as the
insertion.
The muscle which causes the movement to take place is known as the agonist
(prime mover)
The muscle which controls the movement is known as the antagonist muscle.
Task 
Fill in the blanks in the statement below using the following words
Tricep
Bicep
Lengthen
Shorten
As the ____________ muscle relaxes and ____________, the biceps muscle contracts
and. ____________. This allows the elbow joint to flex. When the elbow joint is
required to extend the opposite applies: the ____________ muscle relaxes and
____________ and the ____________ muscle contracts and ____________.
Describe in detail how the muscles, tendons and bones work together to enable your
leg to move from a straight position to a bent position. You should mention the
names of the appropriate muscles used.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
23
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Cardio-respiratory System
The respiratory and circulatory systems work together to provide muscles with
oxygen, which enables you to exercise.
Respiratory System
As you breathe air is drawn into your lungs. The oxygen is absorbed into the blood.
The blood carries the oxygen to the parts of the body which require it so they can
work.
As a result of this work the cells of your body produce a waste product – carbon
dioxide. The blood absorbs this from the cells and carries it back to the lungs where
you can breathe it out into the air.
Task 
State two different ways that you could increase the amount of oxygen you take in
during a training session.
1. _______________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________
Circulatory System
This is made up of the heart and blood vessels.
Through this system the blood flows continuously around the body.
The heart is the pump which sends the blood through the blood vessels.
24
The circulatory system is split into two halves.
a) The Pulmonary system which takes blood from the heart to the lungs where it
collects oxygen and leaves carbon dioxide before returning to the heart.
b) The systematic circulation which takes the blood to the body where it leaves
oxygen and collects carbon dioxide.
As your body works harder it needs more oxygen. The blood collects the extra
oxygen from the lungs and carries it via the heart to the rest of the body. This means
that the blood will need to travel from the heart faster to supply the body with the
oxygen.
Task 
If the body needs more oxygen how will the circulatory system be able to supply it?
As my body works harder I will get more oxygen because my heart
will__________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
25
Fitness overview
What is fitness?
Being fit means being able to cope with the demands of your activity. The type of
fitness you need depends on the activity. One activity may require a lot of strength;
for example shot putt. Another might need more cardio-respiratory endurance; for
example, long distance running.
The higher the level of your involvement, the higher the level of fitness you will
require.
Physical fitness is made up of a number of aspects as shown in the diagram below.
Four Main Aspects of Physocal Fitness
26
Strength
Main Aspects
of PHYSCAL
FITNESS
Flexibility
Speed
Endurance
Definitions
Task / Learn!!!
Please complete the definitions below for each aspect of fitness:
Cardio-Respiratory Endurance:
The ability for the body to work
over long periods of
resisting fatigue. Mainly concerned with the
and lungs.
Muscular Endurance:
The ability for a
, or group of muscles, to work continuously over
of time, resisting fatigue.
27
Speed:
The ability to
in a
, or perform a
or action,
period of time.
Flexibility:
The
across a joint.
Strength:
The
amount of force a muscle, or group of muscles, can exert in a
Single
.
Power:
A combination of
and
.
Cardio Respiratory Endurance
Many games and sports involve a considerable amount of running, often for long
periods of time. Whole body activity like this needs a high level of cardio-respiratory
endurance.
Task 
What are the benefits of an improved level of cardio-respiratory endurance?
1. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
2. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
28
3. _______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
Cardio- respiratory endurance can be improved through training. The aim of the
training is to make the heart and lungs more efficient.
29
The lungs will be more
effective – there is an
increase in the amount of air
taken in with each breath
(vital capacity)
The size of the heart will
increase, allowing more
blood to be pumped per beat
(stroke volume)
More oxygen will reach the
muscles more quickly,
allowing a person to work
longer or harder (aerobic
threshold)
Task 
30
What happens if you do not have enough energy to keep working? Use the key
words below to explain your answer.
Anaerobically
Oxygen Dept
Lactic Acid
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
In order to improve cardio-respiratory endurance you need to regularly work the heart
and lungs in a more demanding way.
It is important to find out your training zone.
The maximum pulse is 220 beats per minute, minus your age. It is very difficult to
work at your maximum so a training zone of 60% to 85% is advised.
Task 
Caculate your training zone below:
Maximum 220 – your age (
60% of (
)=(
)
85% of (
)=(
)
My training zone is from (
)=(
) to (
)
) beats per minute
To improve cardio-respiratory fitness you need to work hard enough so that your heart
rate is kept within your training zone for 20mins
31
How could you monitor your training zone?
What are the three main types of cardio-respiratory training?
1. _____________________________________
2. _____________________________________
3. _____________________________________
32
Muscular Endurance
A cyclist works the leg muscles continuously while a rower uses mainly the arms and
shoulders. Both are examples of muscular endurance.
Task 
List other activities where one group of muscles has to work continuously for a period
of time.
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
Through training the more often you make a muscle perform the less likely it is to
become exhausted. Overloading muscles will provide more oxygen, and gradually the
muscles ability to cope will improve.
There are two popular ways of improving muscular endurance.
Circuit training
A circuit consists of several stations where exercises should be set that are appropriate
to the activity you are training for. Typical exercises include sit ups, press ups,
burpees, dips, shuttle runs and step ups. A set amount of reps can be specified or a
time is set per station.
33
Weight training
This is usually done with fixed weights. The exercises appropriate to the activity are
chosen and the session can be set up in a way similar to circuit training. In weight
training you would note the maximum weight you could lift for each exercise (1RM)
and then lift 50% of that for 15-20 repetitions at each exercise.
Strength
All physical activities require a performer to have some strength. However, strength
is most important when heavy weights need to be held, lifted, carried or thrown.
When working for a specific activity it is necessary to identify the area of the body
where increased strength is required and to work on improving strength in the
appropriate muscles e.g. shot putt requires strong arms to push away from the neck
and long jump requires strong legs to push away from the take off board.
The most common method of training to improve strength is weight training. A
strength training programme should be based on high workloads and low repetitions.
Workload: (70-80% of your maximum capacity)
Repetitions: (between 4 and 6)
Sets: (build up to at least 4)
Exercises: (begin with 3 or 4 e.g. inclined sit ups, lateral pull down, bench press, leg
extensions)
Speed
Speed means being able to cover a distance or perform a movement in a short period
of time. For a sprinter, this can involve the whole body. For others, only part of the
body is used. For example a cricketer must pull his bowling arm forward very
quickly.
34
Reaction Time
In different activities the participant is required to react to a stimulus. This may be a
sound, e.g. a starting pistol in athletics, or it may be a visual sign, e.g. the flight of the
shuttle in badminton. The time taken to react to the cue is known as reaction time.
Running Speed
Your running speed depends on a number of factors:

Range of movement in ankles hips and shoulders

Strength of muscles (quadriceps, gluteals and gastrocnemius)

Stride length and frequency of strides

Correct technique

Force extended by leading leg

Ability of muscles to cope with the build up of lactic acid
Training to improve speed
Speed = short sharp bursts of maximum effort with adequate recovery time. Through
training the body will recover quicker from bursts of speed meaning that you can
repeat such bursts more frequently.
Power
Power is a combination of strength and speed. Power is required to perform many
physical skills. The main sources of power in the body are the working muscles of the
arms and legs. Power is needed to push a performer as fast, as high or as far as
possible, to hit, kick or throw an object or implement as fast or as far as possible.
Training to improve power
Power can be improved by undertaking a training programme. This would include
speed work and exercises to improve the strength of muscles.
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Flexibility
Flexibility is the range of movement across a joint. Many activities require good
flexibility. Good flexibility reduces the chances of becoming injured as the muscles
are able to work without being strained. It can also help to enhance performance for
example in swimming improved shoulder flexibility allows the swimmer to reach
further into the water and therefore leads to a longer stroke.
Task 
Choose a team activity. Give a example of how improving flexibility could improve
an athletes performance in this activity.
Activity: _____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Name two different types of flexibility.
1. ________________________________
2. ________________________________
Training to improve flexibility
When training to improve flexibility you stretch and move the appropriate joints for
the activity beyond the point at which you feel resistance. Each stretch would be held
in position for a minimum of 30seconds. Over a period of time the muscles would
gain elasticity and would be able to stretch further without pain.
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Tests for Aspects of Fitness
Task 
Select a test from the list below and match it with an aspect of fitness.
Some Aspects of Fitness may have more than one test.
Sit and Reach Test
Shuttle Run / Timed Sprint
Standing Vertical Jump
Cooper 12 Minute Run
Standing Broad Jump
Grip Dynamometer
Circuit Station
Weight Lift : Single Rep / High Weight
Cardio-Respiratory Endurance
Muscular Endurance
Speed
Flexibility
Strength
Power
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‘Bleep Test’
Principles of Training
There are certain principles of training which must be considered when organising a
training programme.
These are:
Intensity: how hard you work e.g. number of repetitions and / or weight being lifted.
You need to make sure you are working hard enough to gain an improvement in the
aspect of fitness involved. Too little work will result in no improvement.
Frequency: how often you work. You need to decide how often you are going to
train per week.
Duration: the length of each training session.
Specificity: make sure that the programme of work is going to improve the
appropriate aspects of fitness for your activity and works the correct muscle groups.
Progressive Overload: the means by which you make your body work harder so that
your fitness level will keep improving. This may be done by increasing the weight
lifted, the number of repetitions done of any exercises or the time of a distance run.
Reversibility: loss of fitness when you stop training. This means that if you interrupt
your training for any reason e.g. injury you cannot restart at the level of work you
were at. You need to go back to the previous stage.
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Task 
Planning a Fitness Programme

Identify the aspect of fitness you want to improve.

Select a relevant test for your aspect of fitness and record your present level of
Fitness.

Select a relevant method of training or combine methods for each training
session.

Plan a 12 week fitness programme:
Weeks 1 – 3
Weeks 4 – 6
Make programme specific to your individual needs as a
Performer, your fitness level and activity you participate
in i.e. SPECIFICITY
Weeks 7 – 9
Weeks 10 – 12
For each week include information on:



Number of training sessions planned each week.
Duration of each session.
Intensity / workload of each session e.g. what exactly are you doing in each
session.

Check intensity of training is appropriate for improvement to occur during
Session. E.g. Training Zone.

At end of weeks 3, 6, 9, 12 incorporate PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD i.e.
alter frequency, intensity or duration of sessions to place additional load on
body to allow you to continue to improve your level of fitness.

At mid point in training programme carry out initial fitness test again to check
improvement. The results are a good indication if your training programme is
working or if it needs to be changed.

Re-test fitness again at end of programme, compare with initial test results to
monitor improvement.

If you reduce or stop your training then you will lose the fitness you have
accumulated : REVERSIBILITY.
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Skilled Related Fitness




Co-ordination – is the ability to control movements smoothly fluently in the
correct order
Agility – is the ability to move the body quickly and precisely
Balance – is the ability to retain the centre of gravity over your base of
support
Reaction Time – is the time taken between the recognition of a signal and the
start of the movement response.
Co-ordination
Good co-ordination can benefit technique. Through training you can improve your
co-ordination so that you are able to move your joints and muscles in the correct
order. This leads to improvements in your hand and eye co-ordination, for example
when catching a ball. Improved co-ordination also improves control and fluency for
example when performing a handspring vault.
Agility
Many activities require agility for example a dancer needs to be agile in order to
change direction and shape with controlled fluent movements. A footballer needs
agility to maintain close control of the ball whilst dribbling.
Task 
Name a team activity. Describe how improving your agility in this activity could
enhance your performance.
Activity: _____________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Balance
Balance requires good control of different groups of muscles. Static balances such as
a handstand in gymnastics require you to hold a balance, while dynamic balances
require you to maintain balance under constantly changing conditions e.g. running
downhill. Through improving your balance you will have better control and stability.
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Reaction Time
Reaction time is linked to speed. If you are returning a tennis serve you need to
respond quickly. A fast reaction time and quick court movements would benefit your
performance. For example if you are returning a 50mph serve you only have 1.1
seconds to react. As your reaction time improves you are likely to think and respond
more quickly. This should lead to fewer errors in movement and more time to make
decisions.
Mental Fitness
Mental fitness involves focusing on those factors which help you prepare and
complete your performance. Concentration, confidence and motivation are all
important factors in preparing and completing your performance. Often performers
will picture in their minds the task or performance ahead, attempting to become
‘focused’ for example when taking a penalty in football. Coaches can assist in mental
preparation and in same cases individuals or teams are helped by a Sports
Psychologist.
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SKILLS & TECHNIQUES
What is a skill?
A skill is about the ‘purpose’ of a movement or a series of linked movements.
Examples of skills are – passing (to get the ball from one team mate to another),
shooting (to try and score a goal/point in to a set area).
What is a technique?
A technique is a way of performing a skill. There are many different ways the rugby
ball can be passed, e.g. ‘spin pass, ‘pop pass’, ‘lob pass’. Each way indicates ‘how’
the pass is made.
The technique is often selected because of a situation the player finds themselves in
e.g. if there is space at the side of the basket it is possible to use a lay up shot, but if
the player is having to shoot from further back a jump shot might be used.
Task 
For the following skills list as many techniques as possible.
Rugby: Kick
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Netball: Passing
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Badminton: Clear
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Simple and Complex skills
Which is the easier of these two skills?
Explain your answer
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Easy and complex skills have many of the features outlined below.
Easy skills
Few Subroutines
Physically undemanding
Little co-ordination needed
Few judgements to be made
Simple order of movements
Only one movement at a time
Easy environment (e.g. good conditions,
no opposition, safety equipment)
Complex Skills
Many Subroutines
Physically demanding
Co-ordination vital
Many judgements to be made
Complicated order of movements
Many movements at the same time
Difficult environment (e.g. poor
conditions, full opposition, no safety
equipment)
Describing Skills
When we try to describe a skill it should be broken down into three areas,
Preparation, Action, Recovery.
Preparation – this is what happens in order to allow the action to take place.
Action – this describes the actual action.
Recovery – this is what happens after the action to allow the player to be ready for the
next shot.
An example is given below.
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Badminton – Overhead Clear
Preparation – the player moves towards the back of the court pointing his free hand at
the shuttle. The racquet is taken back high behind the head.
Action – the racquet is swung forward to contact the shuttle above the head
Recovery – the racquet follows through in the direction of the shuttle and the player
moves back to the ready position in the centre of the court.
Task 
Choose an activity and a skill from that activity. Describe that skill under the
following headings.
Activity: ________________________________
Skill:
________________________________
Preparation
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Action
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Recovery
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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Skill Learning
Whole -part –whole
Whole–part–whole is often used as a practice method by performers who already have
some experience of the activity as you need to be able to perform a version of the
whole skill. After analysing your strengths and weaknesses you can work on
improving the problem part then practice the whole skill again. If there are many
parts to be practiced then this process can be repeated until all the parts have been
learned and the whole skill can be performed successfully.
An example of whole-part-whole is learning Frontcrawl.
Whole – the learner tries the full stroke and the coach identifies an area to be
practiced.
Part – the coach sets the learner practices to improve the elbow position in the arm
action e.g. bringing the fingers to the arm pit in each stroke.
Whole – the learner performs the whole stroke with the improved arm action.
45
Task 
Select a skill which you have improved through whole-part-whole learning and
describe the stages under the headings below.
Whole
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Part
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Whole
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Gradual build-up
Gradual build-up is the learning of a skill in stages with each stage becoming
increasingly difficult. It is a useful practice method for learning complex (difficult)
skills, or skills for which you have no previous experience. It is useful for practising
at a level which is appropriate to your ability. You can then progress to the next
practice when ready. This allows you to develop confidence in your ability.
46
An example of gradual build-up is learning the lay up shot in basketball.
Stage 1: Learning the shot from one step and shoot (last step).
Stage 2: Learning the shot with two steps and shoot (last two steps).
Stage 3: Learning the shot with one dribble, two steps and shoot.
Stage 4: Dribble two steps and shoot
Following the learning of the skill in isolation opposition can be added.
Task 
Describe how you could use gradual build-up to master a dive in swimming.
Stage 1
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Stage 2
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Stage 3
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Stage 4
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
47
Practicing skills
Automatic Stage
Once you have learned a new skill you need to practice it so that it becomes
automatic and you don’t need to think about it in the game. Once the skill is
automatic you will be able to use the skill more successfully under pressure. In
addition you can begin to think ahead to the next action which is particularly useful in
fast moving games such as tennis, basketball and volleyball etc.
 Practice makes permanent
 Perfect practice makes perfect
Length of Practices
It is important to consider the length of practice sessions in order to avoid problems
such as tiredness and boredom. The more tired you become the less likely you are to
perform the skill correctly. Tiredness can also cause injuries therefore it is important
to avoid long sessions or ensure the session is broken up into shorter periods by
including rest periods. Long repetitive sessions can also lead to boredom, a loss of
concentration and a drop in performance level therefore practices should include
variety and be carefully timed.
Feedback
Feedback is information you receive about your performance. For feedback to be
effective it needs to be precise, accurate and provided as soon as possible after an
activity.
External feedback
Visual – demonstration to show either the correct action or the fault. Video to show
the performers action and / or compare it to a model performance. A partner may
show what is required to improve the performance.
Verbal – The teacher or partner can tell you the good points and those which require
further work to improve the performance.
Written – A partner may mark on a checklist those points which are good and those
which need improvement.
Internal Feedback (Kinaesthetic awareness)
As well as being provided with feedback about your performance you can evaluate
your performance through the internal feedback you receive. Internal feedback is
often referred to as ‘kinaesthetic awareness’ and refers to the ‘feel’ of different
48
sporting actions. For example a gymnast performing a headstand should be able to
feel if their body is straight or not during the balance.
Knowledge of results
Comparing knowledge of results is another popular method for providing feedback
e.g. the number of baskets scored out of 10 shots in basketball.
Task 
Indicate whether the following statements are true or false.
True
False
Feedback is a response you get regarding your performance
Internal feedback is received from a coach, teacher or observer
External feedback is where the performer ‘feels’ the movement
Positive feedback helps to keep the a performer motivated
Feedback is not important to professional athletes
Feedback refines a performer’s skill
Feedback should be given in big lots and all at once
Mechanical Principles
Balance




Balance is the ability to retain the centre of gravity over your base of support.
Balancing requires the control of different groups of muscles.
A lower centre of gravity provides stability when balancing.
Some balances are static, other balances are called dynamic balances.
To make your body more stable you should consider:

Lowering your centre of gravity

Making the area of your base larger

Keeping your centre of gravity as close to the centre of your base as possible

If there is an oncoming force (e.g. strong wind), leaning into that force will
keep your body more stable.
49
Task 
Choose and activity and a skill /technique from that activity where balance is
important. Describe how you made yourself balanced.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Transfer of Weight
This is the movement of weight from one body part to another. For a whole variety of
different skills and techniques you need to transfer your weight for effective
performance.
Examples
Throwing – stepping into a throwing action adds power to the throw.
Catching – stepping back as the ball is caught and drawing the hands in absorbs the
force of the throw.
Striking – transferring the weight from the back foot to the front foot as an object is
struck will add power to the striking action.
Gymnastics – the weight is transferred from one body part to another to perform
gymnastics actions e.g. handstand: the weight is transferred from the feet to the hands
and back to the feet.
Task 
Complete the following table to show how weight was transferred.
Activity
Gymnastics Handstand
Transfer of Weight
To
From
Feet
Hockey Push Pass
Shott Putt
Front Foot
Back Foot
Football Throw In
50
Force
When performing different skills and techniques different forces are applied and
resisted. Newton’s third Law of Motion states that ‘for every action there is an equal
and opposite reaction’. The more powerful muscle contractions are, the greater the
force which can be applied.
Examples
Sprint start – the athlete pushes back against the blocks and will move forward.
Swimming (Push & Glide) – the swimmer pushes back against the edge of the pool
and glides through the water.
Resistance
Resistance can either be an advantage or a disadvantage. Friction is an advantage in
football. The footballer wears studs to increase the friction between his boots and the
ground. This allows him to apply maximum force when turning or running. In
skating the skater wants to minimise friction to allow ‘free’ gliding on the ice.
Name an activity where increasing resistance is an advantage and describe why this is
the case.
Activity: __________________
Resistance is increased by:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
This is an advantage because:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
51
Name an activity where decreasing resistance is an advantage and describe why this is
the case.
Activity: __________________
Resistance is decreased by:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
This is an advantage because:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Leverage
Why is a driver the longest club in a golfer’s bag?
The golf club acts as a lever. The longer the lever, the faster will be the speed at its
end. The golfer wants to hit her drive as far as possible. By using the longest club,
she will generate more speed than if she were to use any other club. The greater the
speed of the club head, the further the ball will travel.
Task 
Name three other activities where long levers are an advantage to your performance.
1. _____________________________________
2. _____________________________________
3. _____________________________________
52
Name an activity where long levers are a disadvantage to your performance and
explain why.
Activity: ____________________
Reason:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
53