Higher and Intermediate 2
Skills and Techniques
PE Course Notes
Created by M.Sykes
Inverkeithing H.S. PE Dept.
Page 1
03/03/2016
Contents
Chapter 1
The Game of Badminton
p3
Chapter 2
The Cycle of Analysis
p13
Chapter 3
Key Concept 1 : The concept of Skill and Skilled performance
p18
Chapter 4
Key Concept 2 : Skill/technique improvement through mechanical analysis,
movement analysis or consideration of quality
p26
Chapter 5
Key Concept 3: The development of skill and the refinement of technique
p31
Chapter 6
Revision notes, Example Exam Questions and Answers
p46
Created by M.Sykes
Inverkeithing H.S. PE Dept.
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03/03/2016
Chapter 1
The Game of Badminton
The Laws of Badminton
The Game of Badminton
Like Tennis, Badminton can be played by singles and doubles, mixed or same sex.
Matches are played to the best of three sets.
The sport's governing body, the International Badminton Federation (IBF), has
introduced a series of rule changes to make the game faster and more entertaining.
Under the old system the first player (or team) to reach 15 points won the set, except in
women's singles when the target was 11 points.
However both men and women now play up to 21 points. If the score reaches 20-20, the
winner is the player or team with a two-point advantage.
And if the score goes up to 29-29, the winner is the first to reach 30 points.
In badminton the serve is of huge importance. Points used to be only won on serve.
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But this has been scrapped under the new changes, so a player or team can win the point
without holding serve.
A team now has only one serve in doubles, rather than two under the old rules.
Serving
In singles, players serve diagonally from one service box to another, alternating between
the left and right side of the court as points are won.
The server always serves from the right-hand box at the start of a game and when they
have an even number of points.
They serve from the left-hand court when they have an odd number of points.
In doubles, the player on the right always starts the serve and, when a point is won, the
players switch sides and the server then serves from the left, continuing to alternate until
a serve is lost. Service in any turn of serving shall then be delivered from the service
court corresponding to the serving side's score,
Service action
The shuttlecock must be hit below the server's waist and the racket head must stay below
the server's wrist, which means the shot must be played underarm.
The court
Badminton is played indoors, on courts 6.1m wide by 13.4m long.
The net posts are 1.55m high.
Courts should have a clearance of 2m on all sides and a ceiling height of 12m.
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Overall Nature and Demands of Quality performance in Badminton
Singles Badminton is an individual directly competitive game. Players attempt to win points
by hitting the shuttle down onto the floor on their opponent’s side of the court. Points are also
won if the opponent is unable to return the shuttle or if the returned shot lands outside of the
court. In an attempt to win points the shuttle is usually aimed at the 4 corners of the
opponent’s court in order to manoeuvre them away from base position. This creates
opportunities for attacking shots into the areas of the court your opponent can’t cover.
This type of game involves the following general performance considerations
General performance considerations
KNOWLEDGE OF THE LAWS
- See previous page
KNOWLEDGE OF THE GAMES OBJECTIVE
- To score points by hitting shots into the
opponent’s side of the court that are
unplayable
KNOWLEDGE OF PRINCIPLES OF ATTACK
- Players attempt to take the shuttle early
using smashes drive shots and early net
kills to put pressure on the opponent.
The lack of time for the opponent to play
quality returns can create opportunities
to finish the rally.
KNOWLEDGE OF PRINCIPLES OF DEFENSE
- High clears, high lifts off the net and
drop shots are used to buy time to return
to base and then set up an attack.
Once you know the general nature and demands of performance, it is useful to analyse
specific performance qualities. You can identify strengths and weaknesses and work on
these to improve the performance.
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Inverkeithing H.S. PE Dept.
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Specific performance qualities
Technical requirements
Each player has to be able to perform a variety of skills
and understand which skill is most appropriate to use
in a given situation. These should be performed with,
rhythm, fluency, consistency, timing and control.
Physical Qualities
Power needed to hit an effective smash.
Agility needed to change direction, play a shot and
then return to base.
Speed needed to move into position to reach a shot.
Co-ordination of hand-eye movements.
Personal Qualities
Determination, concentration, motivation.
Special Qualities
Use of invention, creativity and flair for imaginative
use of skills.
Through completing the study of Skills and techniques we may be able to influence our
performance in terms of the technical requirements of the game of Badminton.
In order to do this it will be necessary to understand how the Key
skills of Badminton should be performed and used in a game.
How 8 Key Skills of Badminton should be used.
Overhead Clear
The Overhead clear is usually used to gain time to return to the centre court position. A
recommended strategy, particularly in singles’ play is ‘When in doubt, clear!’ The defensive
clear is a high return similar to the lob in tennis. The aim of the clear is to force your
opponent deep into their back court. It is also used in combination with the drop shot to move
your opponent and make them defend all four corners of the court.
You should always try to hit the shuttle as soon as possible so your opponents will have less
time to get to the shuttle.
Why is the Clear Important?
The primary value of the clear during competition is to keep the shuttle away from your
opponent and make him or her move quickly. By getting the shuttle behind your opponent or
making them move more rapidly than they would like, they will have less time and will
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become more fatigued. If you clear correctly, they will need to hurry to execute their returns
accurately and effectively.
How to Execute the Overhead Clear
When the shuttle is hit to you during a rally, you should move into a position behind the
oncoming shuttle and assume your ‘handshake’ grip. When returning with a forehand
overhead clear, you should turn your shoulders and pivot at your hips to turn side on to the
net. As the shuttle drops in the hitting area, swing your racket upward to contact the shuttle,
directing it high and deep. Contact the shuttle in front of your body and as high as possible
with the racket finishing in the direction of the shuttles trajectory. The defensive clear is
directed upward, high over your opponent’s head. The offensive clear follows a flatter, faster
trajectory just out of your opponents reach.
Your hand and wrist allow your racket arm to follow through naturally. Your racket travels
through the contact area and then forward in line with the flight of the shuttle. At or very
soon after contact on the overhead clear, transfer your body weight rapidly as your feet push
your body back towards mid-court.
Smash
The smash is hit fast, downward with force, and steep, to put away any shuttle that has been
hit up and short. The smash can only be hit from the overhead position. The most important
characteristic of a good overhand smash, besides speed, is your downward angle. The shuttle
is contacted farther in front of your body than the clear or the drop shot. Your racket face is
angled to direct the shuttle downward. If your angle is steep enough, the smash may be
unreturnable.
Several characteristics of the smash also present problems for the player doing the
smashing. If the smash is returned, you will have very little time to recover. The overhead
smash requires a lot of energy and can quickly tire you out. Also, the farther you are from the
net, the less steep your smash will be. Therefore, it is important for you to choose the correct
opportunity to use your smash most effectively.
Why is the Smash important?
The value of the overhead smash is that it gives your opponents very little time to prepare or
return any shuttle that they have hit up and short. The smash is used extensively in doubles.
High-speed motion cinematography has shown that the overhead smash loses approximately
two-thirds of its initial velocity by the time it reaches your opponent on the other side of the
net. The steeper the angle you can create, the less time your opponent will have to react. Also
the more accurate your smash, the more court your opponent has to cover.
How to Execute the Forehand Smash
The intention of the overhead forehand smash should be to suggest that an overhead clear or
drop shot is about to be hit. The difference is primarily in your racket speed. To execute a
good forehand overhead smash, you should assume the handshake grip and move into your
waiting position behind and in line with the oncoming shuttle. As you move into position,
pivot at your waist and turn your shoulders sideways to the net. Take your racket back and
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drop the racket head down behind your shoulder blades with your racket arm elbow pointing
up.
Throw your racket up to meet the shuttle with your elbow leading. Take the overhead
forehand smash as high as possible and in front of your body. Your racket head must move at
a rapid rate as it goes out to meet the shuttle. Angle your racket face downward at contact.
After contact, your forearm turns rapidly with the follow-through, down and in line with the
flight of the shuttle. Your racket head finishes pointing downward. As you complete your
weight shift from back to front, your non-dominant shoulder and arm assist in completing a
vigorous upper body rotation and your legs’ scissoring action propels you back toward centre
court.
Drop shot
The drop shot is hit low, just over the net, and slow, so the shuttle drops directly down toward
the floor. The shuttle is contacted farther in front of the body than the overhead clear, and
your racket face is angled to direct it downward. The shuttle is blocked rather than hit with
power. The most important characteristic of a good overhead drop shot is deception. If you
are deceptive enough, the drop shot may not be returned at all. The worst characteristic of the
drop shot is its slow flight. Anything moving slowly, unfortunately, gives your opponent
more time.
Emphasize making your preparatory motion similar to your other overhead strokes. Use a
big, upper body turn even though it is not necessary for generating any power. This
exaggerated shoulder rotation adds to your deception. However, because the shuttle is
blocked or sliced rather than patted, it loses speed quickly and falls straight down after
passing over the net.
Why is the Drop Shot Important?
The values of the overhead drop shot lies in combining it with the clear to move your
opponent around and force him or her to defend the entire court. To be effective, the drop
shot must be accurate to make your opponents cover as much of their court as possible.
How to Execute the Forehand Drop Shot
The intention of the forehand overhead drop shot should be to suggest that you are about to
hit an overhead clear or smash. The difference is primarily in your racket speed. To execute a
good forehand overhead drop shot, you should assume the handshake grip and move into
position behind and in line with the shuttle. As you move into position, pivot at your waist
and turn your shoulders sideways to the net. Throw your racket up to meet the shuttle. Take
the overhead drop shot as high as possible and out in front of your body.
Direct the shuttle downward. Swing your racket upward with your racket head leading.
Follow through in the direction of the shuttle’s flight and finish with your racket head
pointing downward. Tilt your racket face at the angle that the shuttle is to take. Hit the
crosscourt drop shot with the same overhead motion except tilt the racket face slightly to hit
more across the shuttle. This creates a slicing action similar to the slice serve in tennis and is
intended to deceive your opponent. This deception or misdirection is sometimes difficult to
pick up and may result in a winner. It is very important to begin your throwing motion with
the shoulders turned sideways to the net. This is essential for deception. Also, do not bend the
elbow during execution. This alerts your opponent that a drop shot is coming.
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Drive
The drive is a flat shot that directs the shuttle in a horizontal trajectory across the net. Both
forehand and backhand drives send the shuttle just high enough to clear the net in a level or
slightly downward path. Your stroking action is similar to a side arm throwing motion and
usually is played down the sidelines of the court. Your forehand and backhand drives provide
a chance to work on your footwork because the stroke is generally executed between shoulder
and knee height to the left or right of centre court. Therefore, it emphasizes reaching for the
shuttle by shuffling or sliding your feet into position.
In singles and doubles, the drive is a safe, conservative return that will keep your opponents
honest and require them to lift their returns. If you hit your drive with less power, your return
resembles more of a push shot or mid-court drive.
Why Is the Drive Important?
The primary objective of the drive during play is to get the shuttle over the net quickly and,
with the assistance of gravity, heading towards the floor. Hit it away from your opponent to
force him or her to move quickly. By getting the shuttle below net height, your opponents
will have less time and their returns will necessarily be directed upwards. If you perform your
drives accurately and effectively, your opponents will need to hurry to make their returns and
will become more fatigued as well. A flatter, faster drive may be useful in getting the shuttle
behind your opponents and potentially causing them to hit a weak return.
You may play all drives diagonally crosscourt or straight ahead down the sidelines. If you
hit your drive below knee high with more power, the shuttle will be rising as it goes over the
net and will continue to travel up into your opponent’s court, giving them the advantage.
How to Execute the Forehand Drive
When the shuttle is returned between shoulder and knee height to the forehand side of your
centre court position, the forehand drive becomes one of your return options. From your
ready position and with your handshake grip, any low return to your forehand stresses
reaching for the shuttle with your dominant arm and leg. If you are hitting a drive return, you
should pivot on your non-dominant foot and turn your shoulders as you reach to your side
with your dominant arm and leg. Draw your racket arm back in a sidearm, backswing motion
by flexing your elbow and cocking you wrist. Your backswing and handshake grip place the
racket parallel to the floor with your palm up. As you swing your racket arm forward, put
your body weight onto your dominant foot. Your racket arm extends, rolls your forearm over,
and contacts the shuttle as the wrist uncocks. Your racket foot should be pointing towards the
sideline. Flex your racket leg to enable you to extend and push off back toward centre court.
Strike the shuttle in front of your racket foot at the highest possible point and well away from
your body so your swing is not restricted. Elbow extension, forearm rotation, and wrist action
provide the proper sequence of action.
Your hand and wrist allow your racket arm to follow through naturally. Your racket travels
through the contact area and then forward in the direction of the flight of the shuttle. Your
forearm continues to turn on your forehand drive and finishes palm down. At or soon after
contact, transfer your body weight rapidly as your racket leg and foot push your body back
toward mid-court.
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How to Execute the Backhand Drive
When the shuttle is returned between shoulder and knee height to the backhand side of your
centre court position, the backhand drive becomes one of your return options. From your
ready position backhand handshake grip, any low return to your backhand stresses a pivot
and crossover step, reaching for the shuttle with your dominant arm and leg. If you are hitting
a backhand drive return, you should pivot on your non-dominant foot and turn your shoulders
as you reach the backhand side with your dominant arm and leg. Draw your racket arm
behind your body by flexing your elbow and cocking your wrist. Your backswing and
backhand grip place the racket parallel to the floor with your palm down. As your racket arm
swings forward, transfer your body weight to your dominant foot. Point your racket foot
toward the sideline. Flex your racket leg to enable you to push off toward centre court.
Extend your racket arm, roll your forearm over, and contact the shuttle as the wrist uncocks.
Strike the shuttle in front of your racket foot at the highest possible point and well away so
that your swing is not restricted. Elbow extension, forearm rotation, and wrist action provide
the proper sequence of action.
Your hand and wrist allow your racket arm to follow through naturally. Rapid forearm
rotation provides most of the power. Your racket travels through the contact area and then
forward in the direction of the flight of the shuttle. Your forearm continues to rotate on your
backhand drive and finishes palm up. At or soon after contact, transfer your body weight
rapidly as your racket leg and foot push your body back toward mid-court.
Block
The block is used against a powerful downward hit. It is a safe move and easy to perform.
The shuttle is hit to land close to the net in your opponent’s forecourt. To play it well you
must accept the fact that you are on the defensive: play safe and not try to do anything special
with the shuttle.
Why Is the Block Important?
The purpose of the block is to get the shuttle back over the net and below net level before
your opponent arrives to hit it downwards, thus you can play it to get a lift from your
opponent. A good early block enables you to turn defence into attack.
How to Execute the Block
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Stance. Take up a mid-court defensive stance with the racket ready to block the
shuttle above and below waist height on the right and left sides.
Preparation. Hold the racket in the shake hands grip. Make certain that the racket
head is high and your forearm is horizontal in front of you.
The hit. Move into line with the shuttle. Keep your arm in front of you and simply
place the racket face square on the pathway of the shuttle. Keep the racket face in
line with the shuttle and tilted back slightly to push it over the net (the action is
similar to a backhand push in table tennis).
Recovery. Keep the racket face in line with the shuttle as the arm extends and then
return the head to the attack position.
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It is important to try to return the shuttle low over the net so that it drops below net height,
forcing your opponent to lift the shuttle. If the shuttle is returned too high over the net your
opponent is able to hit downwards or drop it close to the net, which will put you on the
defensive again.
Underarm Clear
The clear (both forehand and backhand) is used to return the shuttle high to the rear court to
the sides or centre.
Why the Underarm Clear is Important?
It is useful to wrong foot the opponent if he rushes forwards to the mid court after his smash.
He has to stop, get back quickly and is usually late to perform his stroke. Often his reply is a
clear or poor drop shot, either of which enables you to attack.
If you have a strong defence you can keep your opponent pinned deep in the rear court until
either he clears and enables you to attack or he stays back in his rear court, leaving his
forecourt open to you to return the shuttle there and perhaps force him to lift it.
How to execute the forehand underarm clear
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
The stance. Move into line with the shuttle.
Preparation. Keep the racket head high and take it partly back by twisting your
shoulders and taking your arm back.
The hit. Keep your body still and in balance during the hit (this is very important).
Throw the racket head down quickly at the shuttle. The face of the racket hits the
shuttle from below and sends it upwards and forwards to the rear court.
Recovery. Allow the racket head to travel upwards and forwards in the direction
of the shuttle, until your arm naturally bends in towards your body and returns to
the attack position. You then prepare to attack or defend according to the affect of
your move.
Net Shots
There are two types of situation in the forecourt which determine the type of stoke you will
use: there is one when the shuttle is above net height, and one when the shuttle is below net
height. In the first position the racket face hits the shuttle from above in a downward
direction, and in the second position the shuttle is hit from below in an upward direction.
Strokes played above the net. The actual stroke you use will depend on how high the shuttle
is above the net and how close it is to the net. The closer and lower, the less movement you
will use to perform the stroke. If you rush forwards to hit very hard you may over-run into
your opponent’s court or into the net, which is not allowed. All these strokes are directed at
or away from your opponent. If you aim at your opponent he has little time to move out of the
way to play a stroke.
1. The Dab shot. The shuttle is close to the net and you have very little time to prepare to
hit it hard. Simply tilt the racket head downward, step forwards and tap the shuttle
down to the ground. This is an “impact” stroke. The racket head rebounds after the
hit. There is no follow-through. Immediately recover to the base position.
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2. The push shot. The shuttle is about the level with the net and slightly away from it. It
is not possible to hit down. Your intention is to push it forwards so that it travels
horizontally and loses height quickly. Simply tilt the racket head towards you, move
to meet the shuttle ahead of you and push it forwards. After the hit, recover to base
position.
Strokes played below the net.
If the shuttle is below net height and too close to the net to play an effective underarm clear,
you must learn to return the shuttle very close to the net in such a way that makes it difficult
for your opponent to hit it down.
3. The net tumble. The shuttle is below the height of the net. Hold the racket so that the head
is parallel to the floor. With a jabbing action hit underneath the shuttle, brushing the shuttle
from right to left on the forehand side and left to right on the backhand side. The shuttle
rotate in a tumble movement as it clears the net making it difficult for your opponent to play
their next stroke.
SERVICE
In Badminton, good serves give you a better opportunity to score points and win games.
In order to be a legal serve, contact with the shuttle must be made below your waist and the
racket shaft must point downward. The racket head must be lower than any part of your
racket hand before striking the shuttle.
Why is the serve important?
Your underhand serve puts the shuttle in play at the beginning of each rally and therefore, is
probably your most important single stroke. It is difficult to score consistently without an
adequate serve.
How to execute the long serve
The long serve closely resembles a forehand underarm clear. You should hold the shuttle at
its base, extended in front of your body at waist height. Hold your racket arm in a backswing
position with your hand and wrist cocked. As you release the shuttle, transfer your weight
from your back foot to your front foot and pull your arm down to contact the shuttle at
approximately knee height. Your forearm rotation and wrist action provide most of the
power. Your follow through is up in line with the path of the shuttle and finishes over your
opposite shoulder.
How to execute the short serve
The short serve has the same preparation as the long serve. Your racket arm begins in a
similar backswing position, with your hand and wrist cocked. As you release the shuttle,
transfer your weight from your back foot to your front foot and pull your arm down to contact
the shuttle below waist height. However as your racket hand comes forward there is little or
no wrist action because the shuttle is guided or pushed over the net rather than hit. The follow
through is short with your racket finishing up and in line with the direction of the shuttle.
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Chapter 2
The Cycle of Analysis
The Cycle of Analysis is an approach that is used to both analyse and develop your
performance. Understanding the cycle of analysis should help you to review and evaluate
your own performance in detail.
The four stages of the Cycle of Analysis are:
1. Investigate
2. Analyse
3. Develop
4. Evaluate.
By using the Cycle of Analysis in the skills and techniques block it can help us to achieve our
main aim:
To improve our overall performance in Badminton and
understanding of how to improve skills and techniques.
To achieve this aim we will need to do the following during each stage:
1. Investigate
- Observe performance
- Collect Initial then Focussed Data on our performance
- Identification of strengths & weaknesses
2. Analyse
- Consider the results of Investigation
- Compare with criteria for a Model performance.
- Research the best ways to improve from the study of 3 Key Concepts:
Key Concept 1 : The concept of Skill and Skilled performance,
Key Concept 2 : Skill/technique improvement through mechanical analysis,
movement analysis or consideration of quality
Key Concept 3 : The development of skill and the refinement of technique
-Apply what you have learned and design a training programme
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3. Develop
- Follow the training programme designed
-Monitor the effectiveness of the training programme
4. Evaluate.
- Repeat the investigation stage in reverse order.
- Compare the results of the Investigation stage and Evaluation stage.
- Identify whether improvements to whole game performance have been made
It is important to remember that this process is cyclical. Once a cycle has finished it should
lead into the beginning of the next cycle.
During the next cycle further improvements to performance can be made through improving
other areas for development.
This is illustrated below.
The Cycle of Analysis
1. INVESTIGATION
4. EVALUATE
- Repeat investigation stage
in reverse order.
- Compare the results of
data collected during
Investigation and
Evaluation.
- Identify whether
improvements to whole
game performance have
been made.
- Observe performance
- Collect Initial then
Focussed Data
- Identification of
strengths &
weaknesses
2. ANALYSE
- Consider the results of Investigation
- Compare with criteria for a Model
performance.
- Research the best ways to improve by
studying the 3 Key Concepts
- Apply what you have learned and design a
training programme
3. DEVELOP
- Follow the training programme
designed
-Monitor the effectiveness of the
training programme
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Reviewing Methods of collecting data on your performance
The table below gives examples of the methods available to collect information about your
performance.
Observation schedules
reflecting either a
mechanical or movement
analysis or a
consideration of quality.
Match
analysis
sheet
Video
Questionnaires
Standardised tests
Scatter
diagram
Photographs/sequence
photos
Structured
interviews
Personal reviews
Training
diaries
Dictaphone/voice
recorder
Knowledge of
results
In order to carry out a thorough review of your performance, you must collect relevant and
detailed information. This information must be specific to:




The nature and demands of the activity
Your role and responsibilities within the activity
Your current level of performance
The area of analysis and development of performance being investigated
You need to be able to describe in detail how you collected data
You need to be able to explain why the methods used were valid.
When data is described as being ‘Valid’, it means that it is accurate and can be trusted to be a
true reflection of performance.
You need to be able to explain why the methods used were appropriate.
When methods used to collect data are described as being ‘appropriate’, it means that they
actually measured what you were interested in finding out.
e.g.
‘I was interested in finding out how many times I used a variety of skills during a game of
badminton. Therefore I used an observation schedule that measured the number of times I
used 8 key skills during a game’.
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Within your record of performance it is important to have a balance between Quantitative
and Qualitative data
The difference between Quantitative and Qualitative data is that:
Quantitative data is objective and has clearly measurable information
Qualitative data is subjective, it is based on yours or other people’s opinions and feelings
about performance.
You may use a combination of Quantitative and Qualitative data to explain results. Often the
qualitative data will explain why the quantitative data results happened.
e.g.
Quantitative data
I only managed to perform the overhead clear successfully 3/10 times this is a 30% success
rate.
Qualitative data
My coach thinks this is because I am not transferring my weight from back to front foot and
therefore I don’t get enough power into the shot. Consequently I don’t hit the shuttle far
enough to clear my opponent.
Which Badminton Skill is your weakest?
You will need to provide some qualitative data (your opinions / teacher’s opinions) to explain
why it is a problem for you.
There are many different ways you can collect data on performance. These are listed below.
OBSERVATION SCHEDULE
Observation schedules record information about your performance. You are observed
performing and a record of your performance is made. Developing the criteria against
which your performance is judged is the most important initial consideration. The
evidence you gain has to be valid and reliable
MOVEMENT ANALYSIS
This allows for a detailed analysis of the subroutines involved in performing a skill or
technique. The sub-routines are broken down into those used in:
PREPARATION, ACTION AND RECOVERY.
VIDEO OF PERFORMANCE
This is useful for compiling evidence as it allows you to view a performance repeatedly
and often in slow motion. It can be used in conjunction with an observation schedule to
record accurate results.
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PERSONAL REFLECTIONS / TRAINING DIARY / DICTAPHONE/ STRUCTURED
INTERVIEWS
Subjective feelings about performance are also very important. Reflecting on your own
performance can support evidence from other sources.
SCATTER DIAGRAM
This can be used to get an idea of where on the court skills are performed or where the
shuttle lands. You can get an idea of your percentage success rate when you are
performing a particular skill.
KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS
The results you find can indicate areas of strength or weakness. For example if you find
from the Scatter diagram test that you only have a 10% success rate at landing a clear
in the back tramlines, you know that this is something you need to improve on. You will
need to check this success rate at a later date to see if you have improved.
ERROR DETECTION CORRECTION
Analysing performance over a period of time helps identify whether there are specific
errors within your performance that require correction. The aim of training will be to
eradicate these errors and become an accurate and consistent performer.
The methods that we used to collect data on our
performance throughout the cycle of analysis
included:
observation schedules, movement
analysis, video, personal
reflections/training diary and scatter
diagrams.
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Chapter 3
Key Concept 1 : The concept of Skill and Skilled
performance
Key Feature 1
: How skills are performed through an information
processing model.
The Information Processing Model is a method of describing how learning takes place. It can
also be referred to as the ‘Learning Loop’. Essentially it represents ‘Learning from
experience’. The information processing model is based on the premise that, as a stimulus is
presented (e.g an overhead clear in Badminton), you begin to ‘read’ the information
available. You then take decisions and carry out actions as a result of processing (‘reading’)
the information provided by the stimulus. After you have performed an action the feedback
you get will help inform future decisions and actions.
The Information Processing Model is relevant to, and can be applied to, developing or
refining skills.
It consists of 4 stages that form the ‘learning loop’.
INPUT, DECISION MAKING, OUTPUT and FEEDBACK
INPUT
FEEDBACK
DECISION MAKING,
OUTPUT
INPUT – the senses are stimulated by sight, sound or feel. This provides information that the
performer must read/process.
DECISION MAKING – the player decides on the best choice of skill or technique to use in
response to the sensory information they have received.
OUTPUT – output represents the skill the performer uses after the decision is made.
FEEDBACK – the brain makes sense of the results of using the skill. The performer learns
from this experience/feedback. The loop begins again as the next decision needs to be made.
All 4 parts of the process are linked and can occur within a split second.
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FACTORS AFFECTING THE INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL
Other factors can effect Information processing, such as previous experience, reaction time,
timing and anticipation. Previous experience helps because you can anticipate what will
happen and make quicker decisions. This also helps with decision making as you have more
options to choose from.
THE IMPORTANCE OF FEEDBACK
When learning a skill, the sensory feedback you receive is very important for helping you
with future decisions and actions. This is how you learn from experience.
When learning skills you will use kinaesthetic feedback to improve and refine actions and the
sub-routines within them. The better you get at processing information the more you can
ignore irrelevant things (such as noise from a crowd) and can focus on what you need to do to
improve your performance.
Information Processing and learning skills
The Information processing model can be applied to situations when you are trying to
develop or master a particular complex skill.
Information Processing when learning a complex skill
The feedback you receive is all important. It helps you to make sense of what you have
done.
Kinaesthetic feedback will tell you whether you need to refine your actions.
Verbal feedback will tell you how to refine the action
Visual (video) feedback will let you identify what needs to improve.
Watching a model performer will help with this process.
IF YOU ARE NOT IMPROVING THE SKILL YOU MUST:
REGRESS TO ADDRESS THE PROBLEM.
I.E. USE A SIMPLER PRACTICE METHOD – PERHAPS ONE THAT YOU USED
AT AN EARLIER STAGE OF LEARNING.
The Information processing model can be applied to situations when you learn from your
experiences in a game of badminton.
The more experienced you are, you learn to process the information better.
Particularly the information received during input and feedback.
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As a result :
Your timing improves
You learn to react more quickly
You anticipate better
This leads to better decisions being made and better execution of the skill.
As you improve, you process information better. You can pay attention to relevant cues
(relevant information) and ignore irrelevant cues.
This is very important for the Decision Making stage
This allows you to select the appropriate technique for each situation you find yourself in.
THEREFORE AS A RESULT OF INFORMATION
IMPROVING YOUR PERFORMANCE IMPROVES.
PROCESSING/LEARNING
Key Feature 2 : How skills are performed for effective, consistent
performance. Understanding of skill classification.
What is skill?
Some definitions of skill are given below
Skill is:
‘Skill is our ability to choose and perform the right techniques at the right time, successfully,
regularly and with minimum effort’
‘The learned ability to bring about pre-determined results with maximum certainty often with
the minimum outlay of time or energy or both’
‘A persons learned ability to select, organise and execute actions appropriate to a given
situation in an effective, consistent and efficient way’.
WHAT MAKES A SKILLED PERORMANCE?
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Skill is learned. It is the result of practice and experience.
Skill is goal directed and purposeful.
Skilled performers select the correct options / make good decisions
Skilled performance has a successful outcome/ end product.
A skilled player performs with consistency increasing the chances of achieving goals.
A Skilled player has movements that are fluent and controlled.
Skilled movements are made with maximum efficiency and a minimum of effort.
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SKILFUL PERFORMERS
A skilful performance in any activity is characterised by the following:
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The performer appears to be in complete control of their actions
Actions are refined and precise
The actions seem effortless energy is not wasted
The dynamics of the action, degree of power/touch or speed are adapted to each
situation
Even complicated actions appear simple
The performer has a large repertoire of skills
Skills can be linked into complex combinations
The correct action is always selected for the situation
The action is applied at the correct time
Actions are adapted with flair and creativity to overcome opponents
The performer always seems to have a lot of time to execute the action
The performer can carry out skills automatically without having to think them through
There is a high success rate of the outcome of their actions
Skilled behaviour is, as a rule, intended. A skill is not the same thing as a technique. Skilful
performers have the ability to use one or more techniques appropriately and effectively at the
right time and in the correct situation.
TECHNIQUE is the way in which a skill is performed. A skill can be performed using more
than one technique. For example a service in badminton can be played both low and high.
Techniques can be skilfully used when they are performed successfully in the correct context.
e.g. When the correct technique is used to end a rally to win a point in a game of badminton.
Learning Skills and Techniques
Development of skill is a result of practice and experience. If there is an improvement or a
change in performance that is relatively permanent we can conclude that learning has taken
place.
Classification of skills
Open and Closed Skills
Open skills are externally paced. The timing of them depends on factors external to the
performer, such as their opponent’s movements and the pace and height a shuttle or ball is
moving at.
e.g. How a smash in badminton is performed will depend on the position of the opponent the
height the shuttle is at and the position on court the shuttle is landing.
Closed Skills are internally paced. The performer is in full control of the timing and
movements.
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e.g A golf swing is entirely performed at the golfers pace.
Skills performed in an unpredictable environment are Open skills.
e.g. Team games are played in an ever changing environment that makes it difficult for a
performer to predict what will happen next.
Skills performed in predictable environments are closed skills. In such an environment, the
performer can go through pre-learned routines without having to consider environmental
changes, for example diving, archery or shot putt.
Learning Open or Closed Skills
All skills lie on a continuum between open and closed. Some skills are more open or closed
than others (see below).
HAND STAND
ARCHERY
CYCLING
CLOSED SKILLS
FOOTBALL
OPEN SKILLS
Performer controls pacing
Stable/Fixed environment
Fixed movement patterns
Same judgements
External factors control pacing
Predominantly changing environment
Movement patterns are adapted
Differing judgements
The main considerations for learning skills under these classifications is that CLOSED
SKILLS can be learned more easily because it is a simple matter of mastering through
practice a specific movement pattern and repeating it.
OPEN SKILLS however, are not so easy to master because they are rarely repeated exactly
the same way and their performance depends on the circumstances at the time.
Therefore, a beginner will learn the skill of passing a basketball quicker if they learn it as a
closed skill. Once the closed skill has been mastered, the player can learn to adapt it to an
open environment.
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NOTE:
Sometimes the same skill can be open or closed, depending on the circumstance.
e.g. when practising an overhead clear against a wall, it is a closed skill as there is no
opponent and nobody to return the shuttle.
It becomes an open skill when you are matched against an opponent and have to use your
judgement. The external factors such as their position and their skill level need to be taken
into account.
SIMPLE OR COMPLEX SKILLS
Skills also exist on a continuum between simple and complex.
Simple skills involve only basic movements and relatively straightforward decision-making.
Complex skills are the opposite; they involve making choices between a range of possible
decisions.
Whether a skill is simple or complex depends on:
 the number of possible alternative decisions
 the speed at which a decision must be made
 the difficulty of the movement
 the accuracy required of the movement
For example the performance of a Backhand Clear in Badminton would be a complex skill as
it has difficult movements and the contact with the shuttlecock has to be exact. However
jogging is a simple skill as it involves relatively straightforward movements with little
decision making required.
JOGGING
BACKHAND CLEAR
SIMPLE
COMPLEX
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DISCRETE, CONTINUOUS OR SERIAL SKILLS
Skills can also be classified as Discrete, Continuous or Serial.
Discrete skills have a
distinct beginning and
end.
e.g. High serve in
Badminton
Continuous skills
have no obvious
beginning or end.
e.g. Swimming
Serial skills are those
that link together
several discrete or
continuous skills to
form an apparently
continuous
performance.
e.g. The Long jump
that involves the
continuous skill of
sprinting and the
discrete skills of
jumping and landing
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Key Feature 3: Use of model performance.
MODEL PERFORMERS
Model performers can show us how to improve. The idea is that by seeing someone else
playing badminton well, you will get a clearer picture of what you are striving to do. Model
performers are not always exceptional performers of international standards. They may
simply perform at a higher standard than you. This may make it easier to compare your own
strengths and weaknesses to theirs. The model performer may be a classmate, teacher, coach
or a top class performer depending on your level of performance.
The model performer provides you with ideas as to how you could get better. Watching them
perform the skill you are trying to improve can give you clues about how to use the skill in a
game situation. It is particularly useful to watch a video of their performance in slow motion
so you can see the skill in the different stages of the preparation action and recovery.
Model performers can motivate you to improve. Through watching a model performer you
can see a wide variety of skills performed in the correct context. You are motivated to move
your performance towards their level. Thus you can base your main priorities for
improvement around emulating the standards achieved by a model performer.
BENEFITS OF USING A MODEL PERFORMER
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Allows you to see a clear picture of what you are aiming to achieve. In
badminton, some skills and technique are difficult to carry out effectively, for
example, a backhand clear. If you watch a model performer complete the
skill, you can pick up clues about how to perform the skill at the different
stages in the preparation, action and recovery.
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Allows you to see whether any improvement is being made as you progress.
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Watching able performers can make performance look exciting Watching
models of performance can motivate you to work towards performing at their
level.
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Allows you to compare and contrast your own performance against that of the
model.
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Gives the opportunity to set short and long term goals
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Shows different qualities and consistencies in the shots of a model performer
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To detect any flaws
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Chapter 4
Key Concept 2 : Skill/technique improvement through
mechanical analysis, movement analysis
or consideration of quality
Key Feature 1 : The purpose of collecting relevant and detailed
information about performance.
It is necessary to collect relevant and detailed information on your performance. After
reviewing the information it can be used to help devise a specific and detailed plan for
performance improvement.
Mechanical analysis, movement analysis and consideration of quality are methods used to
help plan technique improvement. The type of activity you are involved in often determines
which of the above methods is best to use.
Mechanical Analysis
Mechanical analysis would be typically used in events like athletics or golf where the
mechanics of the action are important to performance.
Golf example
When performing a drive in golf, the effectiveness of the technique can be affected by small
parts of the swing. Therefore, completing a mechanical analysis, which reviews force, use of
body levers and planes of movement would be useful.
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Force: The greater the force generated through the swing combined with the transfer
of weight forward, the greater the possibility of a long drive.
Use of body levers: The arms combined with the length of the golf club make a long
lever for hitting. The force generated by the legs and upper body as they turn needs to
be transferred to the long lever.
Planes of movement: All movement of the body can be broken down into three basic
planes of movement: horizontal, vertical and sagittal. In the golf drive, the turning and
transfer of weight from the rear to front involves movement across the sagittal plane
to generate force.
Athletics example
Analysis of hurdling technique is often completed by a mechanical analysis of force and
resistance. Maintaining a streamlined body shape as you run and cross the hurdle means that
force generated by driving backwards against the ground can overcome the resistance
provided by the height of the hurdles and factors such as running into a headwind.
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Action/reaction
All analyses of the mechanics of movement are based on the physical laws. Muscle powered
movements follow Newton’s third law of motion, i.e. for every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction. For example, as a sprinter drives backwards and downwards onto his
blocks, there is an equal and opposite upward and forward reaction.
Consideration of quality
When considering the qualities of a skilled performance you would typically evaluate the
technical, physical, personal and special qualities of a performance.
Badminton example (Drop Shot)
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A physical quality may include lightness of touch on the shuttle.
A technical quality may include the control of the racquet head.
A personal quality may include the determination to succeed in dropping the shuttle
just over the net.
A special quality may include the use of disguise. If the performer is adept at
preparing to use the drop shot in the same way as they would an overhead clear, they
may deceive their opponent at the last moment by checking their action and using the
drop shot.
Movement Analysis
Use of a Movement analysis is particularly useful when examining discrete skills. In
Badminton a movement analysis can be used to examine the preparation action and
recovery used in execution of a particular technique. By completing an observation checklist
a performer can identify specific subroutines from their preparation action and recovery
that are hindering their technique.
This can be done by an observer who completes the schedule after watching the performer
complete the technique several times. Alternatively it can be completed by the performer,
after they have watched a video of themselves.
An example of a movement analysis checklist is shown below.
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STAGE 1 : INVESTIGATE
FOCUSSED DATA - SPECIFIC SKILL
MOVEMENT ANALYSIS OF - SMASH
Observer _______________________
Performer ________________________
Date _______________________________
Criteria for completion
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Observe the performer play 10 overhead clears.
Afterwards place a  or a X beside each ‘Feature of model performance’
 = Okay
X = Needs attention
PHASE OF
ACTION
PREPARATION
Features of model performance
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ACTION
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RECOVERY
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 = Okay
X = Needs
attention
Starts from ‘base’
Performer tracks path of shuttle and begins
moving towards place shuttle will be played
from
While moving body turns side on to net
Racquet is taken up and back behind head
Weight shifts mostly onto back foot
Front arm balances racquet arm (both arms
are raised)
Shoulder, arm and racquet are brought
forward at speed to help produce power
Movement resembles throwing action
Action is ‘whip’ like
Impact is above and in front of racquet
shoulder
Racquet is angled ‘face down’ on contact
Weight is transferred forward from back
foot to front foot to coincide with moment
of impact
Racquet comes down and across body in
recovery phase
Return to balanced ‘ready’ position at ‘base’
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Through completion of the movement analysis the performer is able to identify the specific
subroutines that are causing the technique to be a weakness. The training programme devised
can then focus in on correcting these subroutines in order to improve performance of the
technique.
Understanding how the movement analysis and features of model performance benefit us is
extremely important.
The Movement analysis can help to:
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Identify specific subroutines that are in need of development.
Monitor your performance throughout training.
Give a focus as to what to improve during any training programme.
Motivate you to achieve improvements to meet the standard of a Model performer.
Evaluate whether specific subroutines have improved after a training programme.
Key Feature 2 : Create a training plan using the information gathered
about performance
Having collected information about your performance using the movement analysis you are
then able to use the information to create a training programme designed to improve your
performance. The plan needs to address the problems identified. By highlighting your
weaknesses, you can then find practices that will help you improve your identified weakness,
To be successful and bring about improvement, you should consider the principles of
effective practice when creating the training programme.
Key Feature 3 : The importance of reviewing and monitoring
improvements made during the training programme.
MONITORING AND EVALUATING THE TRAINING PROGRAMME
Observation schedules
reflecting either a
mechanical or movement
analysis or a
consideration of quality.
Match
analysis
sheet
Video
Questionnaires
Standardised tests
Scatter
diagram
Photographs/sequence
photos
Structured
interviews
Personal reviews
Training
diaries
Dictaphone/voice
recorder
Knowledge of
results
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The above table shows various methods of collecting data on your performance. Depending
on the activity, some of these may be suitable methods to use when monitoring your
performance.
When you undertake a training programme it is important to monitor its effectiveness. This
fulfils a number of important tasks. Firstly it provides a record of the progress you are
making or not. This then means that your programme can be adjusted appropriately to ensure
progression. Actually seeing that your skill level is improving has a motivational effect. You
feel a sense of achievement and a realisation that all your hard work is paying off. This
would indicate if you were achieving your short-term training goals on the way to achieving
your longer-term goals.
The best way to monitor your progress is through regular feedback. You should collect data
before you begin your programme, then you can compare subsequent data to see if your skill
levels have increased. You can receive feedback from your teacher or coach highlighting
your progress. You can make use of your own internal feedback coupled with knowledge of
performance and knowledge of results. You can also record your progress through use of a
training diary. The performer will record the details of each session with keeping information
on how well practices were completed. They will also note important personal factors as
required, such as how they felt and if there were any important reasons why training had to be
adjusted, such as injury or illness. You can then review the diary and adjust your training
accordingly.
Typically performance would be monitored by repeatedly using the method used to collect
focussed data. In Badminton this means that you would complete a movement analysis for
your weakest skill before starting the training programme. You would repeat this again after
3 weeks in the middle of the training programme. Finally you would complete a movement
analysis after 6 weeks at the end of the programme.
N.B. this information can be supplemented with information gathered using other data
collection methods as well.
The benefits of monitoring and reviewing are outlined below:
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To make sure that the content/training methods within your programme is suitable.
To make sure that the programme is demanding enough.
To identify whether your development need is improving.
To allow you to make adaptations/modifications to your training programme, so that
you can refine your practices to your precise needs and keep practices challenging.
To allow you to make comparisons in your most recent and final performances
against your initial one, to see whether your programme was successful or not.
It can be motivational, especially when you are succeeding, as you want to continue to
improve.
Allows you to see whether you have achieved your training targets/goals.
Lets you know where further improvement is needed
Can lead the way forward/next steps in your new training targets/goals.
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Chapter 5
Key Concept 3: The development of skill and the
refinement of technique
Key Feature 1 : Stages of learning, methods of practice and use of the
principles of effective practice.
STAGES OF LEARNING
When learning a new skill you will go through three main stages;
1. Preparation stage (Cognitive stage)
2. Practice stage (Associative stage)
3. Automatic stage (Autonomous stage)
1. Preparation stage (Cognitive stage)
The major problems people face during this stage of learning is in understanding what the
task requires and knowing how to do it. Most of the information is gathered through visual
demonstration and verbal instruction. During this stage the performer will have many faults
and the action will appear crude and lack control and refinement.
During this stage it is vital:
 To visualise the skill through demonstrations by a model performance or
viewing video footage to build up a mental picture of the skill.
 Break the skill down into a series of subroutines; using practices, which
involve only part of the skill or technique, which make the skill, or technique
easier to, learn.
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This can be done by:
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Shadowing parts of the movement over and over.
Using the gradual build up method of practice where you master each practice
before moving on to the next one. Increasing the difficulty of each practice by
a small amount provides a challenge that should be achievable.
Slowing the skill down by controlling the speed and depth of the shuttle from
the feed – Feeder practices.
Practice is isolated and not continuous making open skills more internally
paced (closed) in nature to improve learning.
External and Internal Feedback are critical at this stage to correct faults before they become
learned. Feedback has to be very accurate and precise to improve its effectiveness. Providing
feedback immediately will enable an individual to act on it instantly. Positive feedback also
provides encouragement.
Practice sessions will be short in duration to avoid boredom but long enough for meaningful
progress.
2. Practice Stage (Associative stage)
Once the performer has grasped the general idea of the task (i.e. what to do) they can focus
on how to do it. During the associative/practice stage you begin to link movements together
and you become familiar with the sequence and timing of the various parts (subroutines)
involved. You begin to detect your own errors. This is when you correct small faults, and
then repeat the corrected movement in order to refine your actions. This helps to reduce the
number of errors in performance. You still have to think about the execution of the skill but
some parts will be automatic (the skill is starting to become grooved in your motor memory).
You can execute the skill in more demanding performance situations and practices (those
involving movement or decision making), but the skill can still break down under moderate
pressure.
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e.g. A badminton player performing a smash is more concerned with the direction and
placement of the shuttle at the associative stage whereas at the cognitive stage they are more
concerned with simply making contact with the shuttle and getting it over the net.
N.B. Feedback is still vital at this stage to reinforce various subroutines when perfecting the
movement.
3. Automatic Stage (Autonomous stage)
At the automatic stage most key subroutines have become automatic in the performance. As a
result little attention is paid to them you simply select the skill and perform it. Due to your
higher skill level, errors are less likely, the performance is consistently good and you can
devote more attention to more detailed aspects of your performance such as tactical
considerations. Rather than focussing on how you perform the skill you can devote more
attention to other important factors such as the position of your opponent on the court and
placement of the shuttle.
You are now able to put the skill/technique you have learned into a full game situation – your
practice closely reflects the demands of full performance.
Examples of this are:
Pressure training – To improve speed and efficiency of movement, by making the practice of
open skills realistic.
Conditioned games – Normal rules can be changed so that a skill which needs to be practiced
happens more often e.g. the use of the smash is banned to encourage the use of the overhead
clear.
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Even when at the automatic stage, you may need to go back to the practice stage and even the
preparation stage: To correct minor faults and to develop more advanced techniques e.g. a
jump smash.
Table showing appropriate methods of practice for each stage of learning
Stage of
learning
Cognitive
Types of practice to use for this stage of learning
All these practices help the player master the basic movements
involved in the skill.
(Preparation)
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Associative
All these practices help to refine accuracy and movements involved.
They may have an element of decision making.
(Practice)
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Autonomous
Solo, Shadow
Simple Repetition practices (closed environment) accuracy
is not the main aim
Unopposed Practices
Gradual Build up
Repetition practices where choice, targets to refine
accuracy or movement is involved (more open
environment).
Partner practices were simple hitting routines are
developed e.g. continuous Overhead Clear rallies.
Group practices
Semi opposed practices
All these practices are game like, will improve decision making and
performance of the skill in a game environment (open environment)
(Automatic)
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Fully opposed games/practices
Conditioned games
Pressure practices
Whole/part/whole
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PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE PRACTICE
To improve our performance of a skill or technique we need to develop a progressive
programme of practices. In order to develop the best programme we have to consider the
principles that govern skill development. We need to use the PRINCIPLES OF
EFFECTIVE PRACTICE. By using these in training we are more likely to develop our
weaknesses.
Performance Level
Use of Principles of
effective practice
Principles of effective practice are:
Model performer
We must be aware of how a model performer would complete a skill in order to develop an
awareness of the subroutines involved and when to use the skill in competition.
Identification of strengths and weaknesses
Through comparing our performance to that of the model performer one can identify
strengths and weaknesses within our skills and techniques. This helps us to set clear targets
for improvement that our training programme is based on.
Clear objectives
After strengths and weaknesses have been identified you can set your clear objectives these
will be made up of short term, mid term and long term goals.
Specific to your needs
The goals you set for improvement must be specific to the areas of skill development that you
personally need to develop.
Progression
As your ability level improves the practices used in your training programme should become
more complex and demanding. This will eventually lead to the skill being executed
automatically and effectively in demanding game situations. It is important that the performer
can master the demands of practices suited to a stage of learning before moving on practices
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suited to the next stage. Therefore the performer should have a high degree of success in a
practice before moving on to a more difficult practice. When they have received feedback
that indicates a high level of success they are ready to move to a slightly more difficult
practice.
Quality of practice
It is possible to learn poor technique, this is usually down to poor quality of practice. Once
poor technique has been learned it is difficult to unlearn. Time has to be spent training at the
preparation/cognitive stage of learning in order to perfect the subroutines. To ensure high
quality of practice one must consider your work to rest ratio, and the effects of boredom
and fatigue.
Work to rest ratio
This is the balance between the amount of time you spend working to develop your skill and
resting during a training session. Research has proven that distributed practice (a session
broken down into small practice intervals) is more effective than massed practice (all in one
go). Therefore 4 x 5 minute practices with breaks would be more effective than a 20 minute
session even though the length of practice time is the same. Other benefits of distributed
practice are that the learner can use the break to re focus on the skill through receiving
external feedback, through watching the model performance or through mental rehearsal of
the skill.
Massed practice is appropriate in some instances for highly skilled and fit performers who are
well motivated.
Your work to rest ratio will be affected by your previous experience, your level of ability, the
complexity of the skill you practice and the physical demands of the practice.
A rule of thumb is that less skilled players cope better with shorter work intervals and longer
rest intervals.
Skilled players can cope with longer work intervals and shorter rest intervals
Boredom and fatigue prevention
Boredom: If you practice for too long, the demands of the practice are too easy or far too
difficult or there is little variety in the practices then boredom will set in. This results in a
lack of focus and concentration. Thus the quality of the practice deteriorates.
Variety: During a practice session it is important to have a variety of practices, this prevents
boredom. It also reinforces the learning process as you are using the skill in different
situations.
Fatigue prevention: If the training session is too long boredom and fatigue can become
factors. In general people learn better in the first 30 minutes. When you get tired the quality
of your practice deteriorates your control of your muscles drops and therefore the skill is not
executed well. Rather than carry on it is better to take a rest from the practice. However the
length of time you should train for is also affected by your previous experience, your level of
ability, the complexity of the skill you practice and the physical demands of the practice.
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A beginner will tire more easily as they may have to put more effort into performing the
skill. The skill itself could be particularly tiring thus affecting the length of practice time,
whereas a skilled performer will perform the practice with more fluency, efficiency and
economy of effort.
METHODS OF PRACTICE
When learning or developing a skill or technique it is vital that effective progression and
repetition are applied to all types of practices. The type of practice chosen will depend on the
skill being learned and the stage of learning the performer is at and their previous experience.
When in the early stages of learning we try to make open skills as closed as we can to make
learning easier, for example shadowing and feeder practices, as skill levels improve the
practices will be more open and game like.
Solo/Shadow/Partner/Group
Solo
Solo practice as the name suggests means you practice on your own. Usually this is done in
order to establish the movement patterns involved in an activity. In Badminton this is usually
done without a shuttle, but in some sports you can involve a ball. Such as in tennis you can
practice your backhand against a wall to perfect the movements involved.
In Badminton solo practice is useful for developing footwork and court movement.
Shadow
A way of progressing from solo practice is to shadow (mirror) another player. This makes
you concentrate on the other player’s movements as you execute the same movements
yourself. This is useful particularly if the player you are shadowing is highly skilled. It also
helps as in Badminton, trying to watch the court movement and positioning of your opponent
at all times is an important performance quality to develop.
Partner
In this type of practice you can introduce training intervals. You might work cooperatively
together on set hitting routines. This could involve practising set hitting routines as simple as
playing constant overhead clears or hitting routines which require you to react or move and
hit in precise ways.

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Group practice
This involves making practices increasingly demanding. Several members of a group can act
as feeders, placing themselves in various positions around the court in order that court
movement and a variety of skills can be practised during a set work interval.
The diagram below shows how the performer would attempt to use different skills at each
position on the court where there is a feeder

X
=
=
=
performer
position of feeder
performer movement
X
X

X
X
Repetition practices
Repetition practices involve breaking the technique into its component parts and practising
these parts repeatedly. These practices can also involve repeating the entire technique. Your
aim is to groove the technique so that all the components of it work well together. This
method of practice is especially effective with complex closed skills such as a Tennis serve or
a golf swing.
Opposed/unopposed
Varying the degree of opposition in a practice can help you to develop a skill at the right pace
for your stage of learning. You can either practice with no opposition, passive (limited)
opposition or active (full) opposition. Completing a practice with no opposition is useful at
the cognitive (preparation) stage of learning. Completing a practice with passive opposition is
useful at the associative (practice) stage of learning. Completing a practice with active
opposition is useful at the autonomous (automatic) stage of learning. When working with
passive and active levels of opposition it is important that your partner is aware of the level of
opposition they are expected to provide. This will ensure that the benefits of practice are
maximised.
Gradual build-up
Gradual Build-Up is used when learning complex skills or those with an element of danger.
Gradual build-up allows you to make the practice more demanding in small instalments e.g.
the overhead backhand clear can be developed in stages by gradually increasing the demands
of the practice. Teaching a beginner to swim can be kept safe by learning the stroke in small
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stages with minimal risk. This reduces the element of fear for the learner. It is essential when
using gradual build-up that all practices are geared to the correct stage of learning. Practices
should be challenging yet achievable.
This type of practice is useful for beginners who are finding it difficult to perform a complex
skill. Therefore the skill is broken down into much simpler actions that lead up to the
performance of the whole skill.
The advantages of breaking actions down like this are that the performer may be motivated
by their success in achieving each small step. The teacher/coach can focus on each key
element of the skill.
It is important to ensure that the learner is aware that the end product should be effective
performance of the overall skill. They should not lose sight of this whilst building up to the
whole skill
Whole part whole
Whole/Part/Whole involves practicing all of the skill then breaking it into parts that can be
practiced separately before practicing the whole skill again. This tends to be used when the
performer has previous experience of the activity and has fewer faults. The performer can
focus on the part of the skill, which has been identified as a problem.
e.g. overhead clear
Whole skill fault: poor footwork leading to performing the skill late and off balance.
Part practice: work exclusively on footwork and movement drills to back of court.
Practice Whole skill again: improved footwork leads to an improvement in balance and
timing of the overhead clear.
This process can be repeated a number of times focusing on each specific fault that exists. In
whole/part/whole you move from the autonomous stage to the cognitive and back again.
The advantages of this method are that the performer is developing the whole action
sequence. They are able to identify and work on very specific faults and put this back into the
whole action. This process can be readily repeated as often as is required by the learner.
Pressure practice
Pressure practices are designed to put the skill into a game-like situation, thereby putting
pressure on the player performing the skill.
An example of a Badminton pressure practice is one designed to develop a tight net shot. The
player works with a partner who feeds the shuttle short over the net to be returned with a tight
net shot. The feeder then lifts the shuttle to the back of the court to be returned with an
overhead clear. The feeder drops the shuttle over the net for a tight net shot return etc. This
practice puts pressure on the player to play the tight net shot, then move to be ready for the
next skill. The player must be in position to use the correct skill and recover to use the next
skill as in a normal game.
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See below
(Pressure practice)
Key
player direction
(1)
shuttle direction from feeder (2)
shuttle direction from performer
(3)
shuttle direction from feeder (4)
shuttle direction from performer
1
4
2
3
Conditioned games
Normal rules can be changed so that the skill that needs to be practiced occurs more often.
The diagram below encourages the development of overhead forehead clears. By eliminating
the middle section of the court from the playing area the players need to place the shuttle
towards the front and back of the court. Points are lost if the shuttle lands within the shaded
area. Conditioned games are best suited to the autonomous stage of learning.
Shuttle cannot land in shaded area.
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Half Court Singles
Half court singles is an excellent way to maximise court space and player involvement and
still have the feeling that you are really playing badminton. This is a very popular game and
is highly recommended for learning and competition purposes.
• Divide the court into 2 halves lengthwise.
• Play is full length of the court, and from the centre line to the doubles (outside) sideline.
• Two games may be in progress at the same time.
• Official rules apply, except that service is not diagonal. The service may be short or long.
• Players should not retrieve their shuttle from the adjoining half court until the rally in that
court is complete.
The game can have conditions applied just as with full court games.
Full Court Games
It is important to practice the skill as it would be played in the full performance situation.
Thus the performer can refine and adapt the skill within the demands of a competitive game
to develop their performance further. It is also important to play different people. Each
opponent will challenge the learner in different ways, thus increasing their performance
repertoire.
Massed/Distributed practice
Practice can be massed (continuous) practice or distributed (spaced) practice.
It is generally assumed that distributed practice is more valuable than massed practice.
Massed practice is not generally used with beginners (cognitive/preparation stage of skill
learning) due to the likelihood of fatigue occurring and performance suffering as a result.
However massed practice can be useful for those at the Autonomous stage of learning,
particularly if you don’t have much time to practice. In these cases massed practice may be
useful.
When deciding upon whether to use massed or distributed practice sessions you should take
into account:





Your motivation level – The less motivated the performer, the more
distributed practice will be needed.
Complexity of the skill – more complexed skills may require more distributed
practice e.g. gradual build up /whole part whole.
Physical and mental demands of the skill – the more tiring the skill the more
distributed practice will be needed.
Time available – the less time, the more likely that massed practice may prove
beneficial.
Your skill level – if you are at the autonomous stage of learning, you will be
able to make better use of massed practice.
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Key Feature 2 : The influential factors in the development of performance.
Motivation, Concentration and Feedback
Motivation
The components of motivation include:




Your willingness to learn.
Your performance goals/targets.
Your reasons for participating in different activities.
Your level of motivation is influenced by your commitment.
Internal motivation = Will to win
External motivation = external reason for taking part e.g. money, a prize, a performance mark
or to please others.
NB. You cannot perform at the highest level without challenging yourself. Setting goals and
targets should help to motivate you to achieve more.
Concentration


During an activity, high level performers can pay closer attention to the more
important factors than the less important factors.
Lapses in concentration often occur due to tiredness (therefore work to rest ratio is an
important factor to consider when training)
Concentration in relation to level of ability


At the beginner level (cognitive stage) you are unable to focus on many aspects of
performance. All concentration is focussed on the basic aspects i.e. how to move your
body to perform a skill.
As you improve in ability you can pay selective attention to the important aspects,
such as the position of your opponent, shot placement and thinking ahead to what
your next shot will be.
Feedback



As you learn from your experience, you store feedback information in your memory
and recall it as necessary to aid future performance.
Feedback should be constructive and give specific pointers as to how performance can
be improved.
Effective feedback is positive rather than negative. It focuses on what was good while
indicating where improvements can be made.
Internal Feedback = Feedback your body gets from the feeling of the movement. This can
also be referred to as Kinaesthetic Feedback
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External Feedback = Feedback from an outside source e.g. A coach giving advice
Knowledge of Results is a form of external feedback and is an extremely useful form of
feedback.
Knowledge of results can be found by watching a video of performance, looking at
results of observation schedules or reflecting on the results of how you have performed
in a game.
SMART GOALS
GOAL SETTING
It is important to set goals during your training programme as this can greatly improve the level of
skill development achieved. By giving yourself targets to aim for this helps to motivate you to do
better. Goals should be broken down into long term, medium term and short term.
e.g
Long term goal - A badminton player’s long term goal may be, to win the Fife Schools Badminton
championship.
Medium term goal - In order to achieve the long term goal they may have a medium term goal, to
improve their drop shot after completing a 6 week training programme.
Short term goal - To help achieve the medium term goals they could have short term (usually weekly)
goals such as to consistently land 7/10 drop shots into a coned area during
repetition practices.
For goal setting to make the biggest impact on training the goals
set should be S.M.A.R.T
- Specific to the performer
S
= SPECIFIC
M
= MEASURABLE - Measurable so improvement can be monitored
A
= ATTAINABLE
- Attainable to keep the performer motivated
R
= REALISTIC
- Realistic
T
= TIME PHASED -Timed goals should be completed within a certain
time scale.
The benefits of goal setting:




Increase in motivation
Reinforces desire to keep working
Provides a performance focus
Provides valuable feedback
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SMART goals can aid motivation
•
•
By setting goals the performer is motivated to strive to achieve them.
However it is important that they are realistic and attainable. If not this could have a
negative effect on Motivation levels
Performance Level
Motivation Level
SMART goals can aid concentration
•
•
•
By setting goals this gives a focus to the training.
The performer has to concentrate on what they have to achieve in each training
session if they wish to meet their goals.
If high levels of concentration can be maintained the performer is less likely to be
affected by distractions.
Performance Level
Concentration Level
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SMART goals can provide feedback
•
Successful performers monitor their results by recording whether they have achieved
their goals.
•
This knowledge of results provides useful feedback on performance
Key Feature 3: How skills are learned and techniques are refined through
practice.
During your training the purpose of any practice should be to help improve performance.
To be successful and bring about improvement, practice must have certain qualities.









It must be planned, for the long or short term.
It must have a clear focus. Participants must understand the purpose of any
practice.
Participants must be motivated. If they do not recognise or understand the
benefits of practice participants are unlikely to improve.
Sessions must not be too long. If a practice ‘drags on’ motivation decreases and
learning slows.
It must be regular. 2 to 3 times per week is generally recognised as the norm for
a general programme of practice.
It must relate to the activity. You should aim to practise the skill in a way that is
similar to how it is used in competition.
Practices should be progressive. As your skill level increases so should the
demands of the practices completed, until the performer can perform the skill
effectively in a game.
There must be evaluation. There needs to be reviews of how successful the
practice has been. This prevents you continuing with a programme that is not
being effective.
Practice needs to be high quality. There is no value in practice that is mediocre
and includes poor or incorrect actions.
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Chapter 6:
Revision notes, Example Exam Questions and Answers
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Skills and Techniques - Revision Checklist: Key Concepts and their Key Features
Good
understanding, I
can write about
this at length.
Key Concept 1 : The concept of Skill and Skilled performance
Key Feature 1 : How skills are performed through an information processing model.
Key Feature 2 : How skills are performed for effective, consistent performance.
Understanding of skill classification.
Key Feature 3: Use of model performance.
Key Concept 2 : Skill/technique improvement through mechanical analysis, movement analysis or
consideration of quality
Key Feature 1 : The purpose of collecting relevant and detailed information about
performance.
Key Feature 2 : Create a training plan using the information gathered about performance
Key Feature 3 : The importance of reviewing and monitoring improvements made during the
training programme.
Key Concept 3 : The development of skill and the refinement of technique
Key Feature 1 : Stages of learning, methods of practice and use of the principles of effective
practice.
Key Feature 2 : The influential factors in the development of performance.
Motivation, Concentration and Feedback
Key Feature 3 : How skills are learned and techniques are refined through practice.
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Some
understanding,
check my notes.
No
understanding,
See my teacher.
Skills and Techniques - Revision Checklist: Key Concepts and
their Key Features
Skills and Techniques Revision Notes
In order to improve a specific Skill or Technique we followed the cycle of analysis this has 4 stages.
Stage 1 Investigate
We investigated our performance in relation to the Smash/Clear by:
1. Gathering INITIAL data my Whole Performance was observed in a singles game up to 21
points. My observer completed an observation schedule that recorded the range of skills /
techniques used and the frequency that these were used.
2. Gathering INITIAL data my Whole Performance was observed in a singles game up to 21
points. My observer completed an observation schedule that rated the effectiveness of my 4
weakest skills Smashes, Overhead Clears, Lifts/Lobs, Serves.
3. To gather Focussed data we looked at the least effective key skill and completed a
MOVEMENT ANALYSIS (the skill observed was …………………………….). My
observer watched me playing this skill / technique 10 times after receiving a high serve to mid
court They compared my performance to the criteria for model performance. They could then
identify which parts of the skill I was performing correctly or incorrectly during the
Preparation, Action and Recovery phases.
4. The results of the MOVEMENT ANALYSIS showed me that my weaknesses in executing
the skill were
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………
Stage 2 Analyse
We studied the theory on improving skills and techniques. The Key Concepts studied helped us to
understand how we can analyse performance and then plan a development programme to improve.
We studied 2 Key concepts and key features in particular, these were:
KC1 - Key feature 1.
How skills are performed through an information processing model
Input :
Decision Making :
Output:
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Feedback:
This represents how we learn through experience and refine our skills based on the feedback we
get.
KC3 – Key feature 1. The development and the refinement of technique.
In order that the training programme you plan is effective you must understand about the Stages
of Learning and the approprate methods of practice to use at each stage of learning.
The Stages are :
Planning/Cognitive
Practice/Associative
Automatic/Autonomous
We had to understand the Principles of effective practice.
Once you had developed an understanding of these Principles you used them with the appropriate
methods of practice in order to develop your Skill or technique.
Stage 3 Develop
In this stage you explain how you monitored your training programme to ensure that what you have
planned is effective. The monitoring process will help you to decide whether to make any adjustments
to the training programme you have planned.
How did you monitor your progress? You may have used any or all of these methods.
1. Movement analysis to assess whether you have been able to correct the sub-routines that
prevent you from performing the skill well.
2. Scattergram Tests to periodically review the effectiveness of the skill. This measured the
number of effective shots you could play out of 25 and also gave you an indication of your
placement of the shuttle.
3. Personal reviews / Training Diaries recording the amount of work done and subjective
feelings / internal feedback on how training is progressing. You also noted any external
feedback from your coach / teacher or training partners.
Stage 4 Evaluate
This is where you reflect on the effectiveness of your planning and the effects of the training
programme. To do this you will.
1. Repeat the movement analysis/comparison to model performance to gather focussed
information on the specific skill you have been developing.
2. Re-observe your whole performance. Repeat the 4 weakest skills observation schedule.
3. Then Repeat the observation schedule that recorded the range of skills / techniques used and
the frequency that these were used.
If you are satisfied with the improvements you would discuss how the cycle of analysis could be used
again in order to develop another area of Skill or Technique in order to further develop your whole
performance.
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Example Exam Questions and Answers
Source 2000 Q8 (d) – Topic = principles of effective practice
Question 8
(d) Discuss the principles you took into account to make sure your practice was effective in
developing your performance.
6
To ensure my practice was effective I considered the principles of effective practice. First I
identified my current performance strengths / weaknesses. I then made sure that the practice
methods I had selected were appropriate for my current level of performance and would
specifically address my problems. I had to make sure that I had good feeders capable of
accurately feeding me so that I would get most benefit from my practice; they could also give
me feedback. During the drills I set realistic targets. This helped me to remain motivated and
concentrate on getting the shuttle deep. For example, I wanted to get at least 3/5 of my
smashes into each of the 3 hoops. The smash is a powerful action, so I needed to take into
account my work to rest interval and take appropriate rest periods otherwise fatigue would set
in and my performance would deteriorate. The drills that I selected had to be challenging and
give me the opportunity of progressing on to more complex drills once I became comfortable.
I also made sure I kept them closely related to the demands of my ‘whole’ performance so
that I could transfer my technique improvement back into the game.
I knew that short concentrated levels of drill practice were more effective so I had to be
aware of the time I spent on each one. It was important to vary my practice and avoid endless
repetition of the same practice – this prevented boredom. Importantly I monitored my
performance to check improvements and I made sure I finished each practice with a full game
so that I could test the effectiveness of my technique within a competitive situation.
Source 2001 Q7 (a) – Topic = Data gathering
Question 7
(a) With reference to your performance in one activity, describe the steps you took to identify
features of your skills or technique that you wanted to improve.
4
For my performance in badminton, I took a number of steps to identify the features of my
skills/technique that I wanted to improve. I firstly had a video recording made of me playing
a full court singles game. I chose an opponent who I knew would give me a close game and
motivate me to play my best. This video was extremely useful as I was not only able to
rewind the tape and watch useful sections of my performance again and again, but I could
also pause it and look at stills of key points of my technique. As I watched my performance
on tape, I was able to complete a general and a focussed observation schedule. The general
observation schedule related to a range of different strokes and the effectiveness of my hitting
action. A four point scale from ‘very effectively/ through to ‘miss hit’ was used to judge each
observation. I found that my strongest shots were net shots, drop shots, and underarm clears.
My weaknesses were in my overhead clear, smash and especially the backhand overhead
clear, which definitely needed improvement, as it was often miss hit. I chose to focus a
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specific observation schedule on my backhand overhead clear, as it allowed me to see more
specifically, and in more detail, the areas of my technique that needed improvement. The
schedule had the specific details of a model performance in each of the preparation, action
and recovery phases of the shot, and I was able to use these to judge the effectiveness of my
technique. From this schedule, it was clear that my footwork when preparing to play the shot
was very ineffective, when compared with the model, and was the main area I needed to
improve.
Source 2001 Q8 (a) – Topic = Skilled performance
Question 8
Skilled performers have the ability to respond to performance challenges.
(a) Discuss the features that can be observed in skilled performance in one activity of your
choice.
4
A skilled performance in basketball is one where the player is able to carry out all the
requirements of the game efficiently and effectively. You would be able to observe the player
performing and linking together the full range of shooting, passing, dribbling and rebounding
skills of the game. They would display a level of control, fluency and disguise that showed
that all the subroutines of these skills have become evident in their performance. The ability
to make a high level of good decisions as they play is also evident. Their range of skill and
depth of knowledge of possible options is very wide and this makes their play difficult to
anticipate and defend against. They are able to significantly influence play and the outcomes
of the game through dominating space and the play of opponents, through creating
opportunities for team mates and scoring heavily themselves. Their play is consistent and
inventive reflecting their experience, ability and self-confidence.
Source 2001 Q8 (b) – Topic = Model Performer
Question 8
Skilled one skill or technique from the activity identified in part (a).
(b) Give a detailed analysis of the features you would expect to see in a model performance
of this skill or technique.
6
In a model performance of dribbling in basketball I would expect the performer to have a
relaxed hand position on the ball and an economic action of the subroutines involved. The
head would be up most of the time and good posture maintained with the player looking
ahead at the options available. The player would be relaxed and comfortable on the ball and
be able to retain fluency, control and balance when using both the strong and the weak hand.
They would be able to use a low dribble to protect the ball when under pressure and a high
dribble to transport the ball at speed in attack. They would also have the ability to retain full
control on strong and weak sides when linking dribbling with a sharp change of direction and
speed in order to take on opponents and move into space. A range of dribbling techniques and
tricks with both hands would be available to the player and would be used when in 1v1 attack
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situations, e.g. crossover dribble, fake and drive or spin. Footwork for these techniques and
all dribbling movements would be sound and legal. This wide range of techniques make
performers of this level very difficult to defend against as they are able to disguise their
intentions and improvise their techniques to give themselves a very wide range of dribbling
and driving options.
Source 2001 Q8 (c) – Topic = Stages of Learning / features of skilled performer
Question 8
Skilled performers have the ability to respond to performance challenges.
(c) With reference to the model performance outlined in (b), discuss your performance of the
same skill or technique.
4
My performance of this skill is still mainly at the practise stage of skill development and so
well behind the automatic level described in (b). When I am not under any great time
pressure the subroutines of my technique, particularly on my strong hand, are mainly good
and I can move with the ball efficiently with my head up. I am able to vary the speed and
direction of a dribble and use a fake or a spin to go past the opponent marking me. When I
am being closely marked by a good defender though, I find I have to concentrate very hard on
my dribbling action in order not to make any mistakes. I also find that I have to concentrate
so hard on dribbling that I am not able to look up and be aware of my teammates movements
and my options. The main mistake that I make is to lose control of the ball or to travel when
trying to turn quickly or move and dribble at speed.
These mistakes are more obvious and common when I am dribbling and moving on my weak
side, where I still feel quite awkward and not really in control. At present, I only attempt
quite simple moves on this side.
Source 2003 Q7 (c) – Topic = Data Collection Process / Stages of learning / Principles of
effective practise
Question 7
Skills and Technique
(c) Outline a skills or technique development programme you used to improve the aspect(s)
identified in Part (b)
6
To improve my drop shot in badminton, I planned a skills training programme where I
addressed the problems I had with this shot. At the beginning of my programme I went back
to basics (to the cognitive stage of learning) where I tried to rebuild my stroke to eliminate
my fundamental errors. After a general warm up to prepare my body for work I started
(during weeks one and two) with some shadow drills. This meant that I worked from central
base and simply practised moving from my CB to the rear court whilst turning my body and
preparing to play a shadow drop shot. As there was no shuttle I could concentrate totally on
my body movements and racket action. I spent about 5 minutes repeating shadow drills
during each of my two training sessions in the first two weeks of my programme. I then
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moved on to use a feeder. The feeder sent high shots to my rear court. I started from centre
base and moved under the shuttle and attempted to play an accurate drop shot return close to
the net. I progressed this practice using a combination drill, which was more realistic a full
game situation. My combination practice started with a low serve by me, and my partner
played a played a high lift to my back court. I then played my drop shot and returned to base
position. My partner replied with another high lift to my back court where, this time, I played
a clear. My partner returned my clear with a backhand drop shot.
I returned the drop shot with a net shot which my partner lifted again to the back of my court
so that I had to play another drop shot. He then played a net shot, I returned a net shot and the
sequence continued with another high lift that pushed me back again. We tried to keep this
sequence going for as long as possible.
After the first two weeks I stopped doing the shadow drop drills and included instead some
feeds, where the angle was varied, where I had to return my drop shots to two hoop targets (at
the front corners of my feeders side of the court). My feeder sent me sets of 12 shuttles,
which I had to try to return to alternate hoop targets.
After every set of 12 feeds I checked to see how accurate I’d been. I did this practise for
about 10 minutes every week in weeks 3, 4, 5 and 6 of my training programme. In total my
skill development programme for my drop shot lasted 6 weeks. In every one of the 6 weeks
my training session always finished with games against an opponent who was better than me.
During these games he was asked to give me as much opportunity as possible to use my drop
shot. When I played a poor drop shot he did not always finish the rally. He sometimes gave
me the chance to try again by playing the shuttle back to my rear court. All this work helped
me to improve my drop shot a lot over the 6 week training period.
Source 2003 Q7 (d) – Topic = Monitoring Process
Question 7
(d) It is important to monitor the effectiveness of your development programme. Explain why
this monitoring process is necessary.
4
It is important to monitor your training programme so that you can see whether or not it is
having the desired effect on your performance. If you gather data prior to beginning a training
programme you can then refer to this initial information and make comparisons to your
performance as you practice. This can be done during raining but also you can make
summary comparisons at the end of the training programme to draw conclusions about the
effectiveness of the programme. Monitoring your training in this way allows you to see
whether or not you have achieved your training targets or goals.
Monitoring during training allows you to make modifications to your practices where
necessary so that it becomes refined to your precise needs and keeps the practices
challenging or lets you know where further remediation is required. Monitoring the
effectiveness of your training also motivates you as it makes you aware of the progress that
you are making and this can make feel good and encourage you to continue. Finally the
summary evaluation of your training programme helps you to make judgements about what
you have achieved and points the way forward to the next steps and new training targets you
may set.
Created by M.Sykes
Inverkeithing H.S. PE Dept.
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03/03/2016
Source 2005 SQP Q5 (a) – Topic = Stages of Learning
Question 5
(a) Describe some of the features of performance that can be identified at each of the
stages of skill learning. Give specific examples from the chosen activity.
Your answer should show knowledge of the relevant key concept and its application. This
addresses the development of skill and the refinement of technique.
The depth of your answer must offer a sound description with full details and exhibit detailed
KU about relevant features related to each of the three stages of learning. Your responses
should include specific and personal examples related to an activity. For example, at the
cognitive stage (planning stage) performance is just recognisable and often looks
clumsy/awkward, movements look rushed and are not controlled or fluent and there is total
lack of consistency. There is little evidence of a wide repertoire of skills with a very poor
level of decision making when applying skills in whole performance.
At the associative stage (preparation stage) performance looks reasonably comfortable,
movements are more recognisable and there is some degree of control and fluency beginning
to show. There is greater consistency with evidence of a repertoire of skills developing, some
good decision making is apparent when applying skills in whole performance.
At the automatic stage (autonomous stage) performance looks skilled, controlled and fluent.
There is a feeling of having plenty of time when applying skills with a high degree of
consistency. A full range of skills to meet performance demands are apparent with a high
level of decision making used throughout performance.
Source 2005 SQP Q6 (a) – Topic = Information processing
Question 6
(a) Explain, in detail, what you understand about information processing and its relevance to
learning and developing skill or refining technique.
6
Briefly, information processing involves reaction to a stimulus whereby the brain sends a
message to the muscles to ensure action takes place. The brain makes sense of the action
taken and the whole process starts again. This diagram shows how it works.
INPUT
FEEDBACK
DECISION MAKING,
OUTPUT
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Inverkeithing H.S. PE Dept.
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I appreciate that when I am learning skills or refining my technique that this happens
extremely quickly with all 4 parts linked together. Firstly, at the input stage I receive
information (known as a stimulus or cue); this could be an instruction from my coach or
movement by my team-mate/opponent. Secondly, based on this information I must make
sense of it i.e. assimilate it and make a decision about what action I going to make. For
example, when learning a skill: (serve) I might want to repeat the action several times to
make sure I get the whole action correct. For example, the use of feeder drills would help.
However in a game situation I do not have a lot of time to think about what I am going to do
and I have to act very quickly. I might think about where on the court I will place my serve;
slice, flat or topspin? Thirdly is the output i.e. how I have responded to the decision made – if
I have angled my serve cross court – did I get ready to move in for the volley? The last part
reflects how effective was my decision, for example, did I win the point i.e. an ace or was it
returned? – based on this outcome the whole process starts again instantaneously.
I have learned that this is a continuous process and the more experienced you are the better
you are at it. It takes a lot of practice to develop and good performers can do it automatically.
Information processing relies on a lot of other factors such as previous learned experiences,
timing, reaction time and anticipation. Previous experience counts for a lot because the more
experiences you have, the better your timing becomes and you learn to react and anticipate
what is going to happen. This gives you more available options; which means better decision
making.
I have also learned that when learning a new skill, or refining a complex skill, I have to rely
on information from different senses: touch, vision, verbal etc. For example, in this situation I
need to rely a lot on verbal and visual instruction as this helps me to make sense of what I am
being asked to do. I am able to get the feel for the technique and get good feedback to help
me progress or correct any errors. When the skill is familiar to me I am able to rely on my
own kinaesthetic feedback and effectively refine the sub-routines of the skill or apply the skill
in a game situation. I have also learned that to improve my skill level I have to
simultaneously develop my ability to process information. This relies on my ability to take in
important information and ignore irrelevant information. The best way to do this is to practice
with model performers and to use conditioned or pressure drills.
Source 2005 SQP Q6 (c) – Topic = methods of practice / principles of effective practice
Question 6
(c) Describe, in detail, the methods of practice which you used to improve your ability in the
chosen skill or technique with a view to improving your whole performance.
6
To refine my technique I used a series of progressive practices. Firstly, this involved the use
of repetition drills where I aimed at targets placed at the base of the serve box; on the left,
centre and right of the box. This was in a ‘closed’ situation as I did not need to worry about
the returned shot. This gave me a visual picture of the correct action and placement of my
serve. I learned at this stage to reinforce my ball toss action, body positioning and follow
through action. I also learned to adapt all of the aforementioned factors according to the type
of serve selected. Depending on which target I was aiming at would reinforce my ability to
place and vary the tempo and depth of my serve – my ball toss is important here. Feedback
during these repetitive drills came mainly from myself – from the ‘feel’ of the action. If I
missed the deep corner targets then I simply aimed to get the ball anywhere in the serve box
for my second serve; this took pressure off me. I repeated this several times making sure I
aimed at each target 10 times. I monitored my success rate and rested before I repeated the
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Inverkeithing H.S. PE Dept.
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drill from the left hand side of the court. This was necessary to ensure I was effective on both
sides.
I progressed using pressure drills, firstly I used the ball feed machine. Here I could adjust the
speed and direction of the return, which helped to develop my follow up attacking play. I
used this for a short time only as I got bored too easily by this. I progressed to using partner
pressure drills as I found this much more challenging. Playing a person rather than a machine
made the pressures more like the real thing. Basically I found myself much more motivated to
do well as I liked watching the response made by my partner as they worked to return my
serve. Watching their positioning was much more beneficial to my development than playing
the machine as I had to learn to make better decisions and selections quicker in response to
what my partner opted to do. The game like nature developed my ability to make better
decisions. The unpredictable responses made by my partner made me more alert and ready to
respond with my follow up action, which could be to move in to volley or stay back and
engage in a baseline rally. During these drills I was also able to develop other types of fitness
at the same time, such as my agility, timing and reaction time. I was also able to develop my
mental fitness, which is a very important aspect of the serve. I learned to control my
emotions, fully concentrate on the task at hand and block out any unnecessary distractions.
This also helped me not to panic when I ‘double faulted’. The ‘open nature’ of this practice
helped me to internalise how the serve should feel when played under pressure: this prepared
me more for the game and helped me to instinctively attack right from the start. I was now
much more confident of getting that very necessary first serve in.
Created by M.Sykes
Inverkeithing H.S. PE Dept.
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03/03/2016