Bell Baxter High School
Advanced Higher
Social Science
Research Methods
Developed by D Thomson
Bell Baxter High School
Introduction
Social and political scientists can use many different methods of research and there are
different theories about which method is the most suitable for social science research.
Natural scientists conduct experiments and produce results which can be checked and
validated by others. Social scientists deal with people who cannot readily be
experimented on. Different methods, therefore, have to be used.
One group, called positivists, think that the study should be as similar as possible to the
study of the natural world. This is an objective approach, which considers it important that
knowledge is value free. Social scientists should, therefore, collect facts which can be
double-checked by other researchers. This means predominantly using statistical data
which provides reliable quantitative data using the comparative method. This method
compares situations from different places in the world or different times in history and
uses these to explain human behaviour or predict how people will react. (You may wish to
refer to Durkheim’s study of suicide to help illustrate this)
Other social scientists are interpretivists and they believe that the social world is
different from the natural world because people are unpredictable and social scientists
themselves are not objective. This is a subjective approach which is interested in broad
patterns of human behaviour because fact-based, large scale research cannot give an indepth study. They want their research to be qualitative and give some insight into human
behaviour.
The type of research used will be determined by the nature of the topic, for example, if
you are studying voting behaviour, you will need statistics about elections. If, on the other
hand, you are trying to understand why people vote in certain ways you will have to use a
method that asks peoples’ opinions. Some research analyses secondary data (data
already collected by government agencies, for example) while other research uses
primary sources (interviews, surveys etc)
For practical purposes, most research uses a variety of methods which can produce
qualitative and quantitative information and which can complement each other. The
subject will dictate the type of research that is most valid. To develop a good
understanding of human behaviour, both approaches are essential.
Ethical Considerations
When selecting and involving people in social research, researchers must make sure that
full information about the purposes of the research and the participant’s contributions is
made. Honesty is important so that the participants know what the expectations of the
researcher are. People should not be pressurised. Participants may need to be reassured about confidentiality and they themselves have to be aware of the importance of
this. When groups, like focus groups are involved, this will be more difficult. There are
special ethical considerations when participant observation is used.
Primary data
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Surveys, questionnaires
Formal interviews
Case studies
Informal and unstructured interviews
2.
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Participant Observation
Government statistics
Secondary Data
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Analysis of statistics provided by governments
Analysis of research provided by other sociologists
Study of official documents
Analysis of media reports
Analysis of personal documents
Surveys and government statistics meet the criteria for objective research sometimes
called POSITIVIST school of research. Other methods provide subjective views based on
peoples’ motivation and perspectives. This is the INTERPRETIVISTS school of research.
Quantitative research aims to collects facts and figures and tries to use objective
methods of research.
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Surveys using questionnaires using closed questions (Primary)
Case studies (Primary)
Analysis of statistics (Primary and Secondary)
Study of other documents and records (Secondary)
Qualitative research aims to gain a more in-depth understanding of the subject.
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Informal and unstructured interviews (Primary)
Participant observation (Primary)
Analysis of media (Secondary)
Analysis of diaries, autobiographies, other research (Secondary)
Researchers chose the method most suitable for the subject they are dealing with and
accept that all methods have advantages and limitations.
Participant Observation
The Aim of this method is to observe group behaviour as naturally as possible.
The choice of this method means that the researcher wants qualitative research with in
depth information about feelings, interactions and processes. It could be that the
hypothesis comes from the research and is not presupposed.
The range of topics is wide and could include education, religion, deviance, crime and
politics.
The scope is restricted by the size of the group as it would be intrusive if the group was
small and impossible to observe behaviour if the group was too large.
This method could put the researcher in danger and can raise ethical considerations e.g.
Is it moral to get involved in criminal action if you are observing gang behaviour.
3.
Key features
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It is a primary source and provides qualitative data
The observation can mean covert participation when the group studied will not
know that their behaviour is being researched
The observation can be overt which means the group do know that their behaviour
is being studied
If it is overt, it is possible only key people know the researcher’s true identity and
the aims of the research
There are three stages in the participation, ‘getting in’ ‘staying in’ and ‘getting out’.
Advantages
 Provides a realistic in-depth study of social behaviour and interaction
 It can produce small scale detailed research
 It is useful for studying interactions and processes over a lengthy period of time
 It is helpful for understanding the opinions of the group because behaviour is seen
in its natural setting
 The researcher can establish empathy with the group through shared experiences
which can help understand the feelings of the group
 It gives validity to an understating of the actions of the group as the researcher can
learn what the group does rather than what it thinks it does
 A participant is going to learn more than an outsider
 It could provide a hypothesis for further research
Disadvantages
 The reliability of the research could be affected by the researcher’s role within the
group.
 It requires a large time commitment from the researcher and this will increase the
costs
 It is difficult to avoid bias especially when the observation is covert
 It can be difficult to record information accurately
 It lacks reliability because the research cannot be repeated and checked by other
sociologists
 The validity of the research is questionable if you make generalisations about other
similar groups because your finding only refer to the group which has been studied
and that group may not be representative
 If the observation is covert, the presence of the researcher may change the group
behaviour, this is called reactivity
 As the research is qualitative you can’t quantify the results
 The research will not be objective because it is unlikely that the researcher can
make value free judgement
Primary and Secondary sources of information
The following have to be considered before deciding which research method is the most
useful
4.
1. The choice may be dictated by available resources, time, cost as well as the nature
of the topic.
2. The range of sources is important as this will increase the validity.
3. The scope of the research can be affected by the topic and this will affect the depth
of the study and therefore the reliability of the study
Primary Data
Advantages
 The researcher is control of how the information is gathered
 The researcher can collect information to find the precise information necessary for
the research
 The researcher can ensure that specific questions are asked
 The researcher can amend and modify the research if necessary
 The researcher can use pilot studies which will help find the best form of wording for
questions.
 The researcher should be able to ascertain any bias in the sources of information and
adjust results accordingly
Disadvantages
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Primary research is time consuming and costly
Qualitative methods will tend to be biased
Secondary Data
Advantages
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Saves times and money as research is already available
Can provide information not easily found elsewhere
Disadvantages
 The reliability is questionable, as you cannot usually check this
 Other peoples’ research may be biased
 Purpose behind the research could be different therefore it may not meet your
requirements
 Could be time-consuming to sift through a large amount of information
Observation
The aim of this method is to observe group behaviour without in anyone taking part the
group activities.
The choice of this method is used when the researcher wants to study a group so that
the group are unaware that they are being studied and therefore do not modify their
behaviour.
5.
The range of topics is limited to those that have a significant visual component, for
example, studying the body language of social behaviour in public places.
The scope is wider and can provide information that gives a deeper understanding of
behaviour than a questionnaire but does not give the depth of participant observation
Key features
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It is a primary source of information
It is also covert observation
It can be qualitative and quantitative, for example, can watch and record
information but also count different reactions (watch shop-lifters, count particular
type of behaviour)
It would probably involve video-taping
It is quicker, cheaper and more objective than participant observation
Advantages
 Video evidence can be examined and therefore verified any others which
improves its reliability
 The researcher cannot influence the behaviour so the method is fairly objective
and unbiased
Disadvantages
 Researchers can always be biased when analysing the data (true of most
methods)
 Covert observation can raise the ethical questions of whether this is acceptable
 Can be times consuming and expensive
 Meaning of what is observed can be open to different interpretations
Opinion Polls
Background.
These are a type of questionnaires/surveys so information about how surveys operate
and sampling techniques provide relevant information. As these surveys tend to be
political, constituencies are often used as the basis of the sample so this means that
constituencies chosen have to be representative of the population. These surveys are
commissioned by a range of organisations which include newspapers, TV, pressure
groups.
Range
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Used by market researchers to find consumer preferences
Used to find out views on topical issues
Used to find out voters’ intentions in the run up to elections (ICM; MORI; Gallup;
Harris) by newspapers
Consulted by political parties before and during elections
Used by political researchers as sources of up to date information
6.
Representative sample
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Need constituencies from different geographical areas, North, South, urban, rural
Need constituencies with different types of people, black, white, Asia, middle and
working class, male and female
Need marginal, safe constituencies
Ideally sample should have a mixture of floating voters and party loyalists
Reliability
The results are not always reliable. In 1970, the polls suggested that Labour would win
the election and that the Conservatives would win in 1974. More recently, in the 1992
election the polls put Labour ahead for most of the campaign. The sample size is usually
about 1000 which is said to give plus/minus 3% accuracy.
Reasons why opinion polls can get it wrong
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Sampling errors (not representative, too small)
People do not always respond truthfully
People can change their minds and can be influenced by results of polls (see
below)
People may respond to questions but not bother to vote
Interviewer bias could affect the result
Questions could be poorly worded
Timing of poll could affect results as don’t knows (floating voters) can swing an
election so the polls are more reliable nearer the date of the election.
Influence of the results of opinion polls on elections
Some people switch their vote as a result of opinion polls. This can be tactical voting, not
voting for your preference but against the party you dislike. Some people don’t bother to
vote if the polls show their party is well ahead. There can also be a bandwagon effect,
when people want to be on the winning side and therefore vote for the party the polls say
will win.
Polls can maybe influence the result of an election and some people think they should be
restricted before an election as they are in France. Most research, however, shows that
opinion polls have little effect on voting although they do affect how parties run their
campaigns.
The last 2 elections were seen as more successful for the pollsters, both giving Labour a
considerable lead (in 2001, at least 10%; see table below for 1997). This is disputed,
however, by the internet polling group YouGov who say there is a “disappointing record of
most traditional pollsters at the past three general elections”.
7.
Final opinion Polls before the 1997 General Election
Lab
Con
Lib Dem
Other
Lab lead
over Con
Lab lead
error
ICM
43
33
18
6
10
-3
Gallup
46
33
16
5
13
0
Result
44
31
17
7
13
Unstructured Interviews
The Aim of this method is to get detailed information from the people interviewed.
The choice will be influenced by time and cost and the type of information
required, for example, if there is a need for in-depth information about social
behaviour.
The range of topics could include an analysis of attitudes, motivation, beliefs,
values and political processes.
The scope is most suited to research into the meanings, attitudes and processes.
Key features
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It is a primary source of information and provides qualitative data.
Questions are not necessarily pre set
It could start with prepared structured questions but then is flexible
The researcher can cover a broad range of issues
Questions are open ended which allows for in-depth answers and new points to be
made
Can use a tape reorder
Sample number will be smaller than for a survey
Advantages
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It has a good response rate
Can examine motivation, opinions and attitudes not just facts
When there is rapport between researcher and respondent it helps get close to
peoples’ experiences and provides honest responses
Researcher is not restricted to a fixed set of questions
Provides in-depth information
Allows the researcher to clarify points and further explore particular points
It also allows the respondent to provide new information that the researcher has
not considered
If the interview is taped, it makes it easy to analyse the information
8.
Disadvantages
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Can sometimes be hard to maintain the focus of the interview
Open to bias as the researcher can easily influence the respondent’s replies
e.g. by giving non-verbal clues
Some people may not agree to be interviewed so the sample could be
composed of like minded people
It is difficult to ensure objectivity when the questions are not standardised
It is difficult to repeat the research so there are questions about the reliability of
the research
Can be time-consuming and expensive
It takes a lot of skills to be an effective interviewer
Leads followed during the interview may also be biased
Samples are too small to get information that can be quantified
It is possible that the interview could lead to a change in behaviour
Structured interviews
The aim of these is usually to get factual information
The choice of this method would mean the researcher wanted to collect a lot of
superficial information over a large geographical area and/or from a large number of
people
The range is very wide as it could cover all aspects of social and political life and
behaviour
The scope means that it is best suited for gathering fairly superficial but quantitative
information
Key features
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This method usually involves face to face interviews where a pre-set list of
questions is used which require a limited response but could be done via phone or
internet
It is like a questionnaire but is face to face
It is a primary source providing quantitative data
Questions need to be clear and unambiguous
It is a good idea to do a pilot study to ensure that questions are easily understood
and that they the elicit the correct information
Advantages
 It is good for gaining factual information
 Results are easy to quantity
 It gets a good response rate as it is an interview situation
 It is cheap and if a short questionnaire is used fairly quick method of collecting data
 Respondents can ask for clarification so it is a reliable method of collecting data
 Standardised questions mean that there is little opportunity for the researcher to
influence the answers so the research should be unbiased
 It has validity as the results can be checked by other researchers
9.
 Standardised questions allow analysis to be done quickly and accurately on the
computer
 Allows comparisons to be made between gender, age groups etc
 Good sampling can allow conclusions to be extrapolated for the population as a whole
Disadvantages
 It can be time-consuming if the sample is large
 Issues cannot be explored in-depth
 Questions can themselves be biased and not allow for certain answers, for example,
the answer the respondent wants may not be there
 It is an unsuitable method for finding information about processes
 Can be difficult to make sure a representative sample is interviewed
 Findings will be less reliable if the sample size is small
 Even in face to face interviews people may not be honest as they may be
embarrassed or which to impress the researcher with what they think the researcher
wishes to here
 Phone/ internet interviews can be abused by people not taking them seriously
Sampling
It is possible to make valid and reliable generalisations about a group of people as long
as the sample is representative; this means it has the same characteristics as the total
population. It would not be possible to make valid generalisations if your sample did not
have these same characteristics. For example, if you did your survey in a wealthy suburb
area, you would have too many middle class people in your survey. This would be a type
of sampling bias, as you would have an over-representation of one type of participant.
The study group, that you as a researcher are interested in, is called the population. This
may mean all the voters in Britain, all the elderly, or all smokers. It does not necessarily
mean the total population of the UK.
To select your sample from the population, you will need a list of names of all the people
you are interested in. This is called a sampling frame. Examples of these are
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Postcode address file, all addresses to which mail is sent
Electoral register
GP patients list
Telephone directory
For the sampling frame to be effective it must list all of the people in the population you
are interested in but very few sampling frames actually do this. The electoral register only
lists those registered to vote, not all voters. The telephone directory used to be
considered inaccurate as it only listed wealthy people but nowadays 94% people have a
telephone so telephone random calling (including ex directory numbers) is considered
valid.
10.
Random sampling
Simple random sampling
The basic method is random sampling which means that everyone in the
population has an equal chance of being selected. In a class setting, you could pick 5
names out a hat, or stick a pin to select a name. Nowadays computer are used to select
randomly. You can, however, improve on random sampling so as to increase the chance
that your sample will reflect the characteristics of the total population.
Stratified sampling
This is an attempt to make your sample as representative as possible. You need to
find out the general characteristics of the population you are interested in and then
divide this into strata maybe according to age and gender. A sample is then drawn
randomly from each strata you have identified. This is like putting all the males aged over
65 in a hat and then pulling them out randomly.
Cluster Sampling
It would be time-consuming and expensive to survey throughout Britain so instead you
select certain areas at random in certain parts of the country and this is called cluster
sampling. It is easier to collect data from a smaller geographical area.
Non Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling
This means that you take every nth person from your sampling frame. You could, for
example, if your sample was to be 100 take every 10 th person from 1000 names on the
electoral register.
Snowball Sampling
This is used if you want to study a group that does not have a sampling frame. You would
have to make contact with some-one in your population (youth gangsters) and having
gained their confidence get them to give you further names for research, hence creating a
snowball effect.
Quota sampling
Most market research companies use the type of sampling called quota sampling. This is
a cheap and accurate method. The interviewer is told to select and interview an exact
number from each of the groups that are in the population. The number of people in
each group, and thus the proportion in each group in the sample, will be in the same
proportion as in the population. The problems with this quota sampling are that:
11.
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You need to know a lot about the population you are studying and this is not
always the case
Interviewers need to be well trained and experiences to accurately select people to
fill their quotas
It is not easy to get a representative sample as people are not always honest about
certain things and may, for example, not identify with a particular social class. Without a
representative and very large sample, there are question marks over the validity of a
survey and the reliability of the conclusions. It remains, however, a popular and fairly
cheap method of collecting peoples’ opinions.
Political sampling will often use constituencies as the basis of the sample so this needs to
include
 Different geographical areas in country (North/South)
 Urban/rural areas
 Safe/marginal seats
They also have to include different types of people
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Age groups
Gender
Ethnic groups
Socials class
Floating voters/loyalists
Survey methods
The most likely method that will be used because of cost and time implications is
some kind of survey. Surveys can be done by phone, post, Internet, face to face on the
doorstep or in the street and in all cases the larger the sample the better. Written
questionnaires allow greater privacy since they are anonymous but oral questionnaires
can allow the interviewer to give clarification.
There is a human element to be considered, how people interact. This can vary if
the interview is face to face or via phone or net. It is important that the interviewer
ensures they are getting proper responses and not made up ones, or what the person
interviewed think that the researcher wants to hear. The quality of the survey depends on
the quality of questions asked, that these are clear, precise and unambiguous.
Questions should be brief and specific, not covering more than one issue. If there are
categories, for ticking, they should not overlap
Pilot Study
This means you do a brief trial study .It is an excellent idea as it means you can check
that your questions are easily understood and that they elicit the information you were
looking for. If there are problems, it is easier to deal with them at this stage before you do
your final survey.
12.
Advantages
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Avoids time and money being wasted on an inadequate survey
Sharpens the focus of the study and improves the design of the survey
Can help the interviewer develop interviewing skills
Should ensure all questions are clear, precise and unambiguous
Problems are dealt with before time and effort is wasted on the main survey
Disadvantages
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Can be time consuming and expensive
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Survey could be out of date by the time you’ve finished the pilot
Advantages and disadvantages of the different ways of conducting a survey
Advantages of face to face
 Higher response rate
 Responses can be elaborated especially of interviewer is skilled
 Questions can be clarified
Disadvantages of face to face
 More private if it is anonymous so there is less of an embarrassment factor
 Could be costly to get a good interviewer
 Time-consuming if a there is a large sample
Advantages of postal questionnaire
 Fairly cheap, easy option
 Straightforward access to people
 Easy to get a random and fairly large sample
 Other researchers can check results
 People have plenty of time to fill them in so can give considered answers
Disadvantages
 Time-consuming method by the time the responses are returned
 Lower response rate which could effect sample size
 Difficult to check reliability of sample and get a representative sample which affects
validity
 May not be suitable for certain groups without address (homeless)
 Impossible to ensure that you get a representative sample as you don’t know who
is answering the survey
 Some people may not take it seriously and give considered responses
Advantages of internet questionnaire
 Fairly cheap option
 Anonymous so no embarrassment factor
 People have plenty of time to consider their answers
 Can get access to people worldwide so broaden the scope of the survey
Disadvantages
 Sample restricted to those with internet access so not representative
13.
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People may not take it seriously and give considered answers
Type of person who is prepared to respond could slant the results
Advantages of phone interview
 Higher response rate
 Fairly cheap option
 Easy access and will get sensible responses if interviewer skilled
 Still fairly anonymous so less of an embarrassment factor
Disadvantages
 May not be suitable for certain groups without phones (homeless)
 People are ex directory/use mobile phones
 Time of phoning could affect type of person (e.g. age) that respond
 Difficult to ensure that you get a representative sample or indeed know who is
answering
Follow up interviews are useful for getting a more in-depth response and can build on
the original research. This could, therefore, provide qualitative as well as quantitative
information which would give a more comprehensive result. It would make the research
more valid and allow other researchers to check the results which would then improve
reliability.
Survey methods
The most likely method that will be used because of cost and time implications is some
kind of survey. Surveys can be done by phone, post, Internet, face to face on the
doorstep or in the street and in all cases the larger the sample the better. Written
questionnaires allow greater privacy since they are anonymous but oral questionnaires
can allow the interviewer to give clarification.
There is a human element to be considered, how people interact. This can vary if the
interview is face to face or via phone or net. It is important that the interviewer ensures
they are getting proper responses and not made up ones, or what the person interviewed
think that the researcher wants to hear. The quality of the survey depends on the quality
of questions asked, that these are clear, precise and unambiguous. Questions should
be brief and specific, not covering more than one issue. If there are categories, for ticking,
they should not overlap
Pilot Study
This means you do a brief trial study .It is an excellent idea as it means you can check
that your questions are easily understood and that they elicit the information you were
looking for. If there are problems, it is easier to deal with them at this stage before you do
your final survey.
Advantages


Avoids time and money being wasted on an inadequate survey
Sharpens the focus of the study and improves the design of the survey
14.



Can help the interviewer develop interviewing skills
Should ensure all questions are clear, precise and unambiguous
Problems are dealt with before time and effort is wasted on the main survey
Disadvantages


Can be time consuming and expensive
Survey could be out of date by the time you’ve finished the pilot
Advantages and disadvantages of the different ways of conducting a survey
Advantages of face to face



Higher response rate
Responses can be elaborated especially of interviewer is skilled
Questions can be clarified
Disadvantages of face to face
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

More private if it is anonymous so there is less of an embarrassment factor
Could be costly to get a good interviewer
Time-consuming if a there is a large sample
Advantages of postal questionnaire
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Fairly cheap, easy option
Straightforward access to people
Easy to get a random and fairly large sample
Other researchers can check results
People have plenty of time to fill them in so can give considered answers
Disadvantages
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Time-consuming method by the time the responses are returned
Lower response rate which could effect sample size
Difficult to check reliability of sample and get a representative sample which affects
validity
May not be suitable for certain groups without address (homeless)
Impossible to ensure that you get a representative sample as you don’t know who is
answering the survey
Some people may not take it seriously and give considered responses
Advantages of internet questionnaire
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Fairly cheap option
Anonymous so no embarrassment factor
People have plenty of time to consider their answers
Can get access to people worldwide so broaden the scope of the survey
15.
Disadvantages
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Sample restricted to those with internet access so not representative
People may not take it seriously and give considered answers
Type of person who is prepared to respond could slant the results
Advantages of phone interview
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Higher response rate
Fairly cheap option
Easy access and will get sensible responses if interviewer skilled
Still fairly anonymous so less of an embarrassment factor
Disadvantages




May not be suitable for certain groups without phones (homeless)
People are ex directory/use mobile phones
Time of phoning could affect type of person (e.g. age) that respond
Difficult to ensure that you get a representative sample or indeed know who is
answering
Follow up interviews are useful for getting a more in-depth response and can build on the
original research. This could, therefore, provide qualitative as well as quantitative
information which would give a more comprehensive result. It would make the research
more valid and allow other researchers to check the results which would then improve
reliability.
Questionnaires/Surveys
The aim is to gain information from a sample which allows the researcher to make
generalisations about the population as a whole
The choice is used when the researcher wants to conduct quantitative research from
wide range of people using principles of sampling
The range is widespread and can cover market research, opinion polls, attitude surveys
and most types of social, political life and behaviour
The scope will provided superficial but quantifiable information
Key features
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Uses closed standardised question
Term questionnaire used when forms are issued with closed questions and people
fill them in themselves
Allows for comparative analysis
Quantifiable method providing primary research
Usually preceded by a pilot study (it is difficult to foresee how people interpret
questions or what they may not understand or if the correct people have been
chosen for interview so a pilot study allows for a trial run)
16.
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Can be postal (questionnaire) or face-to-face (survey) or internet
Need a representative sample
A longitudinal survey is done over a period of years to take into account changing
attitudes
A cross sectional survey is a one off
Advantages
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Is a straightforward method of collecting a lot of information and usually cheaper
than any other research methods
A postal questionnaire is relatively cheap method of collecting data
Provides statistical information
Standardised questions allow for quick, accurate computerised analysis
If sampling is well done, can draw realistic conclusions about the population as a
whole
Can compare results from different groups e.g. male, female and identify trends
Results for questionnaires are verifiable by others so are reliable
With questionnaires there should be no problem of interviewer bias as the forms
are just completed by the respondent
If use a large sample it increases accuracy and therefore reliability
Disadvantages
 Needs a high response rate which can be difficult to achieve. A low response rate
or sample size will affect the reliability and validity of the questionnaire
 It can be difficult to get a representative sample
 Can be time consuming especially if a pilot study is done and a large sample is
used and could therefore quickly be out of date
 Wording of questions can be tricky, the answer the respondent wants to give might
not be there
 Wording of the questions can be leading towards certain answers
 It can be argued that no questions are completely standardised as people may
interpret them in different ways
 Closed questions do not allow respondents to elaborate so this affects the validity
of the result
 Statistics give no opportunity for interpretation
 You may not know who actually filled it in a postal/internet/phone questionnaire
 Difficult to check that replies have been given honestly
 Could be a higher return from certain types of people (particular classes, ethnic
groups) so this would affect its reliability
Longitudinal Studies
These are chosen if the researcher wants to observe the long term impact of society on
peoples’ lives. They can be used to try and establish long term trends or to examine how
peoples’ behaviour and attitudes change as they go through different life stages
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The range is useful if you wish to study the process of change or the development of
people in a social context
The scope is broad which can be used to examine structural influences and outcomes,
for example, educational achievement in relation to social class. It can, also, however,
look at smaller scale processes like the development of attitudes, for example, concerning
anti-social behaviour.
Key features
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Primary source of information
Can produce qualitative or quantitative research
A group of people are studied over a period of time at regular intervals
Various research techniques are used, for example, interviews, case studies or
forms of tests like IQ tests
There are three types of longitudinal study
Panel Studies
A number of people are selected who represent a particular group. If people drop out of
the original group, they can be replaced by someone similar (age, gender, social class
etc). The group’s responses are used to measure the changing views and attitudes of the
group over a period of time, for example, a group’s viewing habits or political attitudes.
Census studies
The census is taken everyone 10 years and is a survey of the total population of a
country. It is a structured questionnaire and is used to find out facts about family size,
house size, car ownership etc and how these have changed over a 10-year period. This
establishes trends, which is why the UK’s figures are published in Social Trends. These
statistics can be used to predict future needs like house and road building.
Cohort Studies
A group of people born at the same time will be studied over a period of years to see how
their different social and economic backgrounds affect their lives (7 UP), their educational
achievement etc. This type of study can demonstrate the influence on an individual of
various social forces
Advantages
 Provides interesting and relevant data about effect of society on peoples’ lives over
a period of years
 Can provide quantitative or qualitative data
 It highlights the impact of social change and social forces
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Disadvantages
 Method is extremely expensive and very long term
 Members of groups studied can change and data can be lost
 Takes a long time for the results to be published and would be difficult for the data
to be checked and verified which affects validity
Case Studies
The choice of this method is used to provide a detailed and deep understanding of what
is being studied
This method can be used for a broad range of topics like the study of the media coverage
of the news to detect bias
The scope is such that this method can provide detailed information about particular
people, events or organisation
Key features
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A primary source that provides quantitative and qualitative information
Involves an in-depth study of a particular group of people, organisation or event
Advantages
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Provides deep and detailed information
Can enable an understanding of processes and interactions in a given situation
Can stimulate ideas and understanding about similar groups or individuals
Can provide clues that could lead to future and possibly broader research
Disadvantages
 Can be time consuming and expensive
 As it would be difficult to repeat the research, it cannot be checked, so this affects
its reliability
 Findings could be influenced by the bias of the researchers
 Results only apply to a particular study so you cannot make generalisations about
other similar people, events organisations
Newspapers
The aim is to gather current information from a variety of types of media for comparison
The choice is used when the researcher wants to get research from secondary sources
which give different viewpoints
The range therefore covers quality and popular newspapers so you can make
comparisons about what current issues are being covered
The scope is limited by the source, what is and is not published.
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Advantages
 A cheap and available method of getting up to date information
 Some are also available on internet
 Provides fairly in depth information which includes commentary and quotations from
various experts and analysis of topics
 Can give different perspectives on a topic
 Can follow a story day to day as it develops
 Give plenty of time to assimilate information
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Disadvantages
 This is a secondary source which depends on other peoples’ choices, opinions
 Newspapers are not objective sources
 Newspapers often exaggerate/sensationalise to raise their circulation figures
 Popular press in particular can depersonalise the event and the real issue is lost
 Journalists may lack expertise that political researchers have to provide in depth
information
 Popular press can go for knee jerk reactions rather than considered reporting
 Popular press can also dumb down and report matters as if everything is black and
white, no middle ground
 Coverage can be very negative(especially where politicians are concerned)
Focus groups
Focus groups are groups of people who get together to discuss issues and come up with
ideas. The number in the group can vary and so does the composition. Sometimes it is a
group of like-minded people and other times it is made up of a representative sample of
different people. These are particularly popular with New Labour when they are drawing
up their policies.
These aim to find out peoples opinions on a variety of issues through organised
discussion and interaction
They would be chosen when an in-depth study was wanted from different perspectives
The range is very wide, any topic could be covered.
The scope would be considerable, as you would get a more considered view than from
individual interviews.
Key features
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These would provide qualitative research
It is a primary source
These involve organised discussion with a selected group of individuals who use
their own experience
Insight and data is produced by the interaction between the participants
Role of moderator is vital so needs to have high quality interpersonal skills
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Important that the moderator steer conversation but does not participate of show
approval, disapproval
Research could be longitudinal
Often used for social and political research
Advantages
 Gain a wide range of views about several topics and these can be carefully chosen
 Can be used as preliminary research which could then generate further research
 Particularly good for gaining several perspectives about the same topic
 Gain insights related to peoples shared understanding about issues
 Can ensure a representative cross section of society with careful choice of
participants
 Good method of seeing how individuals are influenced by other in a group situation
(a bit like participant observation)
 Can gain a larger amount of information in a shorter period of time than by doing
one to one interviews
 Can be empowering for participants if they feel their opinions could be used to
change things
Disadvantages
 Expensive and time consuming method of research
 The researcher has less control over the data produced than in quantitative studies
or one to one interviews
 It will probably be a small group so not statistically valid
 Some people could be easily swayed so strong characters could dominate
 The discussion could end up focussing on one issue at the expense of others
 May not be able to get a representative sample so can’t generalise your findings to
the whole population
 Difficult to check and verify results when a group is involved
 Practically is not an easy form of research to organise
 Certain types of people (inarticulate, special needs) are unlike to take part which
will affect the validity
 Role of researcher/is important and poor leadership could affect the results
 Opinions of participants, researcher and leader are all subjective therefore there is
potential for bias and mis-representation
Official statistics
These methods are chosen when the researcher needs superficial information about a
large number of people and they can be used to examine broad trends, provide
quantitative information
The range includes any topic that the government provides statistics for provided the data
required is quantitative, for example, crime, unemployment
The scope is limited to fairly superficial factual information which is provided by official
statistics though they can be used to compare different types of groups
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Key features
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For Modern Studies purposes, official statistics are considered a primary source of
information
Statistics are quantitative data
Statistics are gathered by governments, like Registrar General’s office (census),
police records, health statistics, organisations like the society electoral reform
Digest of government statistics are available in Social Trends which is published
annually in print, CD ROM and which is now available on-line
These stats are an invaluable source of information for the researcher
Advantages
 Provide information about the whole population which could not be collected using
sampling
 Cheap and fast method of collection as information is readily available
 Good indicator of broad trends in social behaviour
 Ideal for quantitative analysis over periods of time and for different parts of the
country, therefore, they can be used to identify trends
Disadvantages
 Official statistics may use different indicators from those that researchers prefer to
use, for example, definition of social class
 Information is collected for other purposes so may not ideally meet the needs of
the research
 Official statistics may be incomplete, for example, a lot of crime is not reported
 There could be problems using statistics for comparisons as indicators and criteria
may change from time to time and place to place, for example, what is poverty
 Despite being official statistics, these are collected by governments who may have
there own bias
 Inaccuracies can be caused by how certain terms are defined, for example, what
is unemployment
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