TITLUL MODULULUI: Redactare de texte
TUTORE: Lector drd. Elena Butoescu
CUPRINSUL MODULULUI:
1. TEMA NR. 1: DESCRIBING PEOPLE AND PLACES
Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider
1.2. The Descriptive Paragraph. Examples.
1.3. Linking words and structures; the use of participles, descriptive adjectives;
descriptive vocabulary.
1.4. Description of an eccentric/famous/admirable person or your favourite pet
1.5. Description of different types of places
2. TEMA NR. 2: WRITING A SUMMARY
Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider
1.2. How to write a summary
1.3. Summarise a narrative or a description. Examples.
1.4. Linking words and transitional words
3. TEMA NR. 3: LETTER WRITING. FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS
Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider. Style in Letters.
1.2. Differences in layout and language between formal and informal letters.
1.3. Informal Letters. Linking words and structures. Useful Informal
Expressions.
1.4. Formal Letters. Letters of Request. Letters of Application. Linking words
and structures. Useful Formal Expressions.
4. TEMA NR. 4: ESSAY WRITING. FOR AND AGAINST ESSAYS. OPINION
ESSAYS. ESSAYS SUGGESTING SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider.
1.2. For and Against Essays. Useful language and linking words. Sample essay.
1.3. Opinion Essays. Useful language and linking words. Sample essay.
1.4. Essays suggesting solutions to problems. Useful language and linking words.
Sample essay.
5. TEMA NR. 5: HOW TO WRITE A LITERATURE REVIEW
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Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider. What is a literature review?
1.2. How to write a literature review. Structure of a literature review
1.3. The purposes of a literature review
1.4. Writing the review
1.5. Sample of how to write a literature review. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein
OBIECTIVE:
 Până la sfârșitul cursului de redactare de texte, studenții vor putea să se exprime
coerent în scris, urmând câteva principii și reguli, depășind astfel dificultățile (de
gramatică, vocabular, punctuație) pe care le întâmpină în scris. Cursul analizează
tipuri de greșeli frecvent întâlnite în scris și oferă exerciții și explicații pentru
corectarea acestor greșeli.
 Li se vor prezenta studentilor exemple de "academic writing" și astfel ei vor putea să
redacteze descrieri. paragrafe, scrisori, eseuri, Curriculum Vitae, etc.
 Studentii vor fi capabili să redacteze eseuri literare, putând astfel sa-și exprime în scris
punctele de vedere critice asupra anumitor tematici din domenii diferite.
METODE ȘI INSTRUMENTE DE EVALUARE:


La finalul fiecărei unități de învățare, studenții beneficiază de câte un test de evaluare,
care conține doua sau trei teste, dintre care primul oferă și o variantă posibila de
rezolvare.
La sfârșitul modulului, există atașat un test recapitulative, care verifică modul în care
studenții au asimilat unitățile de învățare.
Modalități de evaluare:
Evaluare continuă: testare 25%, autoevaluare 25%
Evaluare finală: examen 50%
BIBLIOGRAFIE RECOMANDATĂ:
Evans, Virginia. 1999. Cambridge FCE – Use of English. London: Longman
Evans, Virginia. Successful Writing Proficiency. Express Publishing. 2002 © 1998.
Fowler, W.S. 1996. Fowler First Certificate Use of English. London: Longman
Matthews, Alan, Read, Carol. Themes-An Integrated Skills Course for Intermediate and
Advanced Students. London: Collins Elt. 1982.
Pawlowska, Barbara, Kempinski, Z. 1997. Teste de limba engleza. Bucuresti: Teora
Smalley, Regina L., Ruetten, Mary K. Refining Composition Skills, Heinle and Heinle
Publishers, Boston, 1995.
Sullivan, Kathleen E. 1980. Paragraph Practice-Writing the Paragraph and the Short
Composition, MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
Vince, Michael. 2001. First Certificate Language Practice. Oxford: Macmillan
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TEMA NR. 1
DESCRIBING PEOPLE AND PLACES
Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider
1.2. The Descriptive Paragraph. Examples.
1.3. Linking words and structures; the use of participles, descriptive adjectives;
descriptive vocabulary.
1.4. Description of an eccentric/famous/admirable person or your favourite pet
1.5. Description of different types of places
Obiectivele temei:



Până la sfârșitul cursului de redactare de texte, studenții vor putea să se exprime
coerent în scris, urmând câteva principii și reguli, depășind astfel dificultățile (de
gramatică, vocabular, punctuație) pe care le întâmpină în scris. Cursul analizează
tipuri de greșeli frecvent întâlnite în scris și oferă exerciții și explicații pentru
corectarea acestor greșeli.
Li se vor prezenta studentilor exemple de "academic writing" și astfel ei vor putea să
redacteze descrieri. paragrafe, scrisori, eseuri, Curriculum Vitae, etc.
Studentii vor fi capabili să redacteze eseuri literare, putând astfel sa-și exprime în scris
punctele de vedere critice asupra anumitor tematici din domenii diferite.
Timpul alocat temei: 4 ore
Bibliografie recomandată:
Evans, Virginia. 1999. Cambridge FCE – Use of English. London: Longman
Evans, Virginia. Successful Writing Proficiency. Express Publishing. 2002 © 1998.
Fowler, W.S. 1996. Fowler First Certificate Use of English. London: Longman
Matthews, Alan, Read, Carol. Themes-An Integrated Skills Course for Intermediate and
Advanced Students. London: Collins Elt. 1982.
Pawlowska, Barbara, Kempinski, Z. 1997. Teste de limba engleza. Bucuresti: Teora
Smalley, Regina L., Ruetten, Mary K. Refining Composition Skills, Heinle and Heinle
Publishers, Boston, 1995.
Sullivan, Kathleen E. 1980. Paragraph Practice-Writing the Paragraph and the Short
Composition, MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
Vince, Michael. 2001. First Certificate Language Practice. Oxford: Macmillan
1.1. Points to consider
A description of a person should consist of:
 an introduction where you give some brief information about the person (his/ her
name, time or place you met/saw him/her, how you heard about him/her);
 a main body where you describe physical appearance, personality characteristics and
hobbies, interests, everyday activities in separate paragraphs; and
 a conclusion which includes your comments and/or feelings about the person.
Such descriptions can be found in articles, letters, witness statements, novels, etc.
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Each paragraph starts with a topic sentence which introduces the subject of the paragraph. A
variety of linking words should be used to connect ideas.
To describe physical appearance, details should be given as follows: height or build, age,
facial features, hair, clothes, moving from the most general aspects to the more specific
details, e.g. John is a tall, slim man in his mid forties. He has a thin face, blue eyes and a large
nose. His short hair is greying at the temples. He is usually casually dressed. To describe
character and behaviour you can support your description with examples, e.g. Sally is very
sociable. She loves going to parties and dances. If you want to mention any negative qualities,
use mild language (tends to, seems to, is rather, can occasionally be, etc.). e.g. Instead of
saying Sally is arrogant, it is better to say Sally tends to be rather arrogant.
Variety in the use of adjectives will make your description more interesting, e.g. goodnatured, well-behaved, gorgeous, etc. Present tenses can be used to describe someone
connected to the present, e.g. someone you see every day. Past tenses can be used to describe
someone related to the past, e.g. someone who is no longer alive, someone whom you won't
meet again... etc.
Narrative techniques (use of direct speech, weather description, use of dramatic language to
create mystery, suspense, reference to feelings, moods etc) can be used when describing
people. This will make your composition more interesting to the reader. See how an ordinary
beginning can be made more exciting:
Instead of saying: "I first met Steven, the secretary of the manager of Sunnington Ltd, last
Monday," you could say: "A cold wind was blowing down the street last Monday morning as
I pushed open the heavy glass door of Sunnington Ltd. Chilled and nervous I walked up to Mr
Tibbs' secretary. A pair of friendly dark eyes met mine. So this was Steven! (weather
description, your feelings, suspense)"
Describing people - example
My Next-door Neighbour
Mavis has been my neighbour for six years. I first met her when she knocked on my door
and asked for a spade because she hadn't yet unpacked hers. She had only moved in two days
before.
Physically, Mavis looks younger than most other women in their late sixties. She is of
average height, neither fat nor thin. Her plump round face is framed by a mass of wavy white
hair and her sparkling blue eyes show her humour and friendliness. She prefers wearing
casual, comfortable clothes. I don't think I have ever seen her in a perfectly ironed suit.
As for her personality, Mavis's most striking characteristic is her generosity. My
house, as well as most of our neighbours', nearly always has a vase of flowers from her
garden in the living room. Mavis is very good- natured and always has time for a chat. She is
also patient. She hardly ever gets annoyed about anything, except when children pick her
favourite roses and lilies. However, she tends to be quite stubborn - once she has made a
decision, nothing can change her mind.
Mavis always seems to be busy doing something. She spends a lot of her time looking
after her garden and often participates in local flower shows. When she is not in her garden
she is usually off somewhere raising money for one charity or another.
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All in all, Mavis is the perfect next-door neighbour. Since the day she moved in, we
have grown very close and I am very fond of her, even if I am woken up by the noise of her
lawnmower early in the morning!
Here is Virginia Evans's scheme on how to organize a description essay:
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. What are the details you should focus on when describing the physical appearance
and the personality/behaviour?
Answer: To describe physical appearance, details should be given as follows: height or
build, age, facial features, hair, clothes, moving from the most general aspects to the more
specific details, e.g. John is a tall, slim man in his mid forties. He has a thin face, blue eyes
and a large nose. His short hair is greying at the temples. He is usually casually dressed. To
describe character and behaviour you can support your description with examples, e.g.
Sally is very sociable. She loves going to parties and dances. If you want to mention any
negative qualities, use mild language (tends to, seems to, is rather, can occasionally be, etc.).
e.g. Instead of saying Sally is arrogant, it is better to say Sally tends to be rather arrogant.
2. Describe a person you know well.
Answer:
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1.2. The Descriptive Paragraph. Examples.
In the following paragraph, observe how the writer moves clearly from a description of the
head of the clown (in sentences two, three, and four), to the body (sentences five, six, seven,
and eight), to the unicycle underneath (sentence nine). Notice also how the concluding
sentence helps to tie the paragraph together by emphasizing the personal value of this gift.
A Friendly Clown
On one corner of my dresser sits a smiling toy clown on a tiny unicycle--a gift I received last
Christmas from a close friend. The clown's short yellow hair, made of yarn, covers its ears but
is parted above the eyes. The blue eyes are outlined in black with thin, dark lashes flowing
from the brows. It has cherry-red cheeks, nose, and lips, and its broad grin disappears into the
wide, white ruffle around its neck. The clown wears a fluffy, two-tone nylon costume. The
left side of the outfit is light blue, and the right side is red. The two colors merge in a dark line
that runs down the center of the small outfit. Surrounding its ankles and disguising its long
black shoes are big pink bows. The white spokes on the wheels of the unicycle gather in the
center and expand to the black tire so that the wheel somewhat resembles the inner half of a
grapefruit. The clown and unicycle together stand about a foot high. As a cherished gift from
my good friend Tran, this colorful figure greets me with a smile every time I enter my room.
The Blond Guitar
By Jeremy Burden
My most valuable possession is an old, slightly warped blond guitar--the first instrument I
taught myself how to play. It's nothing fancy, just a Madeira folk guitar, all scuffed and
scratched and finger-printed. At the top is a bramble of copper-wound strings, each one
hooked through the eye of a silver tuning key. The strings are stretched down a long, slim
neck, its frets tarnished, the wood worn by years of fingers pressing chords and picking notes.
The body of the Madeira is shaped like an enormous yellow pear, one that was slightly
damaged in shipping. The blond wood has been chipped and gouged to gray, particularly
where the pick guard fell off years ago. No, it's not a beautiful instrument, but it still lets me
make music, and for that I will always treasure it.
Discussion:
The topic sentence contains the main idea upon which a paragraph is developed. Often it
appears at (or near) the beginning of a paragraph, introducing the main idea and suggesting
the direction that the paragraph will take. What follows a topic sentence are a number of
supporting sentences that develop the main idea with specific details. This sentence not only
identifies the prized belonging ("an old, slightly warped, blond guitar") but also suggests why
the writer values it ("the first instrument that I ever taught myself how to play").
Instructions:
Here is an effective topic sentence for a descriptive paragraph:
"My most valuable possession is an old, slightly warped, blond guitar--the first instrument
that I ever taught myself how to play."
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TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Some of the sentences below support the above-mentioned topic sentence with specific
descriptive details. Others, however, offer information that would be inappropriate in a
unified descriptive paragraph. Read the sentences carefully, and then pick out only those that
support the topic sentence with precise descriptive details.
1.
2.
3.
4.
It is a Madeira folk guitar, all scuffed and scratched and finger-printed.
My grandparents gave it to me on my thirteenth birthday.
I think they bought it at the Music Lovers Shop in Rochester where they used to live.
At the top is a bramble of copper-wound strings, each one hooked through the eye of a
silver tuning key.
5. Although copper strings are much harder on the fingers than nylon strings, they sound
much better than the nylon ones.
6. The strings are stretched down a long slim neck.
7. The frets on the neck are tarnished, and the wood has been worn down by years of
fingers pressing chords.
8. It was three months before I could even tune the guitar properly, and another few
months before I could manage the basic chords.
9. You have to be very patient when first learning how to play the guitar.
10. You should set aside a certain time each day for practice.
11. The body of the Madeira is shaped like an enormous yellow pear, one that has been
slightly damaged in shipping.
12. A guitar can be awkward to hold, particularly if it seems bigger than you are, but you
need to learn how to hold it properly if you're ever going to play it right.
13. I usually play sitting down because it's more comfortable that way.
14. The blond wood has been chipped and gouged to gray, particularly where the pick
guard fell off years ago.
15. I have a Gibson now and hardly ever play the Madeira any more.
Answer: The following sentences support the topic sentence with precise descriptive
details: 1, 4, 6, 7, 11, and 14.
2. Here is the topic sentence of a descriptive paragraph titled "The Candle:"
"I treasure my candle not for its beauty, its sentimental value, or even its usefulness, but for its
simple, stark ugliness."
The rest of the paragraph appears below. However, the sentences have been rearranged so that
the descriptions appear in no logical order. Reorder the sentences to create a clear, wellorganized paragraph.
1. Rising crookedly out of the cup and collar is the candle, a pitifully short, stubby
object.
2. Abandoned by a previous occupant of my room, the candle squats on the window sill,
anchored by cobwebs and surrounded by dead flies.
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3. This ugly little memorial consists of three parts: the base, the reflector, and the candle
itself.
4. This aluminum flower is actually a wrinkled old Christmas light collar.
5. The base is a white, coffee-stained Styrofoam cup, its wide mouth pressed to the sill.
6. And by lighting the wick, any time I choose, I can melt this ugly candle away.
7. From the bottom of the cup (which is the top of the base) sprouts a space-age daisy:
red, green, and silver petals intended to collect wax and reflect candle light.
8. The candle is about the same size and color as a man's thumb, beaded with little warts
of wax down the sides and topped by a tiny bent wick.
Answer:
1.3. Linking words and structures; the use of participles, descriptive adjectives;
descriptive vocabulary.
Writing which contains a series of short sentences or the same simple linking words (such as
"and") soon becomes boring and repetitive. To avoid this, you should use a number of linking
words and structures.
1. To add something:
and, again, and then, besides, equally important, finally, further, furthermore, next, what is
more, moreover, as well as, in addition, first (second, etc.), not only . . . but
2. To compare or show contrast:
however, nevertheless, rather, whereas, but, yet, on the other hand, on the contrary, by
comparison, compared to, up against, balanced against, vis a vis, although, conversely, but,
meanwhile, in contrast, after all, otherwise, alternatively.
3. To show similarity:
similarly, likewise, in a similar manner, like, in the same way, analogously
4. To prove your point:
because, for, since, for the same reason, obviously, evidently, indeed, in fact, in any case, that
is, demonstrably.
5. To give an example or an illustration:
for example, for instance, in this case, in another case, take the case of, to illustrate, as an
illustration, to take another example, namely, that is, as shown by, as illustrated by, as
expressed by.
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Descriptive vocabulary:
A. Intellectual ability
Ability: intelligent, bright, clever, smart, shrewd, able, gifted, talented, brainy.
Lacking ability: stupid, foolish, half-witted, simple, silly, brainless, daft, dumb.
B. Attitudes towards life
Looking on either the bright or the black side of the things: optimistic, pessimistic.
Outward looking or inward looking: extroverted, introverted.
Calm or not calm with regard to attitude to life: relaxed, tense.
Practical, not dreamy in approach to life: sensible, down-to-earth.
Feeling things very intensely: sensitive.
C. Attitudes towards other people
Enjoying others' company: sociable, gregarious.
Disagreeing with others: quarrelsome, argumentative.
Taking pleasure in others' pain: cruel, sadistic.
Relaxed in attitude to self and others: easy-going, even-tempered.
Not polite to others: impolite, rude, ill-mannered, discourteous.
Telling the truth to others: honest, trustworthy, reliable, sincere.
Unhappy if others have what one does not have oneself: jealous, envious.
TEST DE EVALUARE
1. Write a descriptive paragraph using relevant linking words and vocabulary.
Answer:
1.4. Description of an eccentric/famous/admirable person or your favourite pet
Example:
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Gregory
by Barbara Carter
Gregory is my beautiful gray Persian cat. He walks with pride and grace, performing a dance
of disdain as he slowly lifts and lowers each paw with the delicacy of a ballet dancer. His
pride, however, does not extend to his appearance, for he spends most of his time indoors
watching television and growing fat. He enjoys TV commercials, especially those for Meow
Mix and 9 Lives. His familiarity with cat food commercials has led him to reject generic
brands of cat food in favor of only the most expensive brands. Gregory is as finicky about
visitors as he is about what he eats, befriending some and repelling others. He may snuggle up
against your ankle, begging to be petted, or he may imitate a skunk and stain your favorite
trousers. Gregory does not do this to establish his territory, as many cat experts think, but to
humiliate me because he is jealous of my friends. After my guests have fled, I look at the old
fleabag snoozing and smiling to himself in front of the television set, and I have to forgive
him for his obnoxious, but endearing, habits.
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Describe a person you know very well and say how he/she has changed since you first
met her/him.
Answer:
2. Describe a person you admire and explain why you admire him/her.
Answer:
1.5. Description of different types of places
Here's a common model for organizing a descriptive paragraph.
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
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Begin the paragraph with a topic sentence that identifies your prized belonging, and
briefly explain its significance to you.
Next, describe the item in four or five sentences, using the details that you listed after
probing your topic.
Finally, conclude the paragraph with a sentence that emphasizes the personal value of
the item.
There are various ways to organize the details in a descriptive paragraph. You may move
from the top of the item to the bottom, or from the bottom to the top. You may start at the left
side of the item and move right, or go from right to left. You may start with the outside of the
item and move in, or go from inside to out. Choose the one pattern that seems best suited to
your topic, and then stick to that pattern throughout the paragraph.
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The following rough draft was composed in response to the guidelines in "How to Write a
Place Description." Read the paragraph carefully, and consider some of the specific ways in
which it might be improved. Then answer the questions that follow the paragraph, and
compare your answers with the sample responses at the bottom of the page.
Augusta, Kentucky
I grew up in a poor family in a poor town. We did not have much money or many of the good
things in life, but we did have one another. One year the flood wiped out our home. It fact, it
wiped out all of River Street. I'll never forget the morning I saw River Street for the last time.
The river was on one side of the street, and the houses were on the other. We lived in one of
these houses before the flood hit. There was mud on the walls of the houses, and many
windows were broken. The roofs were in terrible shape. There were many gigantic trees.
Children were still playing here, and I remember hearing music. There was a bar at the end of
the street and after that a lot of weeds. The whole scene was pretty desolate.
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. The paragraph does not begin with a clearly focused topic sentence. Do you think any
of the opening sentences in this draft could be eliminated without confusing the reader
or altering the basic sense of the paragraph?
Answer: Because the writer's family isn't the main subject of the paragraph, the first two
sentences can probably be eliminated. The next two sentences might be combined.
2. What particular place is the writer attempting to describe?
Answer:
3. What are some of the items mentioned in the paragraph that you think need to be
described in more detail?
Answer:
4. Can you suggest a more appropriate title - one that indicates more clearly what the
paragraph is about?
Answer:
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TEMA NR. 2
WRITING A SUMMARY
Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider
1.2. How to write a summary
1.3. Summarise a narrative or a description. Examples.
1.4. Linking words and transitional words
Obiectivele temei:
Până la sfârșitul cursului de redactare de texte, studenții vor putea:
 Să scrie un rezumat al unui text.
 Să identifice ideea principală a textului și să evite repetițiile, detaliile inutile și
exprimările banale.
 Să rezume un text narativ sau descriptive
 Să introducă în mod correct în text cuvinte de legatură, adverbe, conjuncții.
Timpul alocat temei: 6 ore
Bibliografie recomandată:
Evans, Virginia. 1999. Cambridge FCE – Use of English. London: Longman
Evans, Virginia. Successful Writing Proficiency. Express Publishing. 2002 © 1998.
Fowler, W.S. 1996. Fowler First Certificate Use of English. London: Longman
Matthews, Alan, Read, Carol. Themes-An Integrated Skills Course for Intermediate and
Advanced Students. London: Collins Elt. 1982.
Pawlowska, Barbara, Kempinski, Z. 1997. Teste de limba engleza. Bucuresti: Teora
Smalley, Regina L., Ruetten, Mary K. Refining Composition Skills, Heinle and Heinle
Publishers, Boston, 1995.
Sullivan, Kathleen E. 1980. Paragraph Practice-Writing the Paragraph and the Short
Composition, MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
Vince, Michael. 2001. First Certificate Language Practice. Oxford: Macmillan
1.1. Points to consider
 Read the article carefully, making no notes or marks and looking only for what the
writer is saying.
 After you're finished reading, write down in one sentence the point that is made about
the subject. Then look for the writer's thesis and underline it.
o

Does this thesis correspond with the sentence you wrote down? If not, adjust
your sentence or reconsider the thesis you selected.
o Look at the article again and ask yourself if your view is slanted toward one of
the essay's minor points. If it is, adjust your sentence so that it is slanted
toward the writer's major point.
Once you clearly understand the writer's major point (or purpose) for writing, read the
article again. This time underline the major points supporting the thesis; these should
be words or phrases here and there rather than complete sentences.
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In addition, underline key transitional elements which show how parts are connected.
Omit specific details, examples, description, and unnecessary explanations. Note: you
may need to go through the article twice in order to pick up everything you need.
Now begin writing your summary. Start with a sentence naming the writer and article
title and stating the essay's main idea. Then write your summary, omitting nothing
important and striving for overall coherence through appropriate transitions.
Be concise, using coordination and subordination to compress ideas.
Conclude with a final statement reflecting the significance of the article -- not from
your own point of view but from the writer's.
Throughout the summary, do not insert your own opinions or thoughts; instead
summarize what the writer has to say about the subject.
After you've completed a draft, read your summary and check for accuracy.
o Does your summary make the same point as the article?
o Have you omitted anything important?
o Does your summary read smoothly with all parts clearly related?
Keep in mind that a summary should generally be no more than one-fourth the length
of the original. If your summary is too long, cut out words rather than ideas. Then look
for non-essential information and delete it.
Write another draft -- still a draft for revision -- and ask someone to read it critically.
o Can that person understand the sense of the article by reading your summary?
o Ask for criticism; then weigh these criticisms and make valid changes.
Correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation errors, looking particularly for those
common in your writing.
Write a clean draft and proofread for copying errors.
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Describe some significant points that you should keep in mind when writing a
summary.
Answer: When writing a summary, we should read the text carefully and underline key
transitional elements which show how parts are connected. Specific details, examples,
description, and unnecessary explanations should be avoided. We should start with a sentence
naming the writer and article title and stating the essay's main idea. Then, we should write the
summary, omitting nothing important and striving for overall coherence through appropriate
transitions. Also, personal opinions should be omitted.
2. What should you do after completing the first draft?
Answer:
1.2. How to write a summary
Writing a good summary demonstrates that you clearly understand a text...and that you can
communicate that understanding to your readers. A summary can be tricky to write at first
because it’s tempting to include too much or too little information. But by following our easy
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8-step method, you will be able to summarize texts quickly and successfully for any class or
subject.
1) Divide…and conquer. First off, skim the text you are going to summarize and divide it
into sections. Focus on any headings and subheadings. Also look at any bold-faced terms and
make sure you understand them before you read.
2) Read. Now that you’ve prepared, go ahead and read the selection. Read straight through.
At this point, you don’t need to stop to look up anything that gives you trouble—just get a
feel for the author’s tone, style, and main idea.
3) Reread. Rereading should be active reading. Underline topic sentences and key facts.
Label areas that you want to refer to as you write your summary. Also label areas that should
be avoided because the details—though they may be interesting—are too specific. Identify
areas that you do not understand and try to clarify those points.
4) One sentence at a time. You should now have a firm grasp on the text you will be
summarizing. In steps 1–3, you divided the piece into sections and located the author’s main
ideas and points. Now write down the main idea of each section in one well-developed
sentence. Make sure that what you include in your sentences are key points, not minor
details.
5) Write a thesis statement. This is the key to any well-written summary. Review the
sentences you wrote in step 4. From them, you should be able to create a thesis statement that
clearly communicates what the entire text was trying to achieve. If you find that you are not
able to do this step, then you should go back and make sure your sentences actually addressed
key points.
6) Ready to write. At this point, your first draft is virtually done. You can use the thesis
statement as the introductory sentence of your summary, and your other sentences can make
up the body. Make sure that they are in order. Add some transition words (then, however,
also, moreover) that help with the overall structure and flow of the summary. And once you
are actually putting pen to paper (or fingers to keys!), remember these tips:





Write in the present tense.
Make sure to include the author and title of the work.
Be concise: a summary should not be equal in length to the original text.
If you must use the words of the author, cite them.
Don't put your own opinions, ideas, or interpretations into the summary. The purpose
of writing a summary is to accurately represent what the author wanted to say, not to
provide a critique.
7) Check for accuracy. Reread your summary and make certain that you have accurately
represented the author’s ideas and key points. Make sure that you have correctly cited
anything directly quoted from the text. Also check to make sure that your text does not
contain your own commentary on the piece.
8) Revise. Once you are certain that your summary is accurate, you should (as with any piece
of writing) revise it for style, grammar, and punctuation. If you have time, give your summary
to someone else to read. This person should be able to understand the main text based on your
14
summary alone. If he or she does not, you may have focused too much on one area of the
piece and not enough on the author’s main idea.
Example Article:
Computers and Education in America
By Dudley Erskine Devlin
In the last decade, computers have invaded every aspect of education, from kindergarten
through college. The figures show that schools have spent over two billion dollars installing
two million new computers. Recently, with the explosive increase of sites on the Internet,
computers have taken another dramatic rise. In just five years, the number of Internet hosts
has skyrocketed from 2 million to nearly 20 million. It is not uncommon for 6th graders to
surf the Net, design their own home pages, and e-mail their friends or strangers they have
"met" on the Web. Computer literacy is a reality for many junior high students and most high
school students.
In the midst of this technological explosion, we might well stop and ask some key questions.
Is computer technology good or bad for education? Are students learning more or less? What,
exactly, are they learning? And who stands to benefit from education's current infatuation
with computers and the Internet?
In the debate over the virtues of computers in education, the technological optimists think that
computers and the Internet are ushering us into the next literacy revolution, a change as
profound as Gutenberg's invention of the printing press. In contrast, a much smaller but
growing number of critics believe that cyberspace is not the ideal classroom. I agree with the
critics. If you consider your own experience, you'll agree that the benefits of computer literacy
are at best wildly overrated. At their worst, computers and the Internet pander to the short
attention spans and the passive viewing habits of a young television generation.
The technological optimists sing a siren song of an enchanted new land where the educational
benefits of computers and the Internet are boundless. First, they boast that children can now
access information on every conceivable subject. If little Eva or little Johnny wants to learn
about far-away cultures, they can access sites from their own homes that will teach them
about the great languages and cultures of the world. Second, these starry-eyed optimists
warble about how the Internet has created a truly democratic space, where all children--rich,
poor, black, white, and brown--have equal access to information and education. Third, they
claim that computers will allow students to have e-mail conversations with experts on any
subject around the world. No longer will students be limited by their own classroom, their
teacher, or their environment. Distance learning is the wave of the future, and classrooms will
become obsolete or at least optional. In the words of John Sculley, former CEO of Apple
Computer, the new technologies have created an "avalanche of personal creativity and
achievement" and they have given students the "ability to explore, convey, and create
knowledge as never before." Children who used to hate going to school will now love to learn
to read and write, to do math and science. They will voluntarily spend hours learning on the
Web instead of being bored to death by endless books and stodgy teachers.
Sound too good to be true? Let's examine these claims, one by one. First, promoters of
computer learning are endlessly excited about the quantity of information available on the
15
Internet. The reality, however, is quite a different story. If you've worked on the Internet, you
know that finding and retrieving information from a Web site can sometimes be tedious and
time consuming. And once you find a site, you have no idea whether the information will be
valuable. Popular search engines such as Yahoo! are inefficient at finding relevant
information, unless you just want to buy a book on Amazon.com or find a street map for
Fargo, North Dakota. Information is definitely available on the Web, but the problem is
finding relevant, reliable, and non-commercial information.
Next, the optimists claim that the Internet is truly a democratic space with equal access for
everyone. Again, the reality falls short. First, access to an Internet provider at home costs over
a hundred dollars a month, once you add up service and long distance fees. And then there's
the technology barrier--not every person has the skills to navigate the Web in any but the most
superficial way. Equal access is still only a theoretical dream, not a current reality.
Finally, computers do allow students to expand their learning beyond the classroom, but the
distance learning is not a utopia. Some businesses, such as Hewlett Packard, do have
mentoring programs with children in the schools, but those mentoring programs are not
available to all students. Distance learning has always been a dream of administrators, eager
to figure out a cheaper way to deliver education. They think that little Eva and Johnny are
going to learn about Japanese culture or science or algebra in the evening when they could be
talking with their friends on the phone or watching television. As education critic Neil
Postman points out, these administrators are not imagining a new technology but a new kind
of child: "In [the administrator's] vision, there is a confident and typical sense of unreality.
Little Eva can't sleep, so she decides to learn a little algebra? Where does little Eva come
from? Mars?" Only students from some distant planet would prefer to stick their nose in a
computer rather than watch TV or go to school and be with their friends.
In addition to these drawbacks are other problems with computers in education. There is the
nasty issue of pornography and the rampant commercialism on the Internet. Schools do not
want to have their students spend time buying products or being exposed to pornography or
pedophiles. Second, the very attractiveness of most Web sites, with their color graphics and
ingenious links to other topics, promotes dabbling and skimming. The word "surfing" is
appropriate, because most sites encourage only the most surface exploration of a topic. The
Internet thus accentuates what are already bad habits for
most students: Their short attention spans, their unwillingness to explore subjects in depth,
their poor reading and evaluation skills. Computers also tend to isolate students, to turn them
into computer geeks who think cyberspace is actually real. Some students have found they
have a serious and addictive case of "Webaholism," where they spend hours and hours on the
computer at the expense of their family and friends. Unfortunately, computers tend to
separate, not socialize students. Finally, we need to think about who has the most to gain or
lose from computers in the schools. Are administrators getting more students "taught" for less
money? Are big companies training a force of computer worker bees to run their businesses?
Will corporate CEO's use technology to isolate and control their employees?
In short, the much ballyhooed promise of computers for education has yet to be realized.
Education critic Theodore Roszak has a warning for us as we face the brave new world of
computer education:
16
Like all cults, this one has the intention of enlisting mindless allegiance and acquiescence.
People who have no clear idea of what they mean by information or why they should want so
much of it are nonetheless prepared to believe that we live in an Information Age, which
makes every computer around us what the relics of the True Cross were in the Age of Faith:
emblems of salvation.
I think if you examine your own experience with computers, you'll agree that the cult of
computers is still an empty promise for most students. Computers, the Internet, and the Web
will not magically educate students. It still must be done with reading, study, good teaching,
and social interaction. Excellence in education can only be achieved the old fashioned way-students must earn it.
Example Detailed Summary:
Dudley Erskine Devlin writes his own commentary of computer technology on the rise in
"Computers and Education in America." While all the optimists out there push the movement
of Websites and constantly flash e-mail addresses on all advertising promising simplicity for
our hectic lives and education for our children, Devlin retorts by saying, "In short, the much
balleyhooed promise of computers for education has yet to be realized." He believes that
finding information and retrieving it from the Internet is long and tedious. The Internet is
cluttered by commercialism, claims Devlin. He also points out how the information might be
false when found. He believes claims that the Internet is democratic are false. The personal
computer eats money and that plus the cost of Internet bills is too much for families. Although
the Internet has nearly 20 million sites, there are not enough mentoring programs to lead
students through the Internet. Besides, according to Devlin, kids will always prefer the TV
and their friends over cyberspace. Even if kids were on the Internet they would be surrounded
by commercialism and pornography. Finally, in the words of Dudley Erskine Devlin, "The
cult of computers is still an empty promise for most students."
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. What are the main steps that a student should remember when writing a summary?
Answer: First, summarise and divide the text into sections. Then, read the selection you have
made and reread the text one more time. After writing down the main idea of each section in
one well-developed sentence and after you make sure that what you include in your sentences
are key points, not minor details, write the thesis statement. Transitions words (appropriate
linking words) should be used. We should carefully check for accuracy and finally revise the
summary into a first draft.
2. Write a summary of the following newspaper article:
Deaf president named
School yields to protests
WASHINGTON (AP) Gallaudet University's board of trustees chose the dean of the school's
College of Arts and Sciences to become the first deaf president in the 124-year history of the
school for the hearing-impaired.
17
I. King Jordan, a popular campus figure, was chosen to replace Elisabeth Ann Zinser, a
hearing woman who resigned early Friday after protests from students seeking a deaf leader
had virtually paralyzed Gallaudet's campus.
School officials also announced that board of trustees Chairwoman Jane Bassett Spilman, who
came under fire from protesters for handling of the crisis, has resigned. She will be replaced
by Philip W. Bravin, one of four deaf members on the board. In a clean sweep for student
protesters, Bravin announced that the board of trustees would form a task force to study
composition of the board, and institute a plan to ensure that a majority of the school's 20member trustees panel is deaf. There also will be no reprisals against student protesters,
Bravin said.
News of Jordan's selection was received with joy on campus. "We love it. We know now the
university is going to be ours," said Gallaudet graduate student Paul Singleton, who is deaf.
"He's the perfect president, the perfect selection."
Jordan, a finalist for the position when Zinser was selected, stunned protesters by endorsing
Zinser's presidency at a news conference Wednesday, but gave protesters an emotional lift
when he retracted his backing of Zinser the following day.
From The Houston Post
March 14, 1988
Answer:
1.3. Summarise a narrative or a description. Examples.
Steps to Writing a Story Summary
1. Read and understand the prompt or writing directions. What are you being asked to
write about?
Example: Summary of a Story
Write a summary of the story. Your writing will be scored on how well you:
• identify and discuss the characters, conflict, and setting;
• retell the important events of the plot (complications, climax, and resolution) in your own
words,
except for quotations; and
• express the underlying meaning (theme) of the story;
2. Read, think about, and understand the text. Review the story to make sure you know it
well. Use a dictionary or context clues to figure out the meaning of any important words that
you don’t know.
3. Take notes. Write down the important events as they occur in the story.
4. Write an introduction. State the title and author of the story. Briefly describe the setting,
characters, and conflict.
18
5. Write the body paragraphs. Retell the story in your own words. Describe the most
important events from the story including the climax and resolution. The number of body
paragraphs you have will depend on the length of the piece.
6. Write a conclusion. Describe how the conflict is resolved. Explain the theme (underlying
meaning of the story). What comment is the author making about humankind or society?
7. Revise. Have you indented all paragraphs? Have you captured the main idea of the story?
Have you included the most important details? Is there sentence variety? Have you avoided
writing short, choppy
sentences? Are there transitional words and phrases to connect ideas?
8. Proofread and edit. Check your spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Is the verb tense
consistent? Are all names spelled correctly and capitalized? Have you avoided writing run-on
sentences and sentence fragments?
9. Write your draft. Use blue or black ink. Skip lines. Write on one side of the paper only.
Include a title on the top line.
10. Read your summary one last time before you turn it in. Look for careless spelling,
punctuation, and grammar errors, especially omitted words or letters. Cross out errors neatly
with a single line and write the correction above.
What are the characteristics of a summary?

Summaries are always shorter – usually much shorter – than the original. They can, of
course, vary in length, depending on the length of the original.





They must be written in your own words, without extended quotes or paraphrases.
They concentrate on the main points, omitting unnecessary detail such as examples.
They preserve the original meaning and emphasis.
They do not contain your own ideas or comments.
The writer of the summarised information is always clearly identified by an
appropriate reference. If not, you are plagiarising.
Any summary must be an integral part of your own text; it must serve a purpose.

TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Summarise the following description:
"I look at the old tin building; it seems to have been there since the beginning of time. Its
strong posts and nonchalant slouch make me wonder if it will be rooted in the same place
forever. As soon as I walk in, the strong, rustic smell of hickory wood assails me. It takes me
back to my family’s last Fourth of July barbeque, when the hickory chips smoking the ribs
gave off their thick aroma. I wait for my eyes to adjust in the dark, humid place, not taking a
step until they do because of the ageless spider that could have made its home in my path. My
tongue already asks for a drink of water as I breathe the musty air littered with sawdust.
Spraying on sticky repellent, I wonder if the thirsty mosquitoes will stay away.
I walk to my work area, making sure I do not trip over the precious finds and the hopeful
antiques. I brush against a wall of the old building that is really more of a shed, and a mat of
spiderwebs clings to my shirt and refuses to come off. The gentle hum of the small fans and
the roar of the monster ones fight against the humid air.
19
I pull out a machine that is supposed to tie the two-pound bags that are full of hickory chips,
but it has a mind of its own. Placing the bulky machine on the high bench with its layers of
gritty sawdust, I hope it has decided to work today and load a bag into it. As I pull down the
top of the machine, I stare it in its mechanical eyes, willing it to work. I pull the bag back out
of the machine and look down on another battle lost. For now the brute has won the war of
wills, and I prepare myself with a box of red ties to close all 1,000 of the smooth bags by
hand.
The clang of the shovel dumping its first load onto the ancient scale can be heard throughout
the shed, signaling that work has begun. The salty sweat begins to bead on my forehead, and
for the first of many times, I wipe it away, leaving a smudge of dirt and dust. Already I yell
“First shower!” to assure my place in line after our work is completed. I hear my three sisters
shout numbers throughout the shed. Amanda, the last to call a number, frowns, knowing she
will have to wait a long time for the hot water to return after all the showers.
My grandfather walks into the shed, a cane in one hand and a pack of icy cold colas in the
other. His deep Southern drawl permeates the building as he asks if we’ve had lunch yet. Our
eyes brighten and smiles play on our faces as we silently hope he will offer the traditional
sloppy whopper and golden fries. He leaves as silently as he came in, and our stomachs start
to growl with anticipation for lunch.
My sisters’ and aunt’s chatting and soft laughter has started as they begin to catch up on each
other’s lives. I look around, wondering what people would say if they could see the Horne
sisters outside of the house with no makeup on and their hair in disarray. I laugh and keep the
thoughts to myself, listening in as my aunt’s next story begins.
At the end of the day, when all of the work is done, I pull the pallet—our makeshift gate—
closed and pet my grandfather’s latest endeavor at a vicious watchdog. I sigh with relief that
it’s over. Even though sometimes I dread the thought of work, especially when I know it is
going to occupy another Saturday, the time spent with my family and the laughter shared will
always be worth the sweat and scrapes. The memories will always be treasures in my mind
and will continue to be among the things I laugh about and love the most."
Answer:
2. Consider the following text:
Professor
You know, often in science, new findings force us to re-examine earlier beliefs and
assumptions. And a recent study of meerkats is having exactly this effect. The study examined
the meerkat’s behavior quite closely, much more closely than had ever been done before. And
some interesting things were found...like about eating habits...it showed that typically
20
meerkats eat before they stand guard -- so the ones standing guard had a full stomach! And
the study also found that since the sentinel is the first to see a predator coming, it’s the most
likely to escape...because it often stands guard near a burrow, so it can run immediately into
the burrow after giving the alarm. The other meerkats, the ones scattered about looking for
food, are actually in greater danger.
And in fact, other studies have suggested that when an animal creates an alarm, the alarm call
might cause the other group members either to gather together or else to move about very
quickly, behaviors that might actually draw the predator’s attention away from the caller,
increasing that animal’s own chances of survival.
And what about people--what about some human acts that might be considered altruistic?
Let’s take an extreme case, uh, suppose a person donates a kidney to a relative, or even to a
complete stranger. A selfless act, right? But ...doesn’t the donor receive appreciation and
approval from the stranger and from society? Doesn’t the donor gain an increased sense of
self worth? Couldn’t such non-material rewards be considered very valuable to some people?
Altruism is a type of behavior in which an animal sacrifices its own interest for that of another
animal or group of animals. Altruism is the opposite of selfishness; individuals performing
altruistic acts gain nothing for themselves.
Examples of altruism abound, both among humans and among other mammals. Unselfish acts
among humans range from the sharing of food with strangers to the donation of body organs
to family members, and even to strangers. Such acts are altruistic in that they benefit another,
yet provide little reward to the one performing the act.
In fact, many species of animals appear willing to sacrifice food, or even their life, to assist
other members of their group. The meerkat, which is a mammal that dwells in burrows in
grassland areas of Africa, is often cited as an example. In groups of meerkats, an individual
acts as a sentinel, standing guard and looking out for predators while the others hunt for food
or eat food they have obtained. If the sentinel meerkat sees a predator such as a hawk
approaching the group, it gives an alarm cry alerting the other meerkats to run and seek
shelter. By standing guard, the sentinel meerkat gains nothing—it goes without food while the
others eat, and it places itself in grave danger. After it issues an alarm it has to flee alone,
which might make it more at risk to a predator, since animals in groups are often able to work
together to fend off a predator. So the altruistic sentinel behavior helps ensure the survival of
other members of the meerkat’s group.
Question:
Summarize the points made in the lecture you have just read.
Answer:
21
1.4. Linking words and transitional words
First, firstly, second, secondly, third, thirdly
next, last, finally
in addition, moreover
furthermore
also
In conclusion, to summarise
The first …
The/a second….
One…..
Another …..
An additional….
Addition
In addition
Furthermore
Also
and
as well as
Cause
For
because
since
as
because of
to cause
Effect
So
as a result
as a consequence
therefore
thus
consequently
hence
to result from
due to
as a result/consequence of
to result in
to affect
Emphasis
Undoubtedly
Indeed
Obviously
Generally
Admittedly
In
theory/fact
Particularly
Especially
Clearly
Comparison
Similarly
Likewise
Also
Too
as
just as
and
like
just like
similar to
be similar to/ the same as
be alike
not only…but also
to compare to/with
Contrast
However
Nevertheless
Nonetheless
Still
Although, Even though,
though
but
yet
Despite , In spite of
In contrast, In comparison
While, whereas
On the other hand
On the contrary
But
Example
For example
For instance
That is
Such as
Including
Namely
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Write a summary of the latest film you have seen using relevant linking words and
vocabulary.
Answer:
22
TEMA NR. 3
LETTER WRITING
FORMAL AND INFORMAL LETTERS
Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider. Style in Letters.
1.2. Differences in layout and language between formal and informal letters.
1.3. Informal Letters. Linking words and structures. Useful Informal Expressions.
1.4. Formal Letters. Letters of Request. Letters of Application. Linking words and
structures. Useful Formal Expressions.
Obiectivele temei:
Până la sfârșitul cursului de redactare de texte, studenții vor putea
 Să facă distincția dintre scrisorile formale si cele amicale, fiind capabili să folosească
un limbaj potrivit, vocabularul și expresiile adecvate în organizarea și redactarea unei
scrisori.
 Să asimileze un registru adecvat fiecarui tip de scrisoare (formală sau amicală), pe
care să îl folosească atunci când redactează tipul de scrisoare respectivă.
 Să introducă în mod correct în text cuvinte de legatură, adverbe, conjuncții.
Timpul alocat temei: 8 ore
Bibliografie recomandată:
Cory, Hugh. 2005 (c. 1999). Advanced Writing with English in Use. CAE. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Evans, Virginia. 1999. Cambridge FCE – Use of English. London: Longman
Evans, Virginia. Successful Writing Proficiency. Express Publishing. 2002 (c.1998).
Fowler, W.S. 1996. Fowler First Certificate Use of English. London: Longman
Matthews, Alan, Read, Carol. Themes-An Integrated Skills Course for Intermediate and
Advanced Students. London: Collins Elt. 1982.
Smalley, Regina L., Ruetten, Mary K. Refining Composition Skills, Heinle and Heinle
Publishers, Boston, 1995.
Sullivan, Kathleen E. 1980. Paragraph Practice-Writing the Paragraph and the Short
Composition, MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
Vince, Michael. 2001. First Certificate Language Practice. Oxford: Macmillan
1.1. Points to consider. Style in Letters.
Letters remain hugely important in our everyday lives. People still feel the need to have
something confirmed in writing and a letter can add the all important personal touch. But
there are pitfalls to letter writing. Below are our top tips for getting your letter right.
1. Define your purpose
Before you begin writing a business letter ask yourself:


Why am I writing this letter – what has led up to it?
What do I hope to get out of it (my maximum aims)?
23




What do you expect to get out of it (my realistic aims)?
What is the best way to achieve this?
What information do I need to provide? For example, dates of previous letters, dates
you saw advertisement, dates of appointments, addresses of shops and people, names
of people involved, reference or account numbers.
What arguments do I need to use?
2. The first paragraph
The first paragraph of the letter should introduce the subject matter and either state or imply
your purpose in writing.
3. The body of the letter
The body of the letter should consist of one or more paragraphs. It should develop clearly and
logically the argument and facts of the case. If there is more than one paragraph, each
paragraph should focus on a separate aspect of the subject matter and there should be clear
links between paragraphs.
4. The final paragraph
The final paragraph should leave the reader in no doubt about your attitude towards the
subject of the letter. It may, for example, spell out what you would like to see happen. It
should be positive and unambiguous.
5. Achieve the right tone
Although the reader of your letter may be unknown to you, it is important to achieve a
suitable tone in your writing and not to be too casual or too formal. So, as far as possible:






Avoid Jargon whenever possible.
Use shorter sentences rather than longer ones.
Avoid using the passive. For example write, ‘We sent you that letter by mistake’,
rather than the more pompous, ‘Our letter was sent in error’.
Don’t let your feelings get the better of you.
Don’t try to be too clever.
Be clear and to the point, but don’t be too blunt.
6. Adopt a clear layout
Adopt a letter layout that is clear and consistent. For example, if you put a comma after the
person’s name in the greeting, include one after Yours faithfully/Yours sincerely; either
indent the paragraphs or leave a space between them, without indentation.
7. Sincerely or Faithfully?
If you are writing to someone whose name and title you do not know, use the greeting Dear
Sir or Madam, and the ending Yours faithfully, signing yourself with your initials and
surname.
24
If you are writing to a named person, address them as Dear Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms, and end Yours
sincerely, followed by your first name and surname.
If you have met them or spoken to them by phone, or otherwise feel that you have some
acquaintance with them, address them by their first name and sign yourself Yours sincerely,
using your first name.
Informal Letter Writing Style
If you're writing to a family member or close friend, your use of language and the style of
your letter is going to vary tremendously to that of a formal business letter. Depending upon
the content, a letter to your Mum, Dad, brother or sister or boyfriend/girlfriend will probably
be written in a style not too dissimilar to the way in which you'd conduct yourself if you were
having a verbal conversation with them.
You might use slang terms, colloquial expressions that are familiar to people born and bred in
the same locations. You might even use expletives to get your points across that are
acceptable between you as the writer and the recipient of the letter. You could also use terms
of endearment that only the two of you (i.e. writer and reader) would use. All in all, you'll
probably want to keep the style of your letter as close to the style of the kind of conversation
you might have with the recipient of the letter if you were meeting face-to-face and this works
fine as you both know each other's personalities well.
Formal Letter Writing Style
However, it's a much different proposition if you're writing a formal business letter. In most
cases, you'll have probably not met or previously spoken to the intended recipient and may
not have previously communicated with them in any way, shape or form. Therefore, as people
who are relative strangers to each other, you have no way of knowing their personality, their
characteristics, their humour (or lack of it) and so it's important that you adopt a different,
more formal approach to your letter writing.
Usually, with these kinds of letters, you're aiming to put some kind of point across and you
may wish to suggest to the recipient how the content of your letter makes you feel, in terms of
any emotional feelings you might have as a result of the content of your letter. However, you
have to temper or 'tone down' your emotions, whether positive or negative, and stick to the
facts as much as possible, whilst subliminally letting them know how you feel, if it's
appropriate.
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Write the difference between formal and informal letter writing styles.
Answer: When we are writing to a family member or close friend, our use of language and the
style of the letter is going to vary tremendously to that of a formal business letter. Slang
terms, colloquial expressions that are familiar to people born and bred in the same locations
may be used. On the other hand, if we write a formal letter, such as a business one, for
instance, we have to temper or 'tone down' our emotions, whether positive or negative, and
stick to the facts as much as possible, whilst subliminally letting them know how we feel, if
it's appropriate.
2. What are the main points to consider when writing a letter?
25
Answer:
1.2. Differences in layout and language between formal and informal letters.
One of the most important areas to master in terms of register is the difference between
formal and informal English. Of course, there are many degrees of formality, and most written
English (including newspapers, magazines and novels) is situated somewhere between the
two extremes. Here is a list of some of the most characteristic features that differentiate
formal and informal English, followed by some preliminary exercises. Many further exercises
to practise the use of different registers , and particularly to distinguish between formal and
informal usage, occur throughout the rest of the book. Table 1 has been taken from Cory,
2005 (c.1999), p. 14.
Table 1
26
Informal
Formal
They did an experiment
The experiment was carried out /
performed
Then the Drive Manager goes through some
steps to install the programme
The Drive Manager then performs /
executes a series of functions / operations
in order to install the programme
One after the other
At regular intervals
They found out what the important things
were
They determined / discovered / established
/ identified the important properties /
characteristics / issues
You can find out all about the survey on
page 7
Details of the survey are to be found on
page 7
We think you should discuss the research
findings at the next departmental meeting
It is recommended that the research
findings are discussed at the next
departmental meeting
Doctors have come up with a new method
of….
Doctors have created / established a new
method of….
Safety officers are looking into the problem
Safety officers are investigating the problem
The cost of cleaning services has gone up
25% over the last three years
The cost of cleaning services has risen by
25% over the last three years
Informal
Formal
We do not think it is a good idea to do
anything at the moment
It is suggested that no action should be
taken at this stage
Many thanks to the staff at “Computers R
Us” for their help on the technical side
Thanks are extended to the staff at
“Computers R Us” for their technical
support
(Slightly less formal: We would like to
thank ….)
You need to get the patient’s help when
doing these hearing tests
When conducting these audiological tests,
the active participation of the patient
being tested is required.
There were no big differences between the
No significant differences emerged
between the three different groups tested
27
three different groups we tested
Many / much / a great deal of
A lot of
This appeared to rectify the problem
This seemed to fix the problem
Sufficient
Enough
This demonstrates…
This shows that …
Numbers are increasing
Numbers are going up
The plan was implemented / carried out
They put the plan into action
This let them keep the same temperature
during the whole experiment
These results are because of factors like
weight, age …
This allowed / permitted / resulted in /
ensured a constant temperature throughout
the experiment / for the entire experiment
These results are dependent on factors such
as weight, age …
Table 2
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Which phrase or type of language would you find in a formal letter? Which phrase or
type of language would you find in an informal letter? Put the letter 'F' next to those
phrases or language types that are used in formal letters and 'I' next to those used in
informal letters.

















I am sorry to inform you that...
phrasal verbs
I am very grateful for...
Why don't we...
I will not be able to attend the...
idioms and slang
contracted verb forms like we've, I'm,
etc.
Give my regards to...
I look forward to hearing from you...
Let me know as soon as...
short sentences



Answer: I am sorry to inform you that... F
phrasal verbs I
I am very grateful for... F





28
Dear Tom,
Dear Ms Smithers,
Best wishes,
Yours faithfully,
I'm really sorry I...
Unfortunately, we will have to
postpone...
We had a little bit of luck...
Our computers are used for a variety...
I use my pencil sharper for...
polite phrases
fewer passive verb forms








Why don't we... I
I will not be able to attend the... F
idioms and slang I
contracted verb forms like we've, I'm, etc. I
Give my regards to... F
I look forward to hearing from you... F
Let me know as soon as... I
short sentences I











Dear Tom, I
Dear Ms Smithers, F
Best wishes, I
Yours faithfully, F
I'm really sorry I... I
Unfortunately, we will have to postpone... F
We had a little bit of luck... I
Our computers are used for a variety... F
I use my pencil sharper for... I
polite phrases F
fewer passive verb forms I
2. Look at the phrases 1-11 and match them with a purpose A-K
1. That reminds me,...
2. Why don't we...
3. I'd better get going...
4. Thanks for your letter...
5. Please let me know...
6. I'm really sorry...
7. Love,
8. Could you do something for me?
9. Write soon...
10. Did you know that..
11. I'm happy to hear that...
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
to finish the letter
to apologize
to thank the person for writing
to begin the letter
to change the subject
to ask a favor
before signing the letter
to suggest or invite
to ask for a reply
to ask for a response
to share some information
Answer:
3. Underline the features that indicate it is an informal, not a formal, letter:
17, The Avenue
Southampton
Hants
17th November, 2008
Dear Sam,
Thanks for your letter. I’m glad you’re coming at last. Do you think we’ll be able to meet up?
29
I can understand you being a bit worried – I’ll never forget my first trip abroad. Anyway, you
asked for some advice, so here goes!
First of all, pack some warm clothes. You never know what the weather’s going to be like –
even in the summer. And it’s definitely worth bringing an umbrella.
As far as money’s concerned, the golden rule is not to carry too much around with you, I’d
say 50 at the most. Most places take credit cards now, and there’re always traveller’s cheques.
Finally, a few things to remember – banks, pubs and restaurants open and close at rather
strange times, and public transport can be unreliable. As a general rule, the best way to meet
people is to start talking to them. We’re not really unfriendly, it’s just that we’re not very
good at making the first move.
Give me a ring when you arrive and we’ll arrange a get-together.
Love,
Anna
Answer:
1.3. Informal Letters. Linking words and structures. Useful Informal Expressions.
Listing: first, second, third, first, furthermore, finally, next
Giving examples: for example, for instance, as follows, that is, in this case, namely, in other
words
Generalising: in general, generally, on the whole, as a rule, for the most part, in most cases,
usually
Reinforcement: also, furthermore, moreover, above all, what is more, in addition, in the same
way, not only… but also
Similarity: equally, similarly, likewise, correspondingly
Structure of a Personal Letter
1. Date – This is the date when the letter is written
2. Greetings and Name of Recipient – The greeting usually starts with the word ‘Dear’
followed by the given name of the recipient or relationship and it ends with a comma.
Two examples are shown: ‘Dear Ronald,’ ‘Dear Uncle,’.
3. Introduction – This is the opening of a letter. It may include greetings like ‘How are
you?’. Sometimes, you may refer to a previous letter.
4. Body – This is the main body of the letter. It includes the message that the writer wants
to tell the recipient. It is often divided into paragraphs.
5. Closure – This part indicates the letter is going to end. The writer may ask the recipient
to reply here.
6. Complimentary Close – This short expression includes a few words on one line. It
ends with a comma. Some examples are shown below.
‘Yours sincerely,’ ‘Best regards,’ ‘Love,’
7. Signature – the signature of the writer
30
Language Use in an Informal Letter
1. Formality and Accuracy – Formal and accurate grammar and spelling are expected,
depending on the relationship between the writer and the recipient.
2. Style – Language use may be personal. For example, first and second person pronouns
may be frequently used.
Informal letter: Sample.
Dear Jessica,
Thank you for your interesting letter. I also enjoyed the four weeks we spent together in
Australia. All my other friends are so jealous when I show them the pictures. I’ll never forget
those days, especially our fascinating trip to Ayers Rock. I wish I could be there now.
Back at university, it seems as if again nothing has changed: because the rooms are too small,
the lecturers only allow students who are at least in their fourth semester to attend the courses.
So I (third semester) have been kicked out of six courses so far. I really hate not to get into a
seminar which interests me. Am I supposed to attend only those seminars nobody gives a
damn about? Or should I give in and study several terms longer? I don’t feel like doing either.
Even if you stand in line for hours and finally make it into a course, the room usually is jampacked. This circumstance eventually leads to a lower quality of the course. We won’t be as
qualified as we should be!
There aren’t enough rooms either. No wonder, if you think of the fact that the university in
Koblenz was constructed for about 1,600 students and there are actually as many as 4,800
students. The problems have been the same every semester since we moved to the new
campus. I’m so fed up with this situation. It really sucks!
One reason for this disaster is money, as always. Why isn’t there enough money? What do
they do with all the money? Isn’t education one of the most important things in life? If the
people in charge don’t know how to spend the money correctly, they should ask us. For
example, they had to have this stupid, ridiculous and unnecessary fountain. This silly thing
even works when it’s raining. Instead they could have built another floor.
By the way, you’ve just started college. Do you have the same problems in Great Britain? If
you don’t, you’re especially lucky. I mean, I hope that you don’t have to experience all these
bloody things but the situation can’t be so much better in Britain, can it? I’m truly sorry to
bother you with all this stuff but I think that you can understand the way I’m feeling at the
moment. Maybe we could meet during our week off at Whitsun. It would be great to see you
again and just get out of this. Please call or write back a.s.a.p.!
Love,
Andrea
P.S. I’m going to write a letter to the head honcho… or whatever he’s called, right now!!
TEST DE EVALUARE
31
1. Write a letter to a friend you haven't seen or spoken to in a long time. Tell him / her about
what you have been doing and ask them how they are and what they have been up to recently.
Answer:
2. Write a letter to a cousin and invite them to your wedding. Give them some details about
your future husband / wife.
Answer:
1.4. Formal Letters. Letters of Request. Letters of Application. Linking words and
structures. Useful Formal Expressions.
Letters of Request:
How to write a request letter:










Be particularly courteous and tactful when writing this letter, as requests are generally
an imposition on another's time and/or resources or talents. Put the reader at ease, and
help her or him feel that responding will not be burdensome.
Be brief.
Be confident and persuasive. Be assertive but not overbearing.
Don't hem and haw around the issue--be straightforward, and include as much detail as
necessary to clearly convey your request.
Don't be manipulative.
Avoid the temptation to apologize for your request. Strive to make the person feel
complimented that you would ask the favor of him or her.
Make only reasonable requests.
Express your willingness to reciprocate the kindness or favor.
Invite the person to contact you if he or she has any questions or concerns, and thank
him or her for taking the time to consider your request.
Make it easy for the person to respond--tell him or her exactly what can be done to
accommodate your request, and do everything within your power so that the request
can be granted (e.g., if you are asking for a letter of recommendation, include your
résumé or a list of accomplishments and a stamped, addressed envelope).
With letters of request you can:


Introduce yourself and remind the reader of your connection (if necessary) before
making your request.
Clearly make your request to the person(s) involved.
32



State plainly and directly your reason(s) for making the request.
Mention the special contributions the reader can make--how he or she can be of help,
why you chose him or her, any benefits of fulfilling the request, and so forth.
Promote goodwill and trust.
General Tips for Writing a Letter of Request
The following suggestions will help you to write an effective sample of a letter of request:
1. Keep it simple. In the first paragraph, tell the recipient why you are writing.
2. If appropriate, give the person you are writing to some information that will help them
remember who you are. For example, if you are writing to a former professor, explain
what class you were in and the year. In the case of writing to a former supervisor,
remind the person when you worked with them. These details help readers to place
where they know you from.
3. Briefly explain what it is that you want the reader to do. If there is a deadline involved,
share that information as well.
4. Give the reader all the information they need to comply with your request.
5. Include any supporting documentation the recipient may need.
6. List your contact information, including your full name, mailing address, phone
number and e-mail address in the body of the letter. Ask the reader to contact you if
they have any questions or concerns about your request.
7. Thank the person for their assistance.
Useful Language (Virginia Evans, 2002 (c.1998), p. 85)
33
Letters of Application:
Your CV should be accompanied by a letter of application, and these two items form a
package. The letter has a number of purposes:



It allows you to sell yourself by pointing out key features of your CV.
It gives you the opportunity to include material that is not in the CV, especially
personal qualities that you listed when making your preparations.
It shows a prospective employer that you know how to write a letter. While this may
be of decreasing importance in an electronic age, many employers still value it highly,
both as a skill in its own right and as a test of your ability to communicate clearly and
effectively.
What should go in it?
The letter of application should follow the general guidelines for all business letters. It should
have an introduction, a body, and a conclusion.
The introduction: In the introduction you should detail the job you are applying for, and, if
relevant, the circumstances that have led to this (for example an advertisement, or the
recommendation of an agency).
34
The body: The body of the letter provides you with an opportunity to present yourself to the
employer:





Tell the reader about your present job and why you are looking to move on.
Explain why you are suitable for this job
Emphasize the skills you have which make you particularly suitable for the job
List briefly the personal qualities you would bring to it
Answer any specific questions posed by the advert or job details
It is important not to write too much, however. Two, or at most three, short punchy
paragraphs are much more effective than two sides of rambling prose.
The conclusion: The conclusion should round the letter off, leaving the reader with a positive
image. It should sum up briefly the selling points made in the body of the letter, mention any
items (including the CV) you are enclosing, and express willingness to provide any further
information that the reader may want.
Useful Language (Virginia Evans, 2002 (c.1998), p. 85)
35
Sample Letter:
Ms Cath Harries
Human Resources Manager
Harpen Books Ltd
9-11, Clapton Street
Poole
Dorset
5P19 8GS
29th August 2005
Dear Ms Harries,
Assistant Editor/Desk Editor
I wish to apply for the above post, advertised in The Bookseller.
Currently I am working in a new small publishing company, Notions, that specializes in
highly designed, high-quality non-fiction books. Since I started here I have been the only fulltime employee working on all editorial aspects of the books. Answering directly to the
Publishing Director and the Editorial Director, I have a very wide range of responsibilities
including: editing on screen in Quark and Microsoft Word, liaising with the designers and
freelance editors, checking manuscripts at the film stage, managing the stationery budget,
Americanizing text, as well as signing off books, having checked the proofs.
I have been at Notions for over a year, and have learnt a great deal, but there is no longer the
scope to use all my knowledge and experience. I am seeking a position that offers
responsibility for the full range of publishing and editorial skills, as well as the opportunity to
meet and work with a range of people. I like to think that I bring enthusiasm and adaptability
to my work.
I would welcome the opportunity to discuss this letter and my enclosed curriculum vitae. The
telephone number I have given is my home one and all calls are answered.
I look forward to hearing from you.
Yours sincerely,
Jayne Saunders
JAYNE SAUNDERS
I43 Farndon Street, Blackstock, Essex CM2I 8BG
TEL/FAX (01402) 546091
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. There are grammar mistakes, spelling mistakes, punctuation mistakes, mistakes in the
order of the paragraphs, and also mistakes in the layout. Correct the mistakes.
36
19 avenue road
Ealing W6 OER
Majestic Hotel
Bournemouth
Hampshire HR4 PMT
The nineteenth of January
dear Julia Rambert,
I am interesting in the job of Waitress advertised on "Metro" this morning and I am enclosing
a copy of my CV.
I hope you will consider my application carefuly and I look forward to hear from you.
I am working as waitress in my own country since five years before I came here and my
former employer can provide you with a referee.
I imagine that you cater mainly for overseas tourists so I belief my language skills would be
usefull. In addition to speak both portuguese and english, I also can understand spanish.
yours faithfully,
Maria Chagas
Maria Chagas
Answer:
2. You want to request a loan from your bank manager for home improvements. Write a
letter of request using appropriate language and register.
Answer:
3. You have seen an advertisement in the newspaper for the position of Hotel Manager
at a popular ski resort. Write a letter of application giving information about yourself,
your qualifications and previous experience, as well as explaining why you would be
suitable for the job.
Answer:
37
TEMA NR. 4
ESSAY WRITING
FOR AND AGAINST ESSAYS. OPINION ESSAYS
ESSAYS SUGGESTING SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS
Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider.
1.2. For and Against Essays. Useful language and linking words. Sample essay.
1.3. Opinion Essays. Useful language and linking words. Sample essay.
1.4. Essays suggesting solutions to problems. Useful language and linking words. Sample
essay.
Obiectivele temei:
Până la sfârșitul cursului de redactare de texte, studenții vor putea
 Să asimileze vocabular specializat pentru cele două tipuri de eseuri pe care le va studia
în cadrul acestui curs
 Să redacteze redacteze eseuri argumentative, fiind astfel capabili sa-si exprime in scris
punctele de vedere critice asupra temelor pe care le au de dezbătut în cadrul acestui
modul
 Să învețe să-și exprime clar și coerent punctul de vedere într-o anumită problemă și
să-și argumenteze acest punct de vedere.
 Să introducă în mod corect în eseul lor cuvinte de legatură, adverbe, conjuncții.
Timpul alocat temei: 6 ore
Bibliografie recomandată:
Cory, Hugh. 2005 (c. 1999). Advanced Writing with English in Use. CAE. Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
Evans, Virginia. 1999. Cambridge FCE – Use of English. London: Longman
Evans, Virginia. Successful Writing Proficiency. Express Publishing. 2002 (c.1998).
Fowler, W.S. 1996. Fowler First Certificate Use of English. London: Longman
Matthews, Alan, Read, Carol. Themes-An Integrated Skills Course for Intermediate and
Advanced Students. London: Collins Elt. 1982.
Smalley, Regina L., Ruetten, Mary K. Refining Composition Skills, Heinle and Heinle
Publishers, Boston, 1995.
Sullivan, Kathleen E. 1980. Paragraph Practice-Writing the Paragraph and the Short
Composition, MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
Vince, Michael. 2001. First Certificate Language Practice. Oxford: Macmillan
1.1. Points to consider.
For and against essay is the kind of the essay where you have to present the controversial
points of view about this or that topic. In for and against essays the writer should present the
examples of the people who agree or disagree with the statement. Academic-essay will try to
demonstrate the issues which should be covered in your for and against essay.
38
The first thing which academic-essay recommends to do is to collect the information
necessary for essay writing. It can be included into your essay as the examples of
controversial opinions. Academic essay would go as far as to present the possible content of
your for and against essay. Let us consider the topic “Divorce as a result of early marriage”.
The introduction may state the problem of early divorces. For example, The divorces are very
frequent phenomena in young families.
The main body should present controversial points of view and the examples of them. For
instance, Many people tend to think that the reason for the divorces is the young age of the
couple. For instance, just married are inexperienced…On the other hand, the reason for
divorces may be another, that is incompatibility of the characters…
The conclusion of the essay should present the result of the discussion. It should sum up
everything that was said. For example, Summing up all said above, the debates on divorces
are eternal. The opinion are different and nobody may be 100% sure about the reason for
divorces because it depends on the situation in the family .As far as I am concerned…
For and against essay may be easier to write if you resort to the help of academic-essay.
Consdider the points below, from Virginia Evans, 2002, p. 60:
For & Against Essays
A “for & against” essay is a formal piece of writing in which a topic is considered from
opposing points of view. You should present both sides in a fair way by discussing them
objectively and in equal detail.
A good essay of this type should consist of:
a)
An introductory paragraph in which you clearly state the topic to be discussed,
without giving your opinion;
b)
A main body in which the points for & against along with your justifications,
examples or reasons are presented in separate paragraphs; and
c)
A closing paragraph in which you state your opinion or give a balanced
consideration of the topic.
Note: Opinion words (I think, I believe, In my opinion, etc.) can only be used in the
closing paragraph where you give your opinion on the topic.
Points to consider


Before you start writing your essay you should make a list of the points for &
against.
Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence which summarises the topic of
the paragraph. e.g. In addition, many people feel reading is a relaxing and
worthwhile activity.
39


Do not use informal style (e.g. short forms, colloquial language, etc.) or strong
language to express your opinion (e.g. I know …, etc.). Express your opinion in a
non-emotional way (e.g. It seems that, I therefore feel …, etc.).
Well-known quotations relevant to the topic you are writing about will make your
composition more interesting. For example, if you are writing an essay on
education, a quotation you may include is: “Education is a progressive discovery
of your own ignorance.” (Will Durant)
Structure
Introduction
Paragraph 1
State topic (summary of the topic without giving your opinion)
Main body
Paragraphs 2 & 3
Arguments for and justifications, examples, and/or reasons
Paragraphs 4 & 5
Arguments against and justification, examples, and/or reasons
Conclusion
Final paragraph
Balanced consideration/ your opinion directly or indirectly
Opinion Essays
An opinion essay is a formal piece of writing. It requires your opinion on the topic, which
must be stated clearly, giving various viewpoints on the topic supported by reasons and/or
examples. You should also include the opposing viewpoint in another paragraph.
A successful opinion essay should have:
a)
b)
c)
An introductory paragraph in which you state the topic and your opinion.
A main body which consists of several paragraphs, each presenting a separate
viewpoint supported by reasons. You also include a paragraph presenting the opposing
viewpoint and reason why you think it is an unconvincing viewpoint; and
A conclusion in which you restate your opinion using different words.
Points to consider
40



Decide whether you agree or disagree with the subject of the topic, than make a
list of your viewpoints and reasons.
Write well-developed paragraphs, joining the sentences with appropriate linking
words and phrases. Do not forget to start each paragraph with a topic sentence
which summarises what the paragraph is about.
Linking words and phrases should also be used to join one paragraph with the
other.
Structure
Introduction
Paragraph 1
State the topic and your opinion clearly
Main body
Paragraph 2
Viewpoint 1 and reason/example
Paragraph 3
Viewpoint 2 and reason/example
Paragraph 4
Viewpoint 3 and reason/example (you may include more viewpoints, and thus more
paragraphs in the main body)
Paragraph 5
Opposing viewpoint and reason/example (you may include more viewpoints, and thus
more paragraphs in the main body)
Conclusion
Final paragraph
Summarise/restate opinion
Essays Suggesting Solutions to Problems
An essay discussing problems and suggesting solutions is a formal piece of writing. You
should state the problem and its causes clearly, then present your suggestions and the
expected results or consequences these might have.
A successful essay of this type should consist of:
41
a)
An introductory paragraph in which you clearly state the problem, what has
caused it, and the consequences;
b)
A main body in which you present several suggested solutions, each in a separate
paragraph together with its consequences/results; and
c)
A conclusion in which you summarise your opinion.
Points to consider


Each paragraph should start with a topic sentence which summarises what the
paragraph is about.
Appropriate linking words and phrases should be used to show the connection
between paragraphs as well as to link sentences within a paragraph.
Structure
Introduction
Paragraph 1
State the problem and its cause(s)/consequence(s)
Main body
Paragraph 2
Suggestion 1 and result
Paragraph 3
Suggestion 2 and result
Paragraph 4
Suggestion 3 and result
Paragraph 5
Suggestion 4 and result (you may include more suggestions, and thus more paragraphs in
the main body)
Conclusion
Final paragraph
Summarise your opinion
42
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. What are the main points you should consider before writing a "for and against"
essay?
Answer: In a "for and against essay" the topic is considered from opposing points of view. We
should present both sides in a fair way, by discussing them objectively and in equal detail.
Before writing our essays, a list of the points for and against should be made. Informal style
and emotional language should be avoided, while relevant quotations should be included.
2. What are the main points you should consider before writing an opinion essay?
Answer:
3. Write a plan for the following topic: "Living in a foreign country cannot be better
than living in your own."
Answer:
1.2. For and Against Essays. Useful language and linking words. Sample essay.
To list points:
Firstly, First of all, In the first place, To begin/start with,
Secondly, Thirdly, Finally
To list advantages:
One/Another/A further/An additional (major) advantage of … is …
The main/greatest/first advantage of … is …
To list disadvantages:
One/Another/A further/An additional (major) disadvantage/drawback of …
The main/greatest/most serious/first disadvantage / drawback of …
Another negative aspect of …
To introduce points/arguments for & against:
43
One (very convincing) point/argument in favour of … / against …,
A further common criticism of … / It could be argued that …,
It is
often
claimed/suggested
widely
argued/maintained/
generally
felt/believe/held
that …
claim/suggest/argue/feel that …
some/many/
maintain/believe/point out/agree/hold that …
advocate (+ing/noun)/support the view that …
most people/experts/
scientists/sceptics/
oppose the view that …
in favour of/against …
critics
are
of the opinion that/convinced that …
opposed to …
To add more points to the same topic:
in addition (to this), furthermore, moreover, besides, apart from, what is more, as well
as, not to mention (the fact) that, also, not only … but also/as well/both … and, There
is another side to the issue/question/argument of…
To make contrasting points:
it may be said/argued/claimed that, …
on the other hand,
however, still, yet, but, others/
nonetheless,
nevertheless, even so,
many people
oppose this viewpoint
(strongly) disagree …,
claim/feel/believe this
incorrect/misguided
argument
is
although, though, even though, while, whilst, whereas, despite/in spite of (the fact
that), regardless of the fact that
Opponents of … argue/believe/claim that …; The fact that … contradicts the
belief/idea that …; While it is true to say that …, in fact …; While/Although …, it
cannot be denied that …
Example (For & Against Essay)
44
“Censorship is necessary in modern society”. Discuss.
Censorship is an issue which frequently generates a great deal of heated debate, with
supporters maintaining that it is vital in order to protect society, whilst opponents claim that it
is an unjustifiable restriction of public access to information.
Firstly, all countries have secrets which must be safeguarded for reasons of national
security. For instance, if an enemy country were to acquire such highly sensitive information,
the effects could be catastrophic. Consequently, governments have to have the power to
restrict access to information concerning areas such as the armed forces or particular aspects
of foreign policy.
Secondly, it is often argued that censorship is necessary to prevent the broadcast and
publication of obscene material which is considered offensive or harmful to public morals.
Many people feel that, without censorship the public would be constantly subjected to
material that the majority would find offensive. For this reason, the government has a duty to
impose certain restrictions on the mass media by censoring films and texts which contain
explicit scenes of sex, violence or foul language.
In contrast, opponents of censorship point out that when it is abused by governments,
censorship becomes an instrument used to misinform society and maintain power. In order to
control the flow of information which riches the public, repressive regimes try to put
constraints on the media, thus denying citizens the right to information owing to the fact that
governments believe it may lead them to seek greater freedom.
Furthermore, it is generally felt that mature adults are able to make informed choices
about what they watch, read and listen to and should, therefore, be permitted to make their
own decisions. For example, some comedians make use of offensive language taboo subjects
in their performances. Critics of censorship argue that the only people who will watch or
listen to such material are adults who have made a conscious decision to do so. Thus, it is
claimed, it is unjust to censor material like this since it is not forced upon people who may
subsequently be offended by it.
All things considered, it can be concluded that a certain degree of censorship is always
necessary. The best course of action would be to attempt to achieve a balance between the
requirements of the country and the public on the one hand, and individuals’ rights on the
other.
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Write an essay arguing whether animals should be used for entertainment or not. Use
appropriate linking words and vocabulary. Write no more than 300 words.
Answer:
1.3. Opinion Essays. Useful language and linking words. Sample essay.
45
Useful expressions for giving opinions
 To my mind/To my way of thinking, …
 It is my (firm) belief/opinion/view/conviction (that) …
In my opinion/view …
My opinion is that,
I (firmly) believe …
I (definitely) feel/think that …
I am (not) convinced that …
I am inclined to believe that …
I (do not) agree that/with
It seems/appears to me …
It strikes me that
As far as I am concerned, …
Example (Opinion Essay)
“Although the position of women in society today has improved, there is still a great deal
of sexual discrimination.” Do you agree?
Throughout this century, the role of women within society has changed, and the
majority of people feel that this change is for the better. More women work than ever before,
and it is accepted in Western culture that many women now have careers. Nonetheless, in my
opinion there is still a great deal of sexual equality has been achieved is not altogether
accurate.
To begin with, many women find it very difficult to return to work after having children.
The main reason for this is that there are rarely any provisions made for childcare in the
workplace and, in these cases, women are forced to find someone to look after the children
while they are at work. Obviously, this can prove to be a time-consuming and expensive
process, yet it must be done if mothers are to be able to resume their careers.
Secondly, the traditional views of the position of women within society are so deeply
ingrained that they have not really changed. For instance, not only is the view that women
should stay at home and look after their family still widely held, but it is reinforced through
images seen on television programmes and advertisements. An example of this is that few
men are ever seen doing housework on television, since this is traditionally thought of as “a
woman’s job”.
Thirdly, since families often need two incomes in order to enjoy a good standard of
living, a woman finds herself doing two jobs: one at home and one at the office. So, it could
be said that a woman’s position has, in fact, deteriorated rather than improved, with the result
that women carry the burdens of equality but get none of the benefits.
In contrast, there are some people who claim that the problem of sexual discrimination
no longer exists. They point out that women do, after all, have legal rights intended to protect
them from discrimination. In addition, a few women are now beginning to reach top positions
as judges, business leaders and politicians, while a number of other previously all-male
professions are opening their ranks to women. Nonetheless, these examples are not the norm
and discrimination is still very much with us.
46
Taking these points into consideration, I would say that the position of women has
improved only slightly. While, rules and laws have changed, it is the deep-rooted opinions of
people within society which are taking a longer time to evolve. Needless to say, until these
attitudes have changed, sexual discrimination will remain a problem which we all need to face
and fight against.
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Write an opinion essay on the following topic: "It is important to follow fashion." Do
you agree? Write no more than 300 words.
Answer:
1.4. Essays suggesting solutions to problems. Useful language and linking words. Sample
essay.
Useful language
To express cause:
Since/ because, in view of/because of/owing to/due to (the fact that) …, The reason
that …/why …/for … is that…
To express effect:
Thus/therefore/so/consequently, as a result/consequence, the result of … would be …,
…would result in …
To express purpose:
So that …, so as/in order (not) to …, with the purpose of/intention of (+ ing)
To express possibility/probability:
It can/could/may/might …,
It is possible/probable/(un)likely/foreseeable/certain that …, …is (un)likely to/bound
to/certain to/possible/probable …,
The likelihood/possibility/probability of (-ing/noun) is …
Useful expressions: problems & solutions
47
should
Steps
be
taken
must
Measures
so as to
solve/overcome/combat …
in order to
deal with/eradicate …
could
Serious attempts to halt/prevent/solve … must be made.
One (possible)
Another
solve/overcome
way to
An alternative
People
Governments
We
combat/deal with
eradicate
should
their/
attention
this problem
the
(of)…
problem
would be/
is …
focus to solve/overcome the problem of …
our
to improve the situation of …
to reduce the impact of … on society …
on ways
If steps/measures were taken to …
If … happened/were to happen,
the effect/result/consequence
If attempts were made to address the
would be …
problem
By (+ing) …, we/ government/etc, can ensure that / prevent …
The … situation could be improved if …/It would be a good idea if …
effect/consequence
The
outcome/result
of
ing)
(+noun/-
would
be …
might
Example (Suggesting Solutions to Problems)
“What could be done to improve the lives of the elderly?”
For many elderly people the latter part of their life is not a time to relax and enjoy
retirement, but rather a difficult and unhappy period, owing to financial worries, failing health
and loneliness. As life expectancy increases, the average person lives well beyond the age of
48
retirement. As a result, the elderly make up an ever-increasing percentage of society, which
makes it more important than ever for a real effort to be made in improving the lives of senior
citizens.
One way to deal with the situation would be to ensure that the elderly have enough
money on which to live. Obviously, when a person stops working, they still require a source
of income to cover their basic needs such as food, accommodation and heating. A clear
solution to the problem is for the government to make sure that the state pension is adequate
for these needs. Furthermore, free financial advice should be made available to retired people
so that the stress of worrying about money could be reduced as far as possible.
Steps should also be taken to overcome problems the elderly face as a result of
deteriorating health due to old age, and inadequate health-care provisions. Again, the
responsibility should fall to the government to provide access to the best health care available,
which may necessitate paying for residential homes where the elderly can have round-theclock nursing, or, at the very least, providing medication free of charge to all people over a
certain age. As a result, old people would enjoy not only better health, but also peace of mind
from the knowledge that they need not fear falling ill and being unable to pay for treatment.
The lives of old people could also be improved if attempts were made to address the
problem of social isolation which so many of them face. If we organised trips for the elderly
to community centers, visits from social workers or free bus passes to allow pensioners
greater mobility, the effect would be alleviate the problem of loneliness which marks the lives
of so many old people living alone far from their families.
One final suggestion, which would help enormously, is to change the attitude of the
community towards its older members, who are all too often seen as a burden on society and
dismissed as having little to do with modern life. We need to be taught from an early age to
respect the views of old people, and appreciate their broader experience of life. This would
help society as a whole, and encourage appreciation of the role that old people can still play
today.
To sum up, there are several measures which could be taken to improve the lives of old
people. If the government and individuals alike were to help, it would make retirement and
old age a time to look forward to, rather than dread.
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Write an essay on the following topic: "Discuss the problem of unemployment in your
country and offer possible solutions to overcome it." Write between 220-260 words.
Answer:
49
TEMA NR. 5
HOW TO WRITE A LITERATURE REVIEW
Unități de învățare:
1.1. Points to consider. What is a literature review?
1.2. How to write a literature review. Structure of a literature review
1.3. The purposes of a literature review
1.4. Writing the review
1.5. Sample of how to write a literature review. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein
Obiectivele temei:
Până la sfârșitul cursului de redactare de texte, studenții vor putea:
 Să scrie un articol literar pornind de la sursele bibliografice alese, astfel încât sa învețe
cum să lucreze cu sursele primare si cele secundare în cercetarea unei anumite
tematici.
 Să redacteze corect, coerent și cursiv o disertație, lucrare de licență, sau eseu literar
 Să utilizeze corect resursele bibliografice de care dispun
 Să identifice ideea principală a textului și să evite repetițiile, detaliile inutile și
exprimările banale.
 Să urmarească o anumită structura în scrierea unei cronici de carte
 Să introducă în mod correct în text cuvinte de legatură, adverbe, conjuncții.
Timpul alocat temei: 4 ore
Bibliografie recomandată:
Evans, Virginia. 1999. Cambridge FCE – Use of English. London: Longman
Evans, Virginia. Successful Writing Proficiency. Express Publishing. 2002 © 1998.
Fowler, W.S. 1996. Fowler First Certificate Use of English. London: Longman
Matthews, Alan, Read, Carol. Themes-An Integrated Skills Course for Intermediate and
Advanced Students. London: Collins Elt. 1982.
Pawlowska, Barbara, Kempinski, Z. 1997. Teste de limba engleza. Bucuresti: Teora
Smalley, Regina L., Ruetten, Mary K. Refining Composition Skills, Heinle and Heinle
Publishers, Boston, 1995.
Sullivan, Kathleen E. 1980. Paragraph Practice-Writing the Paragraph and the Short
Composition, MacMillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York.
1.1. Points to consider. What is a literature review?
The aim of a literature review is to show your reader (your tutor) that you have read, and have
a good grasp of, the main published work concerning a particular topic or question in your
field. This work may be in any format, including online sources. It may be a separate
assignment, or one of the introductory sections of a report, dissertation or thesis. In the latter
cases in particular, the review will be guided by your research objective or by the issue or
thesis you are arguing and will provide the framework for your further work.
50
It is very important to note that your review should not be simply a description of what others
have published in the form of a set of summaries, but should take the form of a critical
discussion, showing insight and an awareness of differing arguments, theories and
approaches. It should be a synthesis and analysis of the relevant published work, linked at all
times to your own purpose and rationale.
According to Caulley (1992) of La Trobe University, the literature review should:









compare and contrast different authors' views on an issue
group authors who draw similar conclusions
criticise aspects of methodology
note areas in which authors are in disagreement
highlight exemplary studies
highlight gaps in research
show how your study relates to previous studies
show how your study relates to the literature in general
conclude by summarising what the literature says
A literature review is the effective evaluation of selected documents on a research topic. A
review may form an essential part of the research process or may constitute a research project
in itself.
In the context of a research paper or thesis the literature review is a critical synthesis of
previous research. The evaluation of the literature leads logically to the research question.
A ‘good’ literature review…..
A ‘poor’ literature review is…..
….. is a synthesis of available
research
….. is a critical evaluation
….. has appropriate breadth and depth
….. has clarity and conciseness
….. uses rigorous and consistent
methods
…..an annotated bibliography
….. confined to description
….. narrow and shallow
….. confusing and longwinded
….. constructed in an arbitrary way
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Describe some significant points that you should keep in mind when writing a
literature review.
Answer:
1.2. How to write a literature review. Structure of a literature review
The overall structure of your review will depend largely on your own thesis or research area.
What you will need to do is to group together and compare and contrast the varying opinions
51
of different writers on certain topics. What you must not do is just describe what one writer
says, and then go on to give a general overview of another writer, and then another, and so on.
Your structure should be dictated instead by topic areas, controversial issues or by questions
to which there are varying approaches and theories. Within each of these sections, you would
then discuss what the different literature argues, remembering to link this to your own
purpose.
Linking words are important. If you are grouping together writers with similar opinions, you
would use words or phrases such as:
similarly, in addition, also, again
More importantly, if there is disagreement, you need to indicate clearly that you are aware of
this by the use of linkers such as:
however, on the other hand, conversely, nevertheless
At the end of the review you should include a summary of what the literature implies, which
again links to your hypothesis or main question. For other useful structures and linking words,
please refer to the other units in this module.
Organizing the body
Once you have the basic categories in place, then you must consider how you will present the
sources themselves within the body of your paper. Create an organizational method to focus
this section even further.
To help you come up with an overall organizational framework for your review, consider the
following scenario and then three typical ways of organizing the sources into a review:
You've decided to focus your literature review on materials dealing with sperm whales. This
is because you've just finished reading Moby Dick, and you wonder if that whale's portrayal is
really real. You start with some articles about the physiology of sperm whales in biology
journals written in the 1980's. But these articles refer to some British biological studies
performed on whales in the early 18th century. So you check those out. Then you look up a
book written in 1968 with information on how sperm whales have been portrayed in other
forms of art, such as in Alaskan poetry, in French painting, or on whale bone, as the whale
hunters in the late 19th century used to do. This makes you wonder about American whaling
methods during the time portrayed in Moby Dick, so you find some academic articles
published in the last five years on how accurately Herman Melville portrayed the whaling
scene in his novel.
Chronological
If your review follows the chronological method, you could write about the materials above
according to when they were published. For instance, first you would talk about the British
biological studies of the 18th century, then about Moby Dick, published in 1851, then the
book on sperm whales in other art (1968), and finally the biology articles (1980s) and the
recent articles on American whaling of the 19th century. But there is relatively no continuity
among subjects here. And notice that even though the sources on sperm whales in other art
52
and on American whaling are written recently, they are about other subjects/objects that were
created much earlier. Thus, the review loses its chronological focus.
By publication
Order your sources by publication chronology, then, only if the order demonstrates a more
important trend. For instance, you could order a review of literature on biological studies of
sperm whales if the progression revealed a change in dissection practices of the researchers
who wrote and/or conducted the studies.
By trend
A better way to organize the above sources chronologically is to examine the sources under
another trend, such as the history of whaling. Then your review would have subsections
according to eras within this period. For instance, the review might examine whaling from
pre-1600-1699, 1700-1799, and 1800-1899. Under this method, you would combine the
recent studies on American whaling in the 19th century with Moby Dick itself in the 18001899 category, even though the authors wrote a century apart.
Thematic
Thematic reviews of literature are organized around a topic or issue, rather than the
progression of time. However, progression of time may still be an important factor in a
thematic review. For instance, the sperm whale review could focus on the development of the
harpoon for whale hunting. While the study focuses on one topic, harpoon technology, it will
still be organized chronologically. The only difference here between a "chronological" and a
"thematic" approach is what is emphasized the most: the development of the harpoon or the
harpoon technology.
But more authentic thematic reviews tend to break away from chronological order. For
instance, a thematic review of material on sperm whales might examine how they are
portrayed as "evil" in cultural documents. The subsections might include how they are
personified, how their proportions are exaggerated, and their behaviors misunderstood. A
review organized in this manner would shift between time periods within each section
according to the point made.
Methodological
A methodological approach differs from the two above in that the focusing factor usually does
not have to do with the content of the material. Instead, it focuses on the "methods" of the
researcher or writer. For the sperm whale project, one methodological approach would be to
look at cultural differences between the portrayal of whales in American, British, and French
art work. Or the review might focus on the economic impact of whaling on a community. A
methodological scope will influence either the types of documents in the review or the way in
which these documents are discussed.
Once you've decided on the organizational method for the body of the review, the sections
you need to include in the paper should be easy to figure out. They should arise out of your
organizational strategy. In other words, a chronological review would have subsections for
53
each vital time period. A thematic review would have subtopics based upon factors that relate
to the theme or issue.
Sometimes, though, you might need to add additional sections that are necessary for your
study, but do not fit in the organizational strategy of the body. What other sections you
include in the body is up to you. Put in only what is necessary. Here are a few other sections
you might want to consider:
Current Situation: Information necessary to understand the topic or focus of the literature
review.
History: The chronological progression of the field, the literature, or an idea that is necessary
to understand the literature review, if the body of the literature review is not already a
chronology.
Methods and/or Standards: The criteria you used to select the sources in your literature
review or the way in which you present your information. For instance, you might explain that
your review includes only peer-reviewed articles and journals.
Questions for Further Research: What questions about the field has the review sparked? How
will you further your research as a result of the review?
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. What is the main structure of a literature review?
Answer:
1.3. The purposes of a literature review
The purposes of the review are:





to define and limit the problem you are working on
to place your study in an historical perspective
to avoid unnecessary duplication
to evaluate promising research methods
to relate your findings to previous knowledge and suggest further research
A good literature review, therefore, is critical of what has been written, identifies areas of
controversy, raises questions and identifies areas which need further research.
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. What are the purposes of the literature review?
Answer:
54
1.4. Writing the review
You first need to decide what you need to read. In many cases you will be given a booklist or
directed towards areas of useful published work. Make sure you use this help. With
dissertations, and particularly theses, it will be more down to you to decide. It is important,
therefore, to try and decide on the parameters of your research. What exactly are your
objectives and what do you need to find out? In your review, are you looking at issues of
theory, methodology, policy, quantitive research, or what? Before you start reading it may be
useful to compile a list of the main areas and questions involved, and then read with the
purpose of finding out about or answering these. Unless something comes up which is
particularly important, stick to this list, as it is very easy to get sidetracked, particularly on the
internet.
A good literature review needs a clear line of argument. You therefore need to use the critical
notes and comments you made whilst doing your reading to express an academic opinion.
Make sure that:



you include a clear, short introduction which gives an outline of the review, including
the main topics covered and the order of the arguments, with a brief rationale for this.
there is always a clear link between your own arguments and the evidence uncovered
in your reading. Include a short summary at the end of each section.
Use quotations if appropriate.
you always acknowledge opinions which do not agree with your thesis. If you ignore
opposing viewpoints, your argument will in fact be weaker.
Your review must be written in a formal, academic style. Keep your writing clear and concise,
avoiding colloquialisms and personal language. You should always aim to be objective and
respectful of others' opinions; this is not the place for emotive language or strong personal
opinions. If you thought something was rubbish, use words such as "inconsistent", "lacking in
certain areas" or "based on false assumptions."
When introducing someone's opinion, don't use "says", but instead an appropriate verb which
more accurately reflects this viewpoint, such as "argues", "claims" or "states". Use the present
tense for general opinions and theories, or the past when referring to specific research or
experiments:
Although Trescovick (2001) argues that attack is the best form of defence, Boycott (1969)
claims that ...
In a field study carried out amongst the homeless of Sydney, Warne (1999) found that ...
And remember at all times to avoid plagiarising your sources. Always separate your source
opinions from your own hypothesis. making sure you consistently reference the literature you
are referring to. When you are doing your reading and making notes, it might be an idea to
use different colours to distinguish between your ideas and those of others.
55
Final checklist
Here is a final checklist, courtesy of the University of Melbourne:
(http://www.lib.unimelb.edu.au/postgrad/litreview/finalchecklist.html)
Selection of Sources
Have you indicated the purpose of the review?







Are the parameters of the review reasonable?
Why did you include some of the literature and exclude others?
Which years did you exclude?
Have you emphasised recent developments?
Have you focussed on primary sources with only selective use of secondary sources?
Is the literature you have selected relevant?
Is your bibliographic data complete?
Critical Evaluation of the Literature






Have you organised your material according to issues?
Is there a logic to the way you organised the material?
Does the amount of detail included on an issue relate to its importance?
Have you been sufficiently critical of design and methodological issues?
Have you indicated when results were conflicting or inconclusive and discussed
possible reasons?
Have you indicated the relevance of each reference to your research?
Interpretation


Has your summary of the current literature contributed to the reader's understanding of
the problems?
Does the design of your research reflect the methodological implications of the
literature review?
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. What are the purposes of the literature review?
Answer:
1.5. Sample of how to write a literature review. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein
Once you have a working topic in mind, skim back over the story and make a more
comprehensive list of the details that relate to your point. For my paper about education in
Frankenstein, I’ll want to take notes on what Victor Frankenstein reads at home, where he
56
goes to school and why, what he studies at school, what others think about those studies, etc.
And even though I’m primarily interested in Victor’s education, at this stage in the writing,
I’m also interested in moments of education in the novel that don’t directly involve this
character. These other examples might provide a context or some useful contrasts that could
illuminate my evidence relating to Victor. With this goal in mind, I’ll also take notes on how
the monster educates himself, what he reads, and what he learns from those he watches. As
you make your notes keep track of page numbers so you can quickly find the passages in your
book again and so you can easily document quoted passages when you write without having
to fish back through the book.
At this point, you want to include anything, anything, that might be useful, and you also want
to avoid the temptation to arrive at definite conclusions about your topic. Remember that one
of the qualities that makes for a good interpretation is that it avoids the obvious. You want to
develop complex ideas, and the best way to do that is to keep your ideas flexible until you’ve
considered the evidence carefully. Above all, you don’t want to write a simplistic paper, and
to avoid that, you need to be willing to challenge or expand your own thoughts. A good gauge
of complexity is whether you feel you understand more about your topic than you did when
you began (and even just reaching a higher state of confusion is a good indicator that you’re
treating your topic in a complex way).
When you jot down ideas, you can focus on the observations from the narrator or things that
certain characters say or do. These elements are certainly important. It might help you come
up with more evidence if you also take into account some of the broader components that go
into making fiction, things like plot, point of view, character, setting, and symbols.

Plot is the string of events that go into the narrative. Think of this as the "who did
what to whom" part of the story. Plots can be significant in themselves since chances
are pretty good that some action in the story will relate to your main idea regardless of
what that topic is. For my paper on education in Frankenstein, I’m interested in
Victor’s going to the University of Ingolstadt to realize his father’s wish that Victor
attend school where he could learn about a another culture. Plots can also allow you to
make connections between the story you’re interpreting and some other stories, and
those connections might be useful in your interpretation. For example, the plot of
Frankenstein, which involves a man who desires to bring life to the dead and creates a
monster in the process, bears some similarity to the ancient Greek story of Icarus who
flew too close to the sun on his wax wings. Both tell the story of a character who
reaches too ambitiously after knowledge and suffers dire consequences.
Your plot could also have similarities to whole groups of other stories, all having
conventional or easily recognizable plots. These types of stories are often called
genres. Some popular genres include the gothic (like Frankenstein), the romance (like
Wuthering Heights or Jane Eyre), the detective story (any Sherlock Holmes story), the
bildungsroman (this is just a German term for a novel that is centered around the
development of its main characters, as in Great Expectations or Portrait of the Artist
as a Young Man), and the novel of manners (a novel that focuses on the behavior and
foibles of a particular class or social group as do all of Jane Austen’s novels). These
categories are often helpful in characterizing a piece of writing, but as with any
attempt to categorize, this approach has its limitations. Many novels don’t fit nicely
into one genre and others seem to borrow a bit from a variety of different categories.
For example, a reader could actually read Frankenstein as a bildungsroman, and given
57
my own working thesis on education, I’m more interested in Victor’s development
than in relating Frankenstein to the gothic genre.
And just to complicate matters that much more, genre can sometimes take into account
not only the type of plot but the form the novelist uses to convey that plot. A story
might be told in a series of letters (this is called an epistolary form or genre), in a
sequence of journal entries, or in a combination of forms (Frankenstein is actually told
as a journal included within a letter in a device called a framed narrative).



These matters of form also introduce questions of point of view, that is, who is telling
the story and what do they or don’t they know. Is the tale told by an omniscient or allknowing narrator who doesn’t interact in the events, or is it presented by one of the
characters within the story? Can the reader trust that person to give an objective
account, or does that narrator color the story with his or her own biases and interests?
Character refers to the qualities assigned to the individual figures in the plot.
Consider why the author assigns certain qualities to a character or characters and how
any such qualities might relate to your topic. For example, a discussion of Victor
Frankenstein’s education might take into account aspects of his character that appear
to be developed (or underdeveloped) by the particular kind of education he undertakes.
Victor tends to be ambitious, even compulsive about his studies, and I might be able to
argue that his tendency to be extravagant leads him to devote his own education to
writers who asserted grand, if questionable, conclusions.
Setting is the environment in which all of the actions take place. What is the time
period, the location, the time of day, the season, the weather, the type of room or
building? What is the general mood, and who is present? All of these elements can
reflect on the story’s events, and though the setting of a story tends to be less
conspicuous than plot and character, setting still colors everything that’s said and done
within its context. If Victor Frankenstein does all of his experiments in "a solitary
chamber, or rather a cell, at the top of the house, and separated from all the other
apartments by a staircase" (53) we might conclude that there is something anti-social,
isolated, and stale, maybe even unnatural about his project and his way of learning.
Obviously, if you consider all of these elements, you’ll probably have too much evidence to
fit effectively into one paper. Your goal is merely to consider each of these aspects of fiction
and include only those that are most relevant to your topic and most interesting to your reader.
A good interpretive paper does not need to cover all elements of the story--plot, genre,
narrative form, character, and setting. In fact, a paper that did try to say something about all of
these elements would be unfocused. You might find that most of your topic could be
supported by a consideration of character alone. That’s fine. For my Frankenstein paper, I’m
finding that my evidence largely has to do with the setting, evidence that could lead to some
interesting conclusions that my reader probably hasn’t recognized on his or her own.
TEST DE EVALUARE:
1. Write a similar plan for another literary work that you are familiar with. Discuss
your choice with your tutor, revise your draft together and then write the proper
literature review.
Answer:
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TEST RECAPITULATIV
1. “There can be no freedom without discipline”. Discuss
3. Discuss the effect of the press on the public opinion in your country.
4. “Every man is the architect of his own future”. Argue in favour of this statement.
5. Discuss the differences between classical music and Jazz, indicating which you prefer and
why.
6. What are the arguments for and against modern advertising methods? Are there any
controls which you think should be imposed on advertisers?
7. Criminals should be treated as if they were mentally ill. Discuss.
8. Consider the claim of photography to be judged at the same level as painting or drawing.
9. “A crime may be a sin, but a sin is not necessarily a crime”. Discuss.
10. Describe two people who are very different, in spite of their similarities.
11. Describe a person who has influenced your life and explain why you admire him/her.
12. Describe a large, busy city.
13. "Robinson Crusoe is certainly the first novel in the sense that it is the first fictional
narrative in which the ordinary person’s activities are the centre of continuous literary
attention." Write a literature review on this topic.
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