1
Bridge on Fire: A Holistic Journey in Song Creation
By
Jerry Flattum
Copyright 2004 Jerry Flattum
702-300-6199
flat0027@umn.edu
2
PREFACE and PRELUDE
The following Preface and Prelude are abridged versions of what will be in the final
draft of Bridge on Fire: A Holistic Journey in Song Creation, by Jerry Flattum
What is Bridge on Fire About?
Bridge on Fire: A Holistic Journey in Song Creation is a comprehensive manual and
guide on songwriting covering inception to market from the technical, social, cultural and
business perspectives.
Out of Scope
Bridge on Fire is not a “how to write a hit song” book. What “how to” books fail to
explain is that a song becomes Popular due to far more than its melody, harmony and
rhythm or some formula and/or gimmick. A “hit” is also a reference to industry chart
positions and is by no means a singular indication of popularity or that it will stand the
test of time. Because of varying standards and preferences, a hit song in one area is not
necessarily a hit song in another area. A hit song is not a measure of quality nor does it
necessarily break new ground.
Understandably, there are many areas out of scope of this book. However, Bridge on
Fire does discuss in varying degrees how each of these areas indirectly affects Popular
music and songwriting, largely through convergence. These areas include: Music
Therapy; Acoustics; Electronics and Design; Software programming; Manufacturing
(CDs/Cassettes, Musical Instruments, Sound Equipment); Stage/Venue Construction.
Purpose
Bridge on Fire is a comprehensive training manual for songwriters at all levels and
reveals the important role songwriters play in society and culture. It seeks to redefine
songwriting as song creation. Song creation is both art and science, where songs are born
from social and cultural influence equally as much as they are from a chord progression
or lyric title.
Holistically, Bridge on Fire recognizes the arrangement, recording, production and
marketing as equally important components of a song’s creation and success as its
melody, harmony and rhythm. The goal is to take song creation into and beyond the New
Millennium.
Bridge on Fire has the altruistic purpose of breaking down barriers both social and
musical especially within the struggles between Blacks and Whites. There is unity and
division. There is convergence and divergence. The book makes comparisons between
commercial and non-commercial, youth and adult, United States and the World,
academia and the street, art and science. The book shows how each genre of Pop
music—country, jazz, folk, dance, rap—represents more of a life style than a rhythmic
pattern, stylistic grouping or marketing demographic.
3
Unique
Bridge on Fire is unique because it is a holistic exploration in song creation. It reveals
song creation as a journey and that songs do not exist in a vacuum. The book includes
yet moves beyond music theory, demo making and basic business into the realms of
society, culture, technology and psychology. Stylistically, Bridge on Fire is a
combination of both the academic and “street” perspectives, with “street” signifying
common usage.
Academia provides a unique understanding of song creation through the varying lens of
musicology, sociology, cultural studies and anthropology. An anthropological view of
coverbands, for instance, provides unique insight into a subculture of the music industry
rarely if ever discussed. Even such academic theories as chaos, systems and complexity
are used as ways to see the “whole” of songwriting in its interconnectedness and
influence.
But, academia has its drawbacks. For one, very few schools recognize songwriting yet
alone the whole of Popular Music as a significant area worthy of academic study.
Secondly, academic viewpoints can be too critical (or clinical) and dry.
Designed especially for the book, Crossover Theory is an original theory or theme used
to trace the cross-fertilization of Pop music, society and culture. It is the major theme
unifying this book. The idea of Crossover is discussed in more detail in the Prelude.
Layout and Design
Bridge on Fire is divided into three major sections. Section I is the Art and Science of
Songwriting. Section II is Convergence and the Entertainment Society, focusing on Pop
music in society and culture, the history of Pop music and converging technologies.
Section III covers the Business of Music and Entertainment.
Each section has its own glossary and the book includes a comprehensive index and
appendix. Design and layout includes photos, graphs, charts, diagrams, tables, inserts,
and boxes. Key terms are highlighted and cross-referenced.
The book includes many examples of song titles, lyric fragments, and printed music
excerpts. Boxes are used throughout the book to focus on specifics such as a single band,
an ethnic style of music, an artist, a specific cultural symbol or a company. Photos
include pictures of artists and bands, famous music landmarks and buildings, various
tours, stages, bars, record and publishing companies, major music organizations and
associations, publicity photos, photos of equipment, and more.
Charts and diagrams are used to show structural relationships between song sections and
rhyme schemes or chord progressions, MIDI and recording studio configurations, digital
sound parameters and sequencing layouts, artist and style relationships, chronologies,
record company organization, broadcasting networks, distribution and economics.
4
Chapter Overview
In Section I: The Art and Science of Songwriting, the chapter “Working Towards a New
Definition of Songwriter” defines holistically how a song is not fully realized until it
passes through all the stages of the songwriting process, from inception to market. These
stages include creating, recording, live performance and commercial release.
Songwriters play many roles and utilize myriad skills to bring their work to fruition.
The chapter, “What Is A Song?” introduces traditional definitions of what a song is and
how these definitions fit with current models. Other chapters in the Science and Art
section cover song structure, music theory, an overview of MIDI, Digital Audio
Workstations, sound programming, Recording fundamentals and lyrics.
Section II: Convergence and the Entertainment Society, takes its lead from Michael J.
Wolfe’s, The Entertainment Economy: How Mega-Media Forces Are Transforming Our
Lives. This section reveals how the Digital Age is morphing into the Leisure Age.
Entertainment is dominating our lives, where the lines between work and play grow thin.
Convergence is a major theme throughout the book and often synonymous with the
“holistic” and “crossover” themes. Chapters include “The Entertainment Society,”
“Convergence and Music, “Content” and others.
The history of Pop music is explored in the chapter, “Sailing on the Sea of Love,” with
subsequent chapters covering the various styles of Popular music such as rock, rave,
dance, country, blues, jazz, industrial, folk, and rock and other sub-genres.
Established sociological theories are used to reveal Pop music’s role in society and
culture, exploring such issues as group and individual identity, the function of Pop music
in society, preference, and globalization. The chapter, “Crossover: Bridges on Fire,”
delves into the heart of these various theories and explores the cross-fertilization of Pop
music in society and culture by exploring influence, preference, rules and broken rules,
tradition and rebellion.
Focusing on the media is the chapter, “Voice of God: Popular Music and the Media.”
Two chapters, “World Music” and “Cover Bands: Heroes of the Underground - A SocioAnthropological Discovery,” look at two uncharted areas of influence on the
development of Popular music.
Nowhere is a “bridge” more apparent than between music and film. Hollywood music
supervisors are unheard of outside professional circles. Yet, these individuals contribute
as much if not more to Pop music than major label executives. Film scores are often
variations on a theme taken from the movie’s theme song. The influence this has on Pop
music goes far beyond the subliminal intensions of instrumental music allegedly designed
to create mood and ambience. Many movies are successful because of their soundtracks.
In Section III: The Business of Popular Music and the Entertainment Industry, the
chapter called “Numbers” provides statistical information defining the size and scope of
5
the business of music and compares economic data with other industries in a global
commerce network. Other chapters describe the role and function of record companies
and music publishers. The personal business of songwriting is discussed in such chapters
as “Sources of Income,” “Contracts,” and “Copyright.” A heavy emphasis is placed on
the war between major labels and entertainment companies versus the independent artist,
writer and producer.
Appendix
The Appendix covers a wide range of topic areas including Copyright, Scope of the
Entertainment Industry, Information Resources, Samples of Documents, famous
speeches, Grammy listings, and more.
Research, References and Discography
Bridge on Fire is supported by extensive research. The main bibliography contains
books, journals, periodicals and online sources. Other references include published sheet
music (piano/vocal, song folios, Broadway scores, band arrangements, etc.), album/CD
liner notes, and unpublished references. In learning about Popular music and
songwriting, a discography is equally, if not more important than a bibliography. The
discography for this book is representative at best.
Related Literature
The range of literature on the art and craft of songwriting, Popular music, and the
business of music is quite broad. A few sources providing tremendous influence for this
book are worth mentioning. In the area of songwriting, Successful Lyric Writing by
Sheila Davis, Can’t Help Singin’ by Gerald Mast, and the Billboard Book of Songwriting
by Peter Pickow and Amy Appleby were used extensively.
For culture, society and history, Rock of Ages: The Rolling Stone History of Rock and
Roll, All the Years of Popular Music: A Comprehensive History by David Ewen, and
American Popular Song: The Great Innovators: 1900-1950 by Alec Wilder, provided
tremendous background and inspiration.
For MIDI, MIDI Basics by Akira Otsuka and Akihiko Nakajima, and MIDI: A
Comprehensive Introduction by Joseph Rothstien, are excellent starting sources. This
Business of Music and More About This Business of Music by Sidney Shemel and M.
William Krasilovsky belong on any musician’s desk. Three prominent writers in Popular
music must be mentioned: Greil Marcus, David Marsh and Simon Frith.
6
PRELUDE
Crossover
The generator providing the energy behind a holistic understanding of songwriting is a
theme called “Crossover.” Borrowed from the Pop music industry, crossover is a term
purportedly coined by Billboard Magazine, the bible of the music industry. Crossover
traditionally describes a song or artist that crosses over from one Billboard sales chart to
another, generating an increase in sales and Popularity. For instance, an artist normally
sells in the country music market but unexpectedly experiences sales in the rock market
as well.
Dolly Parton’s, “I Will Always Love You” is an excellent example of a song that had
limited appeal (country market), fell into relative obscurity, and resurfaced with a new
arrangement to become one of the biggest “crossover” hits of the 90s. Besides Dolly
Parton’s writing ability and prior recording of the song, the song’s Popularity was
substantially increased due to two very important holistic factors: Whitney Houston as a
major Pop recording artist and the attachment to a highly successful film, The
Bodyguard.
For the purposes of this book, the term crossover is used to trace the myriad influences
Pop music, society and the world have on each other. It is also used as a way to trace the
linear and non-linear cross-fertilization of genres that make up the whole of Pop music.
Blues influences rap. Technology influences the creation of new sound. New markets
like the Internet influence distribution systems.
“Crossover Theory” is the means used to trace the linkages (the bridges) between cause
and effect. Crossover Theory considers the linkage of the exchange of ideas, activities
and events as they occur simultaneously and linearly and how this influences Popular
music and culture. Crossover explains how one style of music is born from another.
Using the term in a socio-psychological sense, Crossover is the bridge from self to
society. It traces the bridges between individual movement and social movement. In a
media sense, it is the bridge between the message and a mass audience. In a linear sense,
Crossover Theory is the same as “one thing leads to another.” In a non-linear sense it is
like spontaneous combustion.
Holistic
As a song moves on it’s journey from inception to market the songwriter is involved in
the many inter-related areas of writing lyrics, playing an instrument, recording,
performance and business. All of these elements are equally as important to the art and
science of songwriting as word, melody, harmony, structure and rhythm.
A Holistic approach involves understanding the entire range of the songwriting process,
from a micro-level to a macro-level perspective, from inception of idea to commercial
release. A micro-level revolves around the basic components of melody, lyric, harmony,
7
rhythm, structure and style. A macro-level centers on instrumentation (band and/or
digital), recording, performance, society, culture and business.
The task of persuading a publisher or record company to release a song commercially is
as much a part of the songwriting process as the writing of a catchy melody or witty lyric.
The business aspects of songwriting are as equally important as how a song is arranged
and produced. The performance of a song is as crucial to a song’s Popularity as the
memorability of its melody.
From a linear perspective songwriting is an unending metamorphosis evolving with each
generation passing on its discoveries to the next. From a non-linear perspective it is an
exploding musical kaleidoscope. It is a roadmap expanding in many directions at once
because of cultural and social exchange and the growth of business and technology.
What Does Bridge on Fire Mean?
The image or metaphor of a Bridge on Fire is taken from the “bridges” we sometimes
“burn” in our relationships with each other. Sometimes the burning is deliberate. Often
times we regret the bridges we burn whether it was by choice or by happenstance.
Sometimes we lack the strength and courage to put the fire out.
When it comes to relationships we do things to pull us together and we do things to push
us apart. When we reach a crisis in a relationship, how we handle it—positively or
negatively—will determine whether the relationship will grow or die. The crisis is the
fire. How we handle it determines whether we make it to the other side—the other side
of a burning bridge. And while the fire burns time is running out. Crossing or not
crossing a burning bridge can mean two people losing love or finding new love. The heart
is a burning bridge.
Every song is a Bridge on Fire. It may be the songwriter or a character in the lyric—
someone is trying to get closer to someone else. The desire is to communicate, to
understand and to get along. Songs are an expression of a desire to feel close; to bond.
Why don’t we get along? Why do we keep our feelings inside? Why do we hurt each
other? Hopefully, songs try to answer these questions. Love is a burning bridge.
Burning bridges are not just personal metaphors for lost or found love. They can also be
social, cultural, philosophical or even spiritual. Where are people coming from and where
are they going, as a people, as a nation, as one world? Unfortunately songs also divide.
The evolution of American Popular music styles is largely the result of the struggle
between black and white music. Classical and World Music hang around the dominating
world of Pop music like invading meteorites.
Like personal relationships, Pop, Classical, World, Black, White and all other categories
and groups represent separate islands—all with burning bridges between them. Some
struggle for domination. Some struggle for their rightful place. Others struggle for
union.
8
Songs make you feel good. They take away your pain. They take you on a ride across
the burning bridge of life’s everyday struggles to a place somewhere close to paradise.
They take you where you want to go. Whatever they do—even if it’s the “Happy
Birthday Song,” all songs have the power to touch the soul and life the spirit. There is
the potential to communicate in a way that crosses social, cultural and artistic boundaries,
bridging the desperate struggles between black and white, young and old, rich and poor.
9
WHAT IS A SONG?
Chapter excerpt from Section I: The Art and Science of Songwriting, in Bridge on
Fire: A Holistic Journey in Song Creation, by Jerry Flattum.
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians defines a song as, “A piece of music
for voice or voices, whether accompanied or unaccompanied, or the act or art of singing.”
The Harvard Brief Dictionary of Music defines a song as, “A short composition for solo
voice, usually accompanied by the piano, based on a poetic text and composed in such a
way as to enhance rather than to overshadow the significance of the text. In a song, the
words and music are of equal importance...” This reference goes on to say, “Practically
every age of music has contributed to the song literature, not to mention the universal
tradition of folk song.” In addition, “Modern song is characterized by an expression of
personal feelings that encompass the whole range of human emotion...(Apel 1960).”
Despite its reputation, Rock and Roll (R&R) does not have a monopoly on controversy
and rebellion. Tunesmiths have broken the rules for centuries. The Grove Dictionary
continues, “A new musical style of the late fifth century B.C.E., the “new music” had,
according to contemporaries, far-reaching effects on song. For example, unprecedented
modal and rhythmic variety was tolerated, instrumental interludes were introduced and
texts were set melismatically, in contrast to previous practice, where the music was
subservient to the text (p. 511).”
Under the heading of “Singing,” the author quotes Plato, but prefaces by saying,
“Excessive vocal display has been the object of repeated polemics throughout history.
Plato warned about the 'warblings and blandishments of song'; when these are carried to
excess, 'the singer melts and liquefies until he completely dissolves away his spirit' (Vol.
2, p. 339).” The author does not mention where Plato wrote or said this. Rebellion and
controversy are just two of the many functions of music and song in society.
In another excerpt from The Grove Dictionary, “Until about the 1920s there was no
essential difference between classical and popular singing, though a fuller voice and
greater technical accomplishment were demanded of opera singers than of those who
sang operetta and popular songs (Vol. 2, p. 346).”
The distinction between simple and complex becomes a point of contention throughout
this book. Singing through a microphone is no less difficult that belting out a note on a
stage. Two well-known blues singers, Bessie Smith and Ethel Waters, were making their
earliest recordings in the 1920s. These new recording technologies allowed for great
variety of vocal technique and were significant in facilitating the introduction of the blues
to white audiences.
The conversational style characterized by the blues singers contrasts with the classical
style emphasizing technical proficiency (sustained notes and elaborate vocal flourishes).
Today, singing covers a range of vocal styles from Pavarotti to Bob Dylan, as
10
documented through recordings. Before recordings, notation was the principle method of
documentation.
Interpretation of the text included such techniques as the use of appoggiatura, mordent,
turn, slur, and rubato. Sometimes the singer would improvise using these techniques.
Consequently, translation of a song was through interpretation. This explains why
recording has become the best instrument for documentation. Through recording, many
interpretations of a song can exist at the same time. This includes slower/faster
renditions, harder-edged versions, or an arrangement in a different style.
Even more dramatic is the “sound” of a singer's voice; the singer's flair for bending,
sliding, adding/deleting notes, etc., without the melody being lost altogether. Hearing
these different versions helps to explain why right and wrong interpretations are a moot
point. It is a matter of preference. Using a microphone, or notation versus recording
does not determine greatness any more than saying the piano is a better instrument than
the guitar, or that training is better than untrained. Failure to appreciate these many
polarizations contributes to bigotry in music.
The New Princeton Handbook of Poetic Terms defines a song as, “A term used broadly to
refer to verbal utterance that is musically expressive of emotion; hence more narrowly,
the combined effect of music and poetry or, by extension any poem that is suitable for
combination with music or is expressive in ways that might be construed as musical; also
occasionally used to designate a strictly musical composition without text, deemed
“poetic” in its expressivity or featuring markedly 'vocal' melodic writing for
instruments.”
Indicated as a prototype: “Musical meter is aligned with poetic meter, lines of verse are
of uniform length and set to musical phrases of the same length (words are not extended
or repeated by musical means), and the strophic repetition of the poem is rendered
through repetition of music (as in traditional hymn singing).” The passage goes on to
say, “Music has traditionally been associated with magic and, of course, with religious
experience...and it has throughout known history been thought of as the language of love.
The fusion, therefore, of music and poetry in song has been thought to bring about the
most perfect communication possible, combining the ineffable expressivity of music with
the rational capabilities of words (Brogan 1994).”
Lyric is one of the three general categories of poetic literature, including narrative (epic)
and dramatic. “In its older and more restricted sense, a lyric was simply a poem written
to be sung; this meaning is preserved in the modern colloquialism of referring to the
words of a song as its 'lyrics' (Brogan 1994).” Continuing on, “However useful
definitions of the lyric may be, they cannot indicate the great flexibility of technique and
range of subjects which have helped this category to comprise the preponderance of
poetic literature...the lyric is as old as recorded literature, and its history is that of human
experience at its most animated.” On following pages, “Thus, from its primordial form,
the song as embodiment of emotion, the lyric has been expanded and altered through the
11
centuries until it has become one of the chief literary instruments which focus and
evaluate the human condition (Brogan 1994).”
12
CONVERGENCE AND THE ENTERTAINMENT SOCIETY
Excerpt from the Introduction to Section II: Convergence and the Entertainment
Society, Bridge on Fire: A Holistic Journey in Song Creation, by Jerry Flattum.
A major change in the 21st century will be the transformation of an Information-based
society to an Entertainment-based society driven by convergence. The Information Age
served a useful purpose of gearing society up for the delivery of information across a
global digital network—the Internet. But the Internet has become much more than the
transference of ones and zeroes. Through the convergence of computer, communications
and media devices connected via wireless and broadband, information is transforming—
or morphing—into “content.” And content is more than the sum of its parts. Through the
Industrial Age it was believed “media is the message.” This no longer holds true. Now
content is the message.
The term content is the result of a reserved corporate America not yet ready to refer to
information or communication as entertainment. Entertainment is, well, it’s just not
serious enough. After all, business is serious business. Ruled by the work ethic, having
fun is irresponsible and unproductive. As managers sheepishly embrace the concept of
content and secretly look for “creative experience” on the resumes of new hires, cyberpsychologists will increasingly help reveal one of the greatest American myths of all
time: America is a land of opportunity but it is also a land of fun.
By no means is entertainment just about having fun! Just ask Thomas Edison when he
recorded “Mary had a Little Lamb” on the first phonograph if he was serious or having
fun. And when Orson Wells threw the entire country into a state of panic during his radio
release of War of the Worlds, nothing could’ve been more serious. Tongue-and-cheek
aside, entertainment is a serious industry (the merger of AOL and Time/Warner is the
largest merger in corporate history). But what exactly is entertainment?
What are the differences between entertainment, the arts, multimedia, leisure, recreation,
sports and the news? How does all this inform our definitions and views of work and
play or learning? What is the importance of entertainment and its many forms and how
will it change the future? The first place to start answering these questions is
convergence.
Technological convergence is a springboard for convergence in all other realms of human
endeavor, from converging electronic devices to converging ideas. Convergence crosses
the bridge from work to play, obscures the boundaries of science and art, and fuses
content with delivery. Convergence is a symbiosis of tangible and intangible, innovation
and creativity, knowledge and emotion, and mind, body and spirit. Convergence enables
the fusion of entities and the emergence of new ones. Convergence merges media,
recreation, leisure, multimedia, sports and the arts, all under the umbrella of
entertainment.
13
Content and delivery represents the flow of information through various channels in both
the analog and digital domains. Content is any kind of information communicated from
sender to receiver (business-to-business; person-to-person). Delivery is the channel
through which information flows, whether in the form of trucks and airplanes or TV,
radio and the telephone. The significance of content and delivery is that all forms of
information, and all means of delivering information is infused with what Michael Wolfe
in his book, The Entertainment Society, refers to as the “e-Factor.” The e-Factor means
that virtually every area of human endeavor—past and future—is infused with some form
of entertainment.
Entertainment builds community and forges identities. It is a means of communication
and a means of expression. But how mass media influenced society during the Industrial
Age pales in comparison to how new forms of personalized entertainment will influence
society, culture and identity in the Internet Age. The power to control and demand
information when they want it and where they want it is now in the hands of consumers.
Communication is the rubberband of our existence and entertainment—the arts, film,
music, TV and radio and all forms of leisure—stretch it pass the limits.
14
CONVERGENCE AND MUSIC
Chapter excerpt from Section II: Convergence and the Entertainment Society,
Bridge on Fire: A Holistic Journey in Song Creation, by Jerry Flattum
“Let us not forget some of the technologies that were originally developed entirely for the
consumer entertainment industry (some of them are video rather than audio) and that are
now indispensable parts of modern computers (Moorer 2000).”
MP3 AND DIGITAL DISTRIBUTION
One of the most controversial issues simultaneously facing the Internet and the
entertainment industry at the turn of the millennium is the downloading of unauthorized
music in the mp3 format (Farache 2000). The music industry generates an estimated $38
billion in revenue annually (RIAA 2000). The cost of pirated music in both the physical
and virtual domains is estimated around $5 billion (RIAA 2000).
“Mp3 is a file format that compresses audio files smaller than previously required for
CD-quality recordings. A minute of music, or several minutes of spoken words, encoded
in mp3 require only about one megabyte of disc space, about one-tenth of what the older
.wav format required. Mp3 has made quick transfer of CD-quality music over the Internet
practical. A .wav file that would take hours to download can be converted into mp3 and
transferred in a fraction of the time. The process is dramatically changing the way music
is distributed (RIAA 2000).”
The controversy sparked a lawsuit by the recording industry against two major players
providing free mp3 file distribution: mp3.com and Napster. Via new file-sharing
technologies, mp3.com, Napster and other similar websites facilitated the unauthorized
downloading of music—unauthorized meaning unlicensed, unprotected and most
importantly, no profit. The suit brought the realms of business, technology and music
into focus. The mp3 controversy sparked numerous issues from electronic copyright
protection to royalty payments for artists, from streaming technology software advances
to wireless transmissions of entertainment product.
The suit was not necessarily to stop mp3 downloading but to gain control. Major music
companies filing the suit were at the same time teaming up with technology firms to find
new ways to generate revenue from digitally downloaded music. New technologies are
being developed to track songs on the Internet and prevent illegal duplication. EMI is
working with Liquid Audio; IBM partnered with RealNetworks and Sony is working with
Microsoft to develop new ways to sell music online (c/net Bloomberg News; c/net
Reuters 4/14/99).
The Napster suit took an unusual turn not once but twice when it formed alliances first
with BMG, one of five largest music conglomerates and a major claimant in the original
lawsuit, and then Tower Records. Napster will not only link its community to one of the
largest CD retailers but also supply marketing information to major music conglomerates.
15
Trade organizations are also doing an about-face. While in the midst of pursuing legal
action against mp3.com for unauthorized music downloads, the Harry Fox Agency—
licensing arm of the National Music Publishers’ Association—issued the first Digital
Phonorecord Delivery License for delivering songs via mp3 to GoodNoise, an online
“record” company. GoodNoise has also entered into a licensing agreement with
Rykodisc, a large independent record label (NMPA 2000; c/net-Lipton 1999).
Internet music sales are expected to increase from $46 million in 1997, to $4 billion in
2004, according to London-based Market Tracking International (MTI). The U.S. will
account for 60 percent of online sales by 2004, with one in ten Internet sales done by
downloading music in digital format from the Internet (c/net Bloomberg; 5/26/99). The
commercial distribution of digital music offers several advantages such as less storage,
portability, no packaging or inventory costs and most importantly—direct- to-consumer.
SECURE DIGITAL MUSIC INITIATIVE (SDMI)
A unified industry effort to combat piracy, not only of mp3 downloads but also standard
cassettes and CDs in the physical domain, is the Secure Digital Music Initiative.
Spearheading the initiative is the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) and
the National Music Publishers Association/Harry Fox Agency (NMPA/HFA).
“The SDMI open specification will protect copyrighted music in all existing and
emerging digital formats and through all delivery channels. All products and services that
conform to the open standard will have compatible and interoperable security features,
and will be certified as SDMI compliant. This will allow consumers, artists and the music
industry and technology companies the freedom to buy, download, record on, produce
and depend on these products and services (RIAA).”
ENCRYPTING VIDEO
The Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) has recently sued a number of
individuals for copyright violation under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act at the
same time the California-based DVD Copy Control Association pursues numerous DVD
hackers for stealing DVD trade secrets (Burke 2000). These hackers have posted coding
information on the Internet that allows others to “hack” into the DVD encryption codes.
WIPO AND TRIPS
Because of poor copyright laws, foreign pirates lead the pack in illegal duplication and
distribution. This has led to the World Intellectual Property Organization treaty (WIPO).
The Trade Related Intellectual Property Agreements (TRIPS) are the intellectual property
rules of the GATT global trade agreement. Begun in 1996, a number of countries have
yet to sign the agreement (U.S. Copyright Office; NMPA/HFA 2000).
SHARING THE PROFITS
Along with Mp3.com, “eMusic.com, the Internet Underground Music Archive
(IUMA.com), Riffage.com and Artistdirect.com are among the other sites that have
launched programs that range from 50-50 profit-sharing to giving artists a portion of ad
revenue (c/net Macavinta; 2/10/00).” Despite potential, few artists are making a lot of
16
money, and even fewer have the potential to become megastars. “IUMA, for example,
says that about 2,500 of its unsigned artists sell CDs, but only 50 to 100 make more than
$500 per quarter in sales. IUMA also gives artists 25 percent of the total ad revenue
generated by their sites. Bands that do well on IUMA can get picked up by EMusic’s
labels (c/net Macavinta; 2/10/00).”
In turn, independent artists are finding opportunities and audiences not available to them
otherwise. In addition, there is nothing wrong with being a midline artist. Diversity of
music is another compensation for lack of star-quality. Nor is youth the dominant force.
There is “...59-year-old Ernesto Cortazar Sr., a Mexican-born pianist who has spent most
of his career conducting movie scores in his home country, but who launched his first
“easy listening” solo effort on mp3.com last summer shortly after moving to the United
States. Cortazar’s music has come in second all three months on Payback for a total of
about $12,000. He’s also sold 3,400 CDs via mp3.com and gets about 120,000 page
views per month (c/net Macavinta; 2/10/00).”
A local band writes, arranges and records original material in a home studio. This home
studio is capable of producing CD-quality recordings. However, duplication is limited so
they outsource to a local CD duplication outfit that runs off a 1000 copies included “J”
cards (record sleeves or CD and cassette inserts). The band plays weekends, and during
live performances they make announcements over the microphone and place several
copies of the CD’s and Cassettes on the stage. A small design outfit—usually a friend—
creates a website for the band. The website contains a logo, pictures, bio’s, touring
schedule, and a chat board for fans. Secondary merchandising is limited, but often
includes the sale of T-shirts. Profit is questionable.
It should be noted that many coverbands—bands that do not play original material—earn
respectable livings with some leaders commanding six figures annually. From street fairs
to corporate events, bars and nightclubs to private parties, the coverband business is big.
OTHER MUSIC TECHNOLOGIES
Musical instruments have always marveled humankind in their technological wizardry,
from the hammer action of keys on a piano to the wood used in making a violin, from the
brass valves of a saxophone to the kind of material used for drumheads. Such technology
was pre-electric. The microphone combined with state-of-the-art sound systems allows
performers to reach stadium-size crowds. Through media, performers can reach global
audiences.
On the creative side the PC also doubles as a digital or virtual music instrument and
recording system. Synthesizers and keyboard workstations are still shaking up the
traditional acoustic community even more so than when they were first introduced
throughout the 1970s and 1980s. “The boundary between a “real” instrument and a
“synthetic” instrument, which was so clear in the 1950s, is now a continuum (Moorer
2000).” Music synthesis dates back much further but affordable electronic instruments,
workstations and devices were not readily available until the 80s. MIDI (Musical
Instrument Digital Interface) was introduced in the mid-80s and became a standard for
17
allowing musical devices to communicate with each other very much like a LAN/WAN
configuration in a corporate or business setting.
The digitizing of music reached a new pinnacle with the advent of software synthesis,
where a hardware device such as an electronic keyboard is no longer required to produce
music. The idea of a keyboard played with both hands, such as the traditional piano, is
no longer necessary when notes can be created via the click of a mouse or a keypad.
Sophisticated music software now automates and/or digitizes virtually every phase of the
music creation process.
Sampling technologies allow for the exact replication of traditional acoustic sounds like
the violin or piano. Various synthesis technologies allow for the design of unique sounds
not found in nature and the range is unlimited. Music printing software allows an artist to
“write” music on a standard score using virtually every available music symbol known.
The score can be played back via a software player or hardware device using MIDI.
Loop-based music creation is one of the newest technologies now available where
“sequenced” patterns of musical arrangements can be fully edited and assembled into
finished musical pieces. A user can personalize an arrangement or “template.” Music
tracks are pre-recorded, meaning drums, bass, guitar, piano and other instrument sounds
are pre-selected and the notes, rhythm, melody, tempo, etc. is also “ready-to-play.”
These loops—fragments of songs—are essentially unfinished pieces available in a variety
of genres (hip hop, country, blues, etc.) and the digital creator uses them as a starting
point to create a finished piece.
Highly sophisticated yet affordable sound cards, speakers, peripherals and software round
out the digital recording session where home project studios now have the same
capabilities as a fully equipped state-of-the-art recording studio. With the addition of CD
writeable and re-writeable technologies, a musician can create, produce, market and
distribute stereo and master-quality CDs rivaling manufactured commercialized product.
THE END OF MP3, CD AND DVD
Despite the controversy over mp3 and other compression technologies, changes in
storage and how memory is used will eliminate the need for compression (Moorer 2000).
Optical media and other portable storage devices will also disappear. File sharing
communities like Napster and lesser known ones like BackFlip will provide virtual
storage.
INTERNET RECORD COMPANIES
Both press and public alike cling to the use of the term “record” in describing record
companies. Except for collectors, vinyl disappeared long ago, replaced by cassette and
CD. They are also commonly referred to as “labels,” another misnomer in the Internet
Age. Labels were affixed to vinyl records and included artist and title of song along with
the name of the recording company. Despite the reluctance to part with such naming
conventions, Internet music “labels” are forming on the Internet.
18
One spin-off from the brick and mortar giants is Digital Entertainment Network founded
by a former Capitol Records CEO, Gary Gersh (c/net Bloomberg; 6/1/99). Universal
Music chairman Doug Morris and Jimmy Iovine, co-chairman of Universal’s
Interscope/Geffen/A&M banner, lead FarmClub.com. The online label features unsigned
acts for its weekly USA Network TV show (c/net Macavinta; 2/14).
Artistdirect.com has formed strategic relationships with Sony Music Entertainment,
Universal Music Group, BMG Entertainment and Warner Music Group. Along with the
record companies, Cisneros Television Group and Yahoo also have formed relationships
with Artistdirect.com. Artistdirect.com offers easy information access on recording
artists and tour schedules, and offers downloadable songs. A special feature includes
putting the name of an artist in the site address (c/net Jacobus; 1/5/00).
The five major music conglomerates are: Seagram (Universal Music Group; includes
MCA and 50% of Interscope), Sony (CBS, Columbia, Epic), Time Warner (Atlantic,
Warner Bros., Elektra), EMI Group (Virgin, Capitol), and Bertelsmann (BMG, Arista,
RCA) (Hoover’s/Cother 2000).