ESSAY PLANS: UNIT 1
ITALIAN AND GERMAN UNIFICATION
ITALY – OBSTACLES TO UNIFICATION
‘How far do you agree that the limited appeal of Mazzini’s ideas was
the main reason for the slow progress of National unity in Italy in
the years 1815-48?’
INTRO
 Who was Mazzini and what were his main ideas
1815-48? ‘Young Italy’ and Nationalism and
Republicanism
 Were these ideas popular or did they have
‘limited appeal?’ (different ideas of a future
united Italy, many National but not many
Republicans)
 Other factors that slowed down progress of
National Unity? Lack of Cooperation between
revolutionaries, Austria and rulers too strong, No
leader to unite all (Mazzini just one – there were
others such as Charles Albert and the Pope), No
foreign support for Mazzini or the others.
MAIN 1
 Mazzini’s key idea of Nationalism would mean a
‘violent insurrection’ was needed.
 Some Liberals opposed this idea of violence and
instead wanted to work with rulers to gain
Constitutions instead. Other Nationals (Gioberti
and Balbo) wanted more peaceful Federation of
states under Piedmont or the Pope and not a
LACK OF
Republic.
COOPERATION
 If violence was needed for National Unity –
there was a lack of cooperation between the
revolutionaries. This would limit their chance for
success as individual rulers were too strong and
would oppose them.
 Examples: Early Revolutions 1821 and 1831: all
individual reactions to absolute rulers. 1848 Revs
broke out either to oust Austria (North), oust
the Pope (Papal states) and even independence
(Naples and Sicily)
 Some cooperation in Northern states (Lombardy,
Piedmont, Tuscany and some central states to
oust Austria but unsuccessful.
 Unless all cooperated National unity was unlikely
MAIN 2


AUSTRIA AND
ABSOLUTE
MONARCHS
TOO STRONG


MAIN 3


NOT ONE
LEADER


to be achieved. Mazzini’s ideas was only one
suggested = limited appeal and slow progress.
Mazzini’s ideas of Nationalism and Republicanism
would mean conflict with Austria and between
1815-48 she was too strong.
Examples: Early revs and end of 48 Revs, when
Austria was perceived to be weak,
revolutionaries took their opportunity, but once
Austria had regrouped she was instrumental in
crushing all opposing armies/revolutionaries and
restoring the Absolute rulers in Northern and
Central Italy
In other areas e.g. Naples and Sicily the
individual leaders in Naples too strong to allow
revolutionaries to succeed.
Unless Austria and leaders were permanently
weakened or revolutionaries had a more powerful
army, Mazzini’s ideas whether popular or not
would never achieve National unity = progress
slow.
Mazzini was just one potential leader. As an
educated theorist perhaps his ideas were less
popular than others. His desire for a Republic
was not the most popular vision for a united
Italy.
His experiment in Rome, although popular there
and did try to achieve cooperation of others
through the triumvirate and Constituente,
ultimately failed and he was forced into exile.
Other potential leaders were arguably more
popular: Pope Pius IX when he became Pope in
1846, his liberal ideas were welcomed and copied.
Many like Gioberti saw him as potentially leading
a new united Italian ‘federation’ of States.
Ironically Mazzini’s experiment in Rome ended
his leadership and from that point he was
ultimately outside a united Italy which slowed
progress down
The final potential leader: Charles Albert of
Piedmont was asked by Lombardy to lead a united
army to oust Austrian influence. Tuscany and

MAIN 4


NO FOREIGN
SUPPORT


CONCLUSION






even papal army supported him, but once he was
defeated in Custoza and Novarra as Austria regroup that ended his leadership.
Mazzini was just one leader and therefore this
limited appeal for him and defeat of others =
progress of a united Italy was slow.
Mazzini like all of the others didn’t try to gain
foreign support between 1815-48.
Without this support from the likes of France,
progress of a united Italy would be slow as
Austria, Absolute Monarchs were too strong for
the Revolutionaries.
France actually became involved in restoring the
Pope in Rome and supporting the Catholic
Church’s influence against the revolutionaries
Without support = progress towards a united
Italy would be slow.
Mazzini’s ideas of Nationalism and Republicanism
did gain some support. Many of his ideas were
too educational for many and his ideas for a
Republic failed to achieve popular support of the
masses but he did influence future leaders of
Unification, like Garibaldi.
However, too many different ideas: federation
under Piedmont or Pope or Mazzini’s idea of a
Republic meant limited cooperation.
Too many potential leaders for one to gain full
support
No support of foreign countries and in some ways
the likes of France hindered progress of a united
Italy
But ultimately Austria at this time being too
strong and being supportive of restoring
Absolute Monarchs meant that Italian National
Unity was always going to be slow.
So Mazzini’s ideas were too forward thinking for
his time, did have limited appeal, but Austria in
opposition was more important in hindering
progress of National Unity.
‘How far do you agree that the greatest obstacle to the growth of
Nationalism in Italy 1815-70 was the influence of the Catholic
Church?’
INTRO
 Who were the Nationalists? (wanted a
united Italy)
 Why was the Catholic church important
1815-70? Church didn’t just have religious
control/influence but the Pope was the
secular leader of the Papal States from
1815 which had the reputation of being very
oppressive and corrupt. The new Pope Pius
IX from 1846 seemed to offer the
possibility of a United Federation of Italy
under the Pope’s leadership. However after
the 1848 Revolutions he was opposed to and
condemned the Nationalists and a united
Italy even threatening its supporters with
excommunication. The Catholic Church also
had the support of the French which is why
it was one of the greatest obstacles to the
growth of Nationalism until Rome was
finally taken by the Nationalists in 1870.
 Other factors that were obstacles to the
growth of Nationalism: Lack of Cooperation
between revolutionaries and no leader until
Piedmont took the lead in the late 1850s,
Austria was too strong until the 1850s, no
Foreign support gained until France
supported limited Unification (and even
then would not condone including Rome until
the Franco-Prussian War which led to their
withdrawal of troops in Rome in 1870).
MAIN 1
 The growth of Nationalism, by which Italy
would eventually become a united country,
was a slow process. In the Vienna
Settlement of 1815 where Absolute rulers
were restored, the Pope was given secular
as well as religious control of the Papal
States. A succession of Pope’s ruled as
INFLUENCE OF
repressive and reactionary rulers and
THE CATHOLIC
therefore hindered the growth of the
CHURCH





Nationalist Movement 1815-46.
However, in 1846 Pope Pius IX became Pope
and his liberal policies e.g. the Consulta,
freedom for political prisoners, and civil
liberties actually helped the Nationalist
Movement to grow as theorists like
Gioberti saw a new Federation of States
under the leadership of the Pope. His
reforms were copied in other States such
as Piedmont and Tuscany.
However, during the 1848 Revolutions the
Pope was forced to flee during violent
outbreaks and after his own private army
had joined Charles Albert against the
Austrians was forced to issue the Papal
Allocution stating that War against Austria
was wrong. Mazzini’s noble and forward
thinking experiment during the 1848
Revolutions with the Roman Republic also
angered the Pope.
Once the Pope was restored by the French
he was to remain outside of any calls for a
United Italy and therefore was a great
obstacle to the growth of Nationalism from
1848 onwards and even after a United Italy
was proclaimed in 1861.
Garibaldi in the third phase of Unification
1860 was obviously intending to take
Naples, Sicily and head into the Papal Sates
and ‘March to Rome’. The Pope actively
demanded the support of the French which
they provided. This led to Cavour and Victor
Emmanuel taking the Papal States but
preventing the acquisition of Rome.
Therefore at this stage the Church
hindered the growth of Nationalism.
Even after the Acquisition of Rome in 1870
the Pope in the Vatican threatened to
excommunicate anybody who supported the
New Unified Italy and this meant the
Italians felt conflicted about the support
MAIN 2

INTERNAL
DIVISIONS OF
THE
REVOLUTIONARIES



MAIN 3


of the new Nation or the Catholic Church.
Therefore, the Catholic Church in this way
was a very important obstacle for the
growth of Italy even after the new Nation
State had been established.
Between 1815 – 1859 the internal divisions
of the Revolutionaries hindered the growth
of Nationalism. A lack of cooperation e.g.
1848 Revolutions meant that the northern
and central states wanted Austria out, the
Papal States wanted the end of secular
control of the Pope and in the South
Nationalist ideas were not present as Sicily
wanted independence from Naples. Unless
these groups cooperated and all called for a
new Nation state this would always be an
obstacle to the growth of Nationalism in
terms of gaining a Nation state.
Similarly in the 1848 Revolutions three
potential leaders were present: Charles
Albert of Piedmont, the liberal Pope Pius IX
and Mazzini. This meant that the
Nationalists were divided in their support
and therefore hindered their growth.
It wasn’t until Piedmont had developed
politically and economically during the
1850s that she became strong enough to
lead the Nationalist movement in Italy with
the support of foreign powers, most
notably France.
Therefore internal divisions of the
Revolutionaries themselves hindered the
growth of Nationalism until the late 1850s.
For Nationalism to grow and eventually lead
to unification the Nationalists would have
to come into conflict with Austria and
between 1815-50 she was too strong.
Examples: Early revs and 48 Revs, when
Austria was perceived to be weak,
revolutionaries took their opportunity, but
once Austria had recovered she was
AUSTRIA TOO
STRONG UNTIL
1859 AND
RETAINED
INFLUENCE IN
ITALY UNTIL 1866




MAIN 4


NO FOREIGN
SUPPORT UNTIL
1859 AND
FOREIGN
HINDRANCE UNTIL
1870


instrumental in crushing all opposing
armies/revolutionaries (e.g. at Custoza and
Novarra) and restoring the Absolute rulers
in Northern and Central Italy and
supporting the rulers in the South.
Unless Austria was permanently weakened
or revolutionaries had a more powerful
army, she would always be an obstacle to
the growth of Nationalism.
Even when defeated by the French and
Piedmontese Armies in the War of 1859,
she had been strong enough for France to
conclude peace Early at Villafranca.
Therefore she prevented the Growth of
Nationalism by retaining Venetia and only
surrendering Lombardy.
Venetia was finally taken by the nationalists
in 1866 when the Austro-Prussian War led
to Austria’s defeat and permanent
withdrawal from Italy. But even then
Austria had defeated the Piedmontese
Army before final defeat by the Prussians.
Overall, Austria was undoubtedly one of the
greatest obstacles to the growth of
Nationalism until the 1860s. Until her final
defeat in 1866 she continued to prevent
Nationalism from succeeding.
All of the early revolutionaries did not try
to gain foreign support between 1815-48.
Without this support the growth of
Nationalism would be slow as Austria and
the Absolute Monarchs were too strong for
the Revolutionaries.
France actually became involved in
restoring the Pope in Rome in 1848 and
supporting the Catholic Church’s influence
against the revolutionaries particularly in
Rome until 1870. Therefore France could be
seen as an obstacle to the growth of
Nationalism.
Ironically France was to also help the
CONCLUSION





growth of Nationalism by supporting
Piedmont in the War against Austria 1859
and allowing the plebiscites which led to the
annexation of Lombardy and the Central
states. Finally it was only after the start of
the Franco-Prussian War 1870 which led to
the withdrawal of French troops from Rome
which allowed the Nationalists the Capital
they desired. Therefore France was an
obstacle to the growth of Nationalism until
1870.
There were a number of obstacles to the
growth of Italian Nationalism between
1815-70.
Austria was certainly an obstacle especially
between 1815-59 and still prevented
Nationalist expansion into Venetia until
1866.
The Early Nationalist revolutionaries had
too many internal divisions and lacked the
cooperation needed to increase their
support. Similarly there was not a clear
leader of the Nationalists until Piedmont
defeated Austria at War with the aid of
France in 1859.
Also the French, whilst encouraging the
growth of Nationalism to lead to ‘the
Kingdom of Italy’ being proclaimed in 1861,
prevented the inclusion of Rome until 1870.
However, the greatest obstacle must be
seen as the influence of the Catholic
Church as despite 2 years of support
between 1846-48, the Church opposed and
remained outside of the Nationalist
Movement for the remaining time. Even
once the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in
1861 and even after Rome became the
capital city in 1870, the Pope still yielded
influence over the people and threatened
excommunication to the supporters of
Nationalism.
OTHER ‘OBSTACLES’ TO UNIFICATION/NATIONALISM:
1. ‘How far do you agree that the greatest obstacle to the growth
of Nationalism in Italy between 1815-1870 was the influence
of Austria?’
2. ‘How far do you agree that the greatest obstacle to the growth
of Nationalism in Italy between 1815-1870 was the lack of
Foreign support?’
3. ‘How far do you agree that the greatest obstacle to the growth
of Nationalism in Italy between 1815-1870 was the divisions
amongst the Nationalists themselves?’
OTHER ‘EARLY’ QUESTIONS:
1. ‘What caused the series of National and Liberal uprisings in
Italy 1848?
2. ‘How far was the failure of the 1848 Revolutions in Italy due
to the intervention of foreign powers?’
3. ‘What did the revolutionary groups learn from their mistakes in
the 1848 Revolutions that allowed them to unify Italy between
1859-70?’
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
UNIFICATION ESSAYS:
‘How significant was Cavour in determining the outcome of
Italian Unification?’
‘How significant was Garibaldi in determining the outcome of
Italian Unification?’
‘How significant was the contribution of Victor Emmanuel in
determining the outcome of Italian Unification?’
How significant was Piedmont’s Political and Economic
Developments in determining the outcome of Italian
Unification?’
How significant was the role of France in determining the
outcome of Italian Unification?’
‘How accurate is it to suggest that foreign intervention was the
most important factor influencing the unification of Italy?’
HOW UNITED WAS ITALY IN 1870?
1. How far do you agree, that although Italy was politically united
with Rome as its capital by 1870, it was fundamentally not a unified
state?’