The Development of the Oriental Painting Style in Taiwan
During the Japanese Colonial Period
Dr. Huang Dong-Fu
Professor of Graduate School of Art Education and Visual Art,
National Ping-Tong University of Education
Vice President of National Ping-Tong University of Education
I.
Foreword
The fifty years of the Japanese colonial period (1895 – 1945) was a key period in
Taiwan’s fine arts development, especially after the first Taiwan Exhibition of Fine
Arts in 1927, (abbreviated as the “Taiwan Exhibition,” it was held by the Taiwan
Education Association from 1927– 1936), which has often been called by art
historians as the marker of a new era for Taiwan’s fine arts development. The ten
Taiwan Exhibitions and the succeeding six Taiwan Governor-General Office
Exhibitions of Fine Arts, (abbreviated as the “Governor’s Exhibition,” it was held by
the Governor-General Office’s Bureau of Culture and Education), with its two
galleries of Western painting and Oriental painting, nurtured Taiwan’s first generation
of Western painters and Oriental painters. Concerning the Oriental painting style,
although its name made it sound like an intimate connection with Taiwan in terms of
its origins and its geography, due to the ambiguity of its position and evaluation
orientation, it touched off many controversies at the beginning of its establishment.
Guessing at the meaning of “Oriental” through its associations made one think
that it was named in contrast to “Occidental.” From the viewpoint of the Japanese,
“Oriental” meant East Asia, which included the countries all the way to India,
1
including China, Japan, and Korea.1 “Oriental painting” was name for paintings in
the Taiwan Exhibition and the Governor’s Exhibition, as well as the “Korea
Exhibition,”2 from Korea, which also was a Japanese colony. It seemed to be a word
that could contain many ideas , while in contrast to “Occidental painting.” It was also
used to avoid confusion with the “Japanese painting” of the official Japanese
“Cultural Exhibition” and “Imperial Exhibition” from which they were copied after
and were its subsetf. The word easily had racial connotations when applied to people
in the colonies. With the real operation of evaluation mechanisms, the new modern
Japanese painting always stayed in the mainstream after the Meiji Restoration.
Taiwan’s freehand ink-and-wash painting that came over from China’s southeast coast
starting from the Kingdom of Zheng (1662 – 1683) was virtually completely
eliminated, and in the Taiwanese art world, it dropped out of its position in the
mainstream and took on the role of a non-mainstream art that had to fend for itself.
The traditions of Japanese culture mainly came from China. Especially before
the Meiji Restoration, its primary basis was Chinese culture. The Japanese painting
style during the Japanese colonization period indeed included gouache-and-color
painting and ink-and-wash painting (called “Southern style” or “Nanga” in Japanese)
after the Meiji Restoration. In Taiwan before the Taiwan Exhibition was held,
although there were many Japanese painters who came to Taiwan that painted and
taught gouache-and-color painting, there were very few Taiwaneses that participated
1.
2.
The word “oriental” (dong hai in Chinese) has two definitions in the Cihai Chinese dictionary: (1)
East Asia, meaning the eastern part of Asia; and (2) Japan, as referred to by China. The modern
Japanese art historian Seigo Kimbara said: From the viewpoint of geography, all of Asia is
“oriental.” But in terms of cultural history, “oriental” includes China, Japan, and India. See Kimbara,
Seigo. Essays on Oriental Art. Tokyo: Kokon, 1934, pp. 278-279.
The Korea Exhibition was first held in 1922, and it was held for 23 consecutive times until 1944.
There were three sections of this exhibition at its beginning. The first section was Oriental Painting
(including the “four gentlemen” (plum blossom, orchid, bamboo, and chrysanthemum)). The second
section was Occidental Painting. The third section was Chinese calligraphy, carvings, etc. (The 11 th –
14th Exhibitions were “Handicrafts,” and the 15th – 23rd Exhibitions were “Sculpture” and
“Handicrafts.”)
2
in this art genre. In Taiwanese artcircles, ink-and-wash painting still played a decisive
role. However, compared to the situation before the 1894 Sino-Japanese Naval War,
the painting styles in Taiwan started to change subtly
in the beginning of the
Japanese colonial period. The following is a general review.
II.
Ink-and-Wash Painting Style Before the Taiwan Exhibitions
The firm establishment of Chinese culture in Taiwan began during the Kingdom
of Zheng, and the Taiwanese ink-and-wash painting by the old masters that could be
seen today were done in the 18th century and later. Up until 1895 when Taiwan was
ceded to Japan, the ink-and-wash painting style of Qing Dynasty Taiwan, as compared
to the painting world of China, usually showed the “free use of ink and brush, with no
inhibitions, wild and broad applications of ink, in the span of a moment, completing a
general image, with meaning pouring out without reservation, with an atmosphere that
is thick and strong, extremely haughty, not reserved at all”3 as described by the
scholar, Wang Yao-Ting. This was the audacious nature of the so-called “Fujian
School,” as the works of painters such as Lin Chao-Ying, Zhang Jing-Fu, Lin Jue, and
Xie Shan showed strong Fujian School characteristics. The level of their unrestrained
audacity was even greater than the main origin of the Fujian School, the Yangzhou
Painting School’s Huang Shen (from Fujian).4
Concerning the cultural background that formed the audacious nature of the
special “Fujian School” of Ming and Qing Dynasty Taiwanese painting, the art critic,
Xiao Qiong-Rui says:
Taiwanese society in the Ming and Qing Dynasties respected
overbearing men and looked down on the gentleman class. The
prevailing mood was the “emphasis on strength,” and this kind of
Wang Yao-Ting. “From Fujian School to Sketching – The First Phase of Aesthetic Awareness of
Taiwan Ink and Wash Painting Development.” Essays from the Oriental Aesthetics and Modern Arts
Conference. Taipei: Taipei Museum of Fine Arts, Aug. 1992, pp. 123-153.
4.
The Fujianese painter Huang Shen had a careless painting style, and was once mocked as being part
of the “Fujian School.” See Essays on the Eight Painters of Yangzhou. Ed. Qing Ling-Yun. Shanghai:
People's Fine Arts Publishing House, 1958.p. 45.
3.
3
special cultural inclination was reflected in the creation or aesthetic of
paintings. The aesthetic type of “audacity” became the clearest feature
of Ming and Qing Dynasty Taiwan painting styles.5
This cultural background naturally has something to do with the facts that
Taiwan was developed much later, and that it was only weakly stimulated by Chinese
culture since it was an outlying island that was always considered a distant borderland
off the southeast coast of China. Furthermore, the audacious nature of the “Fujian
School” contrasted with the reserved and scholarly style of China, and formed the
local style of Taiwan. The ink-and-wash painting style of the local “Fujian School”
had subtle reformations by the time of the Japanese colonial period.
In the first half of the Japanese colonial period, the Japanese colonial
government did not suppress Taiwanese cultural traditions, such as calligraphy and
painting art. Basically, in the early part of the colonization period, they sought to
pacify rebellious activities and rebellious organizations on the island. They
implemented construction of the economic infrastructure (such as the extension of the
cross-island railway, the establishment of the public road system, mechanization of
agricultural production, building public waterworks, etc.) and established schools of
all levels. Therefore, they were too busy to put more effort into culture and the arts, so
naturally there was no enforced orientation for culture and the arts. Also, because the
island’s society was never fully pacified, they respected the people’s cultural
traditions, basically trying to win over the people by any means. At the same time,
with the arrival of the Japanese colonization period, there were many Japanese
painters (including Southern style painters, modern Japanese style painters, and
Western style painters) who came to Taiwan to paint from life. Some even took up
government positions and settled down, participating in the artistic circles of Taiwan.
5.
Xiao Qiong-Rui. “The Fujian School and the Taiwanese style – Another Look at the Aesthetics of
Ming and Qing Dynasty Taiwan Painting Styles.” Southern Taiwan Painting Research and Digital
Project (1) Ming and Qing Dynasties. Chiayi: National Chung Cheng University Center for
Humanities Research, 2007, p. 27.
4
The change in the people who made up the painting world gradually caused it to
change by its nature.
After the Danshui Hall behind the Governor-General Office was developed into a
space for folk arts and cultural activities, it quickly became an important base for arts
activities in the early Japanese colonial period. As reported by the Taiwan Daily News,
starting from 1901, it was mainly traditional Japanese calligraphers and painters who
formed the “Taiwan Calligraphy and Painting Association.” They used the Danshui
Hall to hold their monthly meetings, with activities like member exhibitions and
group painting events. The famous painters that came over from Edo (such as
Bunchou Tani, Kourin Ogata, and Buson Yosa) jointly exhibited in an “Ancient
Calligraphy and Painting Exhibition” and other exhibitions with calligraphists and
painters of the time. The frequency of these events was great, and even after the
Danshui Hall was closed in 1906, the Taiwan Calligraphy and Painting Association
still held related events in other places (such as the Taipei Club, the Railway Club,
etc.) Although the frequency and scale of the events decreased, they still extended for
more than ten years. In addition, there were also Japanese traditional painting groups
like the Tokyo Painting Association, the Inkstone Appreciation Association, and the
Qing Painting Association that held events in the Danshui Hall. Furthermore, these
painting groups usually had a certain level of interaction and exchange with the
Taiwan Calligraphy and Painting Association.
Moreover, the membership of the previously mentioned art groups of that time
was not only mostly made up of Japanese citizens, in terms of their painting style, it
tended toward the traditional painting styles of the pre-Meiji Edo Period (Kanouha,
Nanga, etc.) This was different from
new modern Japanese painting style since the
colonization period, and was also different from the Fujian School ink-and-wash
painting style of Qing Dynasty Taiwan. According to the study by Gisyo Tachibana,
5
they were not related to the trend of Taiwanese rural gentry and literati of
ink-and-wash painters from China, or the contemporary new movement of “modern
Japanese painting”. Before the Kanouha painter, Eiho Kanou, returned to Kyoto in
1914, he continually effectively played the vital role of transmitting Japanese
traditional classical painting in Taiwan. 6 Itis worth to point out that although
traditional painting groups in Taiwan at the beginning of Japanese colonialism were
mainly made up of Japanese painters, there were some Taiwanese painters
participating. On May 4, 1901, the Taiwan Daily News releasedthe news that on the
next day (the 5th) at the Danshui Hall, a painting exhibition was to be held (that
included group painting activities), to be participated by 18 Japanese painters,such as
Bokuhou Kawada and Eiho Kanou, as well as Taiwanese painters Li Bing-Jun and
Hong Yi-Nan.7 It shows that the exchanges between Taiwanese painters and Japanese
painters in Taiwan had started at a very early time. Also, the political environment and
the cultural situation during the Japanese colonial period influenced Taiwanese
painters on a certain level to gradually follow the Japanese painting crowd. Many
Japanese painters came to Taiwan to exhibit and to give painting demonstrations,
which had to assert an imperceptible influence on Taiwanese painters. Some
traditional painters studied under Japanese and some even went to Japan to study,
such as Taichung County Shengang Township’s Lu Ru-Tao, who sought advices from
Kouzan Fujishima. Lu Meng-Jin studied under Shundo Okamoto. Cai Xue-Xi from
Taipei studied under Bokuhou Kawada. Wang Kun-Tai from Fengshan’s Jiuqutang
went to Japan to study under the direction of Raishou Tanaka. Kaohsiung’s Xu
Chun-Shan studied under Kouzan Fujishima, etc. Because of this, changes had been
Tachibana, Gisyo. “From the 1860’s to the 1930’s – A Foreign Painter’s View of Taiwan.” What Is
Taiwan? Essays on Modern Taiwanese Aesthetics and Cultural Acceptance. Ed. Liao Jin-Yuan.
Taipei: Executive Yuan Council for Cultural Affairs, 1996. 8.
7.
Taiwan Daily News. May 4, 1901. 2nd Edition.
6.
6
gradually madein the painting styles of traditional painters in the Japanese colonial
period. The following are some paintings that are examples of this.
Wang Kun-Tai (1892-1918) was from Fengshan’s Jiuqutang, and he delighted in
traditional painting from a young age. He went to Japan to study painting under
Raishou Tanaka and returned to Taiwan in 1917, and then held an exhibition at the
Taipei Club. His landscape paintings followed the Southern School literati painting
system. Though there was not a big difference from the motifs and textural strokes of
late Qing Dynasty Taiwan landscape paintings, his brushstrokes were reserved and
sincere, and his scenes and structuring of space were closer to the actual visual
experience. The entire painting included the sky and had a grey wash texture with a
fine misty layer. Compared to the audacious nature of Qing Dynasty Taiwan’s Fujian
School landscapes, it seemed especially friendly and elegant. This characteristic was
naturally influenced by the Japanese Southern School.
Lugang has always been well-known for its preservation of traditional culture
and arts. In the Japanese colonial period, many painters and artisans insisted on
carrying on the traditions for the late Qing Dynasty. The traditional artist Shi Sha-Yu
(1868-1950) was very representative of this trend. Mr. Shi studied art under artists
that came to Taiwan from China, Chen Yi-Qiao and Shen Rui-Zhou, and excelled in
the four arts of poetry, calligraphy, painting, and metal and stone carving. 8 The style
of the painting he made in 1913, the Ink Peonies central scroll, seemed to be
influenced by the school of Xu Wei and Li Shan, but the brushstrokes were quite
restrained and there was none of the audacious nature of the late Qing Fujian School.
The title of the painting reads, “Lugang Autumn Life Study by Shi Shao-Yu.”
Although the details of this life study are not as fine as a Japanese painter, it does take
Lugang Town Records – Culture Volume. Lugang Town Records Compilation Committee, 1997.
65-67. Shi Shao-Yu section.
8.
7
a real locality as its scene instead of the traditional subjects of Chinese paintings. It
also tends to have a gentler style of brush and ink, which shows the influence of the
trend of Japanese painting styles.
Liang Kui-Nan’s painting Ink Cabbages in 1906, collected by the National
Taiwan Museum of Art, used careful and neat ink coloring in method for the
painting’s two cabbages on the ground on alum paper. The ground and the background
were both applied with a delicate grey wash, and though it seemed more reserved, the
painting showed its fineness and delicateness, much different from Fujian School
ink-and-wash paintings, showing an influence of the tastes of Japanese painters.
In addition, the Taipei painter Li Xue-Qiao (1893? – 1937?)
9
who was
well-known in the painting world before the Taiwan Exhibition, was a traditional
painter who did not speak Japanese.10 Although he was not selected for the First
Taiwan Exhibition because his style did not match the tastes of the jurists, his
paintings showed the aforementioned gentle nature, making them different from the
Fujian School’s audacity before the Japanese colonial period.
The observation of the aforementioned examples shows that in the early period
of Japanese colonization, Taiwanese ink-and-wash painters did not receive clear
pressure for a new cultural strategy from the colonial government, but because of the
continual arrival of Japanese painters in Taiwan, with the change in the cultural
environment, there was an imperceptible effect on a certain level for many Taiwanese
traditional ink-and-wash painters. The clearest change was in the area of brush and
9.
Li Xue-Qiao’s biographical details are unclear. It is recorded multiple times that he was born in 1875
(such as in Cui Yong Xue. By the Water – Taiwan Ink and wash painting Before 1945. Taichung:
National Taiwan Museum of Art, 2004. 219. In addition, the Taiwan Early Period Painting
Anthology published by the National Museum of History Taiwan Historica in 2003 also records it
thusly.) But according to the column “Taiwan Exhibition Studio Showcase (12)” published in the
Taiwan Daily News on September 18, 1927, that interviewed Li Xue-Qiao, it recorded that the was
about 34-35 years old. According to the method that Taiwanese use to calculate age, then he would
have been born around 1893.
10.
“Use a Brush to Draw a Good Crab – Li Xue-Qiao (Southern School)” in the column “Taiwan
Exhibition Studio Showcase (12).” Taiwan Daily News. Sept. 18, 1927.
8
ink application. The brusqueness of the Fujian School’s audacious nature faded away
and was replaced by a gentle and refined brush and ink application method that was
similar to the Japanese Southern School. In addition, especially in landscape paintings,
the use of the blending technique was one of the areas that experienced a reform.
However, they kept the same basic motifs and brush stroke and ink tone forms of
expression of Chinese painting, and the arc of its reform was considerably limited.
There was still an extremely large gap with the mainstream aesthetics of Japanese
painting. In the First Taiwan Exhibition in 1927, virtually all Taiwanese ink-and-wash
painters (including all aforementioned painters) were excluded, which is sufficiently
explained by this situation.
On July 30, 1930, the Taiwan Daily News published a critique listing the
ink-and-wash painters who were active in Taiwan before the Taiwan Exhibition was
held, and skillfully gave their criticism of Oriental painting after the Taiwan
Exhibition:
Before the Taiwan Exhibition, those not receiving recognition,
but famous in the painting world are Taipei’s Hong Yong-Ping, Cai
Xue-Xi, and Li Xue-Qiao, Hsinchu’s Zhou Xiao-Xuan, Fan Yao-Geng,
and Zheng Yu-Xuan, Tainan’s Lu Bi-Song, and Jiuqutang’s Zheng
Kun-Wu. Those that have passed away are Taipei’s Hong Yi-Nan and
Fengshan’s Wang Kun-Tai. These are all Southern School painters, and
the spirit of the Southern School style of painting is mainly in its
elegant and uninhibited nature. It is a style that doesn’t stress form and
that is full of poetry and an air of erudition. One has to start with
painting from life until one is practiced in both effort and skill. First
simplify by weeding out superfluities at will to achieve its lofty
aesthetic. Not only this, it is a thing of the real world. It is overly
divided….11
This explains in terms of criticism, in the eyes of contemporaries, before the
Taiwan Exhibition was held, that Taiwanese painters who were considered prominent
were all traditional ink-and-wash painters. (Note: Taiwanese painters did receive
recognition in the Western painting section of the First Taiwan Exhibition.)
“A Glance at the Painting World” in “Taiwanese Aesthetic Class.” Taiwan Daily News. July 30,
1930.
11.
9
Furthermore, there were only a very limited number of Taiwanese painters who had
extensively studied Japanese painting. Next, from the viewpoint of the Taiwan
Exhibition’s Oriental painting, the observation that ink-and-wash painting lacked the
style of painting from life, but the symbolic form that relied on imagination for
creation deserved discussion. The precise style that specifically spelled out the
observations from painting from life was the basic spirit of the Taiwan Exhibition’s
Oriental painting, and its source can be traced back to the modern Japanese painting
world’s main trend the objective, realist, and descriptive attitude of positivism. This
positivist spirit of realism also combined the expectations of the contemporary
colonial government and the jurists for “local color,” and thus developed the reforms
in the larger arc of Taiwan Exhibition Oriental painting style.
Before the Taiwan Exhibition, the Taiwan Daily News, which had a close
relationship with government officials, from September 6 to October 5, 1927, reported
24 times in one month on with “Taiwan Exhibition Studio Showcase Reporting,”
interviewing 34 Japanese and Taiwanese painters who were formally entered in the
Taiwan Exhibition. There were 16 Oriental painters and only two Taiwanese artists
who painted traditional ink-and-wash paintings, Li Xue-Qiao and Cai Xue-Xi. The
rest were all Japanese painters. On September 17, interviewed by the newspaper’s
journalist, Li Xue-Qiao “painted an ink-and-wash painting very quickly, with
movements that could be called as fast as a machine. He said that he’s just now
starting to paint his artworks for the exhibition.” 12 Because the First Taiwan
Exhibition opened on October 28, and deducting the time for acceptance, judging,
installation, and other related operations that needed to be done before the exhibition,
Li needed to complete his works for the exhibition like other traditional ink-and-wash
painters, using a moment of inspiration to paint quickly but with expertise. In order to
12.
Same as 10.
10
complete his Peacock painting, Ichimatsu Inoue, the Japanese artist famous for
painting flowers and birds, was still visiting Yuanshan Zoo to observe the actual
manner of peacocks, and thus discovered the fact that “male peacocks also have
cockspurs.”13 In addition, another Japanese painter, Bokka Nomaguchi, after deciding
to paint herons, and as it was reported:
He first went to the museum to examine the colors and other
details of the feet, beaks, and feathers of herons. He saw that a heron
has a long feather on top of its head, which he guessed was winter
plumage. But in Mr. Yaichi’s encyclopedia, it records that this is
summer plumage. Therefore, he decided to go to Heron Mountain to
take a further look and get the truth. He deliberately avoided major
roads, taking only the shoreline roads. As he followed the shoreline
road, he observed carefully with his binoculars, and he painted from
life at his destination beside a rough pond at the foot of Heron
Mountain. He first confirmed the old local wisdom that the long
feather on the heron’s head is winter plumage before picking up his
brush.14
The different attitudes towards the significance and the act of painting held by
the Japanese painters and the Taiwanese traditional ink-and-wash painters of the
Taiwan Exhibition can be easily seen through these examples. It is just as Cai Xue-Xi
said when he was interviewed: “For me, painting is just a pleasant diversion!”15
Although it was a self-deprecating phrase, it does show that the Taiwanese ink and
wash painters were not as precise in their attitude toward painting.
The impact of a foreign culture and the requirements of self-development were
usually the major factors for changes in styles in art and literature. Taiwanese painters
in the early Japanese colonial period had ignored observation of nature for a long time,
and their subjects were far removed from life. They sorely lacked training in modeling
and aesthetics, having hidden away inside the ivory tower, relying only on their own
inclinations. With gradual development of industry, and the gradual expansion of
“Peacock and Coral Tree Screen Painting by Ichimatsu Inoue” in “Taiwan Exhibition Studio
Showcase (6).” Taiwan Daily News, Sept. 12, 1927.
14.
“Drawing Herons Beside a Pond – Bokka Nomaguchi.” Taiwan Daily News, Sept. 17, 1927.
15.
“Mind Without Worries – Cai Xue-Xi.” Taiwan Daily News, Sept. 21, 1927.
13.
11
education, cultural levels were universally raised. They faced an unprecedented
dilemma with the strict standards of the jurists at the Taiwan Exhibition.
III. Analysis of the Characteristics of Oriental Painting in the Taiwan and Governor’s
Exhibitions
The opening of the First Taiwan Exhibition was on October 28, 1927. It was the
first all-island arts exhibition in the history of Taiwan. Due to such factors as the
promotion and guidance of the government, full cooperation by the administrative
system, complete coverage by the media, and big money prizes, as well as awards
presented publicly by the Governor-General, and high purchase prices of participating
artworks, there was a crowd of almost ten thousand visitors on the first day,16 and it
also quickly became the most important annual competition for Taiwan’s art world.
There were also full-page artwork catalogs that were printed for each Taiwan and
Governor’s Exhibition, which had become a major basis for the study of the
development of art in Taiwan after the Japanese colonial period.
The two major characteristics of the development of Oriental painting of the
Taiwan Exhibition were undoubtedly the precise modeling style of painting from life
based on objective observation and the expectations of the colonial government and
the jurists for Taiwan’s “local color.” Also, these two had close connections with each
other. How the former mainly made contrast to the Qing Dynasty Taiwan traditional
painting, and how the latter stood in contrast to Japanese mainstream painting will be
discussed in the following passages.
A.
The Objective and Realist Oriental Painting Style
Qing Dynasty Taiwan Fujian School traditional ink-andwash painters mostly
created from imagination and used scenes to express their emotions. They rarely
described their subjects or made deep observations. Their priority in painting was in
16.
Shiozuki, Zenkichi, “Taiwan Fine Arts Exhibition,” Taiwan Times, Nov. 1933, p. 27.
12
putting their skills of brush strokes and ink tones into full play. In the early Japanese
colonial period, these Taiwanese ink-and-wash painters gradually increased their
observation and painting from life. But basically, they still insisted on the basic
viewpoint that “artistic conception is born from the brush strokes and ink tones.”17
They placed importance on “beginning the painting with calligraphy,” “coloring in
with the brush,” and “five shades of ink,” and thus placed importance on artistic
conception over form. They still placed the emphasis on the pursuit of perfection with
the brush strokes and ink expression. A portion of the works, although they added a
little “subjective painting from life,” were still not that different from Qing Dynasty
traditional ink-and-wash painting.
The Oriental painting of the Taiwan and Governor’s Exhibitions were mainly
gouache-and-color painting, emphasizing objective observation of life, pursuing
accuracy and precision with modeling, with a clear structuring of space, with fine
brushwork and emphasis on color, applying color with gouache pigment, using the
method of drawing even and orderly details with the dry brush, using overlapping
layers of color, and usually displaying an opaque texture. Furthermore, they “replaced
the ink with color,” directly relying on color to differentiate distance through lightness
and darkness, with layers that were rich and fine. Therefore, the function of the brush
stroke and ink took a backseat. The beginning and end of each stroke were no longer
emphasized. The 12 changes of the brush stroke and ink tone (yi, yang, dun, cuo, qi,
fu, zhuan, zhe, ku, ren, ji and se), the “mix of the water in the ink” and the “rhythm of
the ink” were no longer the goals to be pursued.
Since the Oriental painting of the Taiwan Exhibition stressed objective life
painting, they all used the method of selecting scenes of specific sites, directly got
Tang Dai, “Painting Developments,” Discussions on Chinese Painting, Vol. 2. Ed. Yu Kun (Jian Jua).
Taipei: Helou Publishers, 1975, pp. 843-864.
17.
13
their subjects from everyday life, and mastered the description of the image of scenes.
Therefore their subjects had real life orientation, their modeling and composition were
precise, the colors were rich, the lines and descriptive methods were detailed and
orderly, and their structuring of space was clarified. In addition, the Oriental painters
usually spent a very long time on creating a work for the exhibition. Their precise
painting attitude and big ambitions were also major features. The aforementioned
characteristics could basically be clearly seen in all of the works of the Oriental
Painting section of the Taiwan and Governor’s Exhibitions.
Although the Oriental paintings in the Taiwan and Governor’s Exhibitions
were mainly influenced by the new Japanese painting style since the Meiji Restoration,
compared with the Japanese painting world, there were still some different divergent
characteristics, such as what they called at the time Taiwan’s “local color.”
B.
The Taiwanese “Local Color” of Oriental Painting
During the preparation for the Taiwan Exhibition, the Governor-General Office’s
Bureau of Culture and Education Chief Hidehiko Ishiguro specially stressed in the
announcement:
Because Taiwan is a tropical island rich with all kinds of features
that can be developed in art, we expect something great in this
exhibition. Moreover, the goal of this exhibition is not to directly
develop along with the Imperial Exhibition and the Association
Exhibition. The artworks will gradually assume the characteristics of
Taiwan and enhance the name of the Taiwan Exhibition.18
Specifically, the Bureau Chief of the Taiwan Exhibition, Ishiguro, looked
forward to getting rid of the styles of the important exhibitions like the Tokyo
Imperial Exhibition, but could put into play the characteristics of the tropical features
of Taiwan. This has been
the “local color” recorded in so many documents since the
time of the Taiwan and Governor’s Exhibitions. It is worthwhile to be mentioned that
perhaps the cause is that Taiwan’s ink-and-wash painting before the Taiwan
18.
Ishiguro, Hidehiko, “About the Taiwan Exhibition of Fine Arts,” Taiwan Times, May 1927.
14
Exhibition had been so far away from Taiwan’s scenery in terms of a tropical
atmosphere. The appeal to “local color” was clearly andardently promoted in the
Oriental painting section in particular. How did they express Taiwan’s local color?
The earliest discussions all held the position that it shall be achieved by selecting the
island’s culture and scenery as the subject of painting.
1.
Painting Taiwan’s Culture and Scenery from Life
Seigai Kinoshita, an Oriental Painting jurist from the First Taiwan Exhibition
released his “Musings on Examining Oriental Painting” 19 , in which he severely
criticized the “one-stroke paintings” of orchids, bamboo, and Bodhidharmas and
copies of Eggplant in the Field of traditional ink-and-wash painting as “immature”
and “low quality.” He considered this the main reason that these types of works were
not selected for the Taiwan Exhibition. He also hoped that Oriental painters could put
effort into observation and painting from life. By the Second Taiwan Exhibition, the
master painter and jurist Keigetsu Matsubayashi, from the Tokyo Imperial Exhibition,
after participating in examination, issued his musings, which even more clearly
pointed out:
Taiwan has many excellent painting subjects. In the future,
painters should put more effort into pursuing Taiwan’s unique artistic
scenery. Tokyo has Tokyo’s scenery, Kyoto has its own scenery, and
Osaka also has its own scenery. Each has its own special characteristics,
and it is hoped that Taiwan will be able to display its own unique
artistic characteristics.20
The previously mentioned appeals coming from jurists and bureau chiefs with
the authority to select talents were naturally appreciated by those eager to contend for
a place in the Taiwan Exhibition. The only painter to be honored by special selection
in the Oriental Painting section, Hideo Murakami, whose winning painting took its
subject and title as the Keelung Floating Lanterns of Taiwan’s folk religion, a scene
19.
20.
Taiwan Times, Nov. 1927. p. 23
Taiwan Daily News, Oct. 17, 1928, 7th Ed.
15
which was finely depicted with strong colors. Besides receiving the highest approval
of the jury, the painting was sold for the high price of 1,500 yen. (At the time, the
monthly salary of a new public school teacher was only 40 yen.) In addition, the
demonstration work exhibited by jurist Kotou Goubara selected as its subject
Taiwan’s unique flame of the forest tree, flame gold-rain tree, and oleander, and
depicted them with bold colors and fine drawing, the Graceful Southern Scent
three-panel screen, was purchased by Yasuhikoou Asakanomiya, inspecting Taiwan
for the Japanese imperial court, which had an extra effect as a demonstration piece.
It’s just as education follows the contents of tests, interpreting “local color” in terms
of painting subject, its meaning and influence were self-evident.21 Concerning this
concept of taking the island’s scenery as the subject, after Guo Xue-Hu was honored
with special selection in the Second Taiwan Exhibition for his Yuanshan
Neighborhood that took the outskirts of Taipei as its subject and in the Fourth
Exhibition for his Southern Street Prosperity that took Taipei’s Dihua Street as its
subject, “local color” was even more quickly transplanted into the hearts of
participants of the Exhibition. In the Fourth Exhibition, Kotou Goubara even said
about the special selection works in the Oriental Painting section when accepting
interviews form the media:
The Oriental paintings in the Taiwan Exhibition have
gradually become what can be called works of the Taiwan Exhibition
style. The works have a kind of similarity, but the works that can best
be called the Taiwan Exhibition style are the special selections of Lin
Yu-Shan’s Lotus Pond and Chen Jin’s The Time of Youth. These two
artworks were designated as special selections due to their classicaland
excellent expression. The works of Lin Yu-Shan and Guo Xue-Hu’s
Southern Street Prosperity were awarded by the Exhibition because the
subject of Lin Yu-Shan’s works are taken from this locality and
Southern Street Prosperity shows local color as well. It handles the
difficult subject of a bustling city street very well22
Mr. Lin Yu-Shan, this writer’s advisor in Master’s degree research, mentioned during an interview
before his death given to this writer that the orientation of the Taiwan Exhibition jury had a
considerably large guidance effect on those competing to enter the exhibition.
22.
Taiwan Daily News, Oct. 28, 1930, 1st Ed.
21.
16
Kotou Goubara officially used “Taiwan Exhibition style” to describe using
Taiwan’s “local color” as the subject for painting.
The Taiwan Exhibition painting style means the universality of using Taiwanese
scenes as subjects in the Taiwan Exhibition at the time.
Southern Street Prosperity used perspective and used the Chinese Tang and
Song Dynasty painting method of using a ruler to draw lines, describing the scene of
Taipei’s Dadao-cheng traditional street with tall buildings on both sides, all kinds of
shop signs everywhere, contrasting with the narrowness of the street. At the bottom
there are all kinds of vendor carts, porters, and rickshaw drivers, and the extremely
boisterous and bustling crowd. The scene is augmented by the colors as bright as silk,
giving it an aesthetic full of a folk feeling. It had showed the Taiwanese aesthetic that
was even greater than Hideo Murakami’s The Ghost Festival in Chi-lung from the
First Taiwan Exhibition.
Hideo Muragami (Mura) The Ghost Festival in Chi-lung 1927 198.0×160.0 cm Eastern gouache on
silk Collection of NTMoFA
In the eyes of the Japanese Western painter in Taiwan, Katsuki Miyake, Taiwan
had tropical plants, such as hackberry trees, banyan trees, coconut palms, betel-nut
palms, etc., which are all different from the scenery in Japan.23 Kinichiro Ishikawa
23.
Miyake, Katsuki, “Feelings a Trip to Taiwan,” Midue. 110, Apr. 1914.
17
also said that Taiwan’s red roofs and yellow walls had a very bold contrast with the
green of the trees, and that the green of the hackberry trees portrayed a deep and
grand feeling that was not to be found in Japan, and that it was even more beautiful
with contrast of the blue sky.24 For a Japanese painter who had lived in Japan his
whole life, it was a fresh visual stimulation of the “exotica.” Therefore, Oriental
painters just had to observe, experience, and describe Taiwan’s special scenery and
they could display what the Japanese called “local color.” Lin Yu-Shan’s Lotus Pond
which took special selection at the Fourth Taiwan Exhibition, also used Taiwan’s
distinctive blooming lotus flowers as its subject. With an angle that was almost a
bird’s eye view, it described a corner of a lotus pond, embellished by a white heron
intersecting the lotus leaves to catch a meal. The painting used a silk fabric with a thin
cover of gouache-based golden paint, and the lotus leaves were layered on top of each
other in mineral green and azurite. The blooming lotus flowers were applied with
rouge and clamshell powder, making it extremely elegant. The changes of height
around the front, sides, and back of the leaves and flowers could be said to the finest
level of observation, making them three-dimensional. The grey wash in the center and
the line contours were orderly, making it seem like there were different layers in the
painting. Mr. Lin himself said that to make this kind of large painting, he rode a
bicycle to the outskirts many times to sit by the lotus pond in the middle of the night
and observe the secret of how the lotus flowers changed at different hours.25
This spirit was very similar to the spirit of life painting in Song Dynasty Emperor
Song Hui-Zong’s requirement that painters observe all the different changes of the
peony flower.
Ishikawa, Kinichiro, “Watercolor Painting and Taiwan Scenery,” Taiwan Daily News, Jan. 23, 1908.
4th Ed.
25.
Lin Yu-Shan, “Talking about Experiences of Painting Flowers and Birds,” Calligrapher and
Painter, Apr. 1983, p. 17.
24.
18
Lin Yu-shan Lotus Pond 1930 147.0×214.5 cm Eastern gouache on silk
Collection of NTMoFA
In the “First Taiwan Exhibition Critique,” the Japanese art critic, Sadakichi
Osawa26, in the critique of the “Oriental Painting Section,” specially stressed, “The
first priority of painting is the subject, composition the second, and skill the third.”
This showed that the creative thinking at the time stressed the selection of subject.
Therefore, it was easy to understand the reason for the basic orientation towards
presenting Taiwanese characteristics at the time.
2. The Sunny Tones of the High Color Level
In terms of color, the use of water mix, brush strokes, and ink tones in
ink-and-wash painting before the Taiwan Exhibition mostly only used the ink and
brush to help out the conceptual style through tinting. Though the Japanese painting
world’s new modern Japanese painting (gouache-and-color painting ) had fine
brushwork and emphasis on color, due to their being accustomed to the different
scenery of their temperate climate, and also because of their special cultural
background, the color level of their tones was much closer to pale blue. This color
tone was in great contrast to the gouache-and –color works in the Taiwan and
Governor’s Exhibition by Taiwanese painters in the Japanese colonial period. Under
the island’s shining tropical sun, the tones that filled their paintings were naturally
different.
26.
Taiwan Daily News, Oct. 30 – Nov. 2, 1927.
19
Kinichiro Ishikawa wrote a discussion of Japanese traditional aesthetics in which
he made an analysis on the characteristics of the fundamentals of Japanese color:
Our (Japanese) style can be said to be the result of a blend of
natural aesthetics and the spirit of Zen Buddhism. The splendid
temperament and Zen’s observance of emptiness and retirement from
the world that are part of the Japanese character form the difference
between positivism and negativism. The mutual interaction between
these two poles naturally formed Japanese aesthetics. The skill of
ink-and-wash painting is said to have been brought to Japan along with
the Zen Buddhism. Ink-and-wash painting does away with beautiful
color and only appreciates the monochrome ink color. This aesthetic is
not necessarily inherent to the Japanese character, but the tradition has
been changed by Zen. The goal of ink-and-wash painting is to sacrifice
color and to observe nature in a negative way. After this attitude was
combined with Japanese aesthetics, it formed the Japanese style.
…Japanese people suppress their own desires and present a
modest face. This is where the style comes from….
Taiwan’s natural sunshine is beautiful, and the sun brings out
gorgeous colors, but it is a vigorous beauty. It lacks the shadowy
aesthetic of nature that makes Japanese people think deeply. Our
(Japanese) mysticism is mainly related to the aesthetics of the
shadows….
…The main feature of Japanese scenery is based on grey. Looking
at the islands and mountains from afar, Japan’s gentle lines have no
edges or corners…..27
These words from Ishikawa not only explained the characteristics of the
Japanese aesthetic that embraced both the surface and the essence, the quiet and the
lofty, they also indicated the grey colors of the pre-war Japan and the background that
formed this color aesthetic. In addition, he also pointed out that the high level of color
in the Taiwanese painting world at the time was related to the tropical climate’s bright
and shining sun. This writer had reviewed the two books, 100 Years of the Association
Exhibition 28 and Imperial Exhibition Retrospective 29 that collect the important
Japanese paintings of the Imperial Exhibition and the Association Exhibition, and
found that basically over 90% of them have this kind of finely detailed, subtly colored
. Ishikawa, Kinichiro, “Scent of the Wind from the Couch.” Taiwan Times, July 1929. Chinese
translation from Yan Juan-Ying. Scenery State of Mind. Vol. 1, pp. 134-138.
28.
100 Years of the Association Exhibition. Ed. Kusanagi, Natsuko and Hirayama, Ikuo. Tokyo:
Shogakukan, 2000.
29.
Imperial Exhibition Retrospective. Ed. Konno, Masanobu. Tokyo: Yomiuri, 1983.
27
20
foundation, with shadowy layers over a base of grey. So we can thus understand that
at the First Taiwan Exhibition in 1927, the Graceful Southern Scent three-panel screen
submitted by Oriental painting jurist, Kotou Goubara, had fine brushwork and
emphasis on color. Its colors were rich and the painting was full of details. When it
was shown, the art critic, Sadakichi Osawa, specially emphasized that this painting
was “a rare high color work among Japanese paintings.”30 This shows that the color
level of Japanese paintings was not high.
Reviewing the works of past gouache-and-color painters in the exhibition, one
might discover that there was a trend towards a high color level, especially for the
painters who had not lived in Japan. A good example to observe is Guo Xue-Hu and
his Spring from the First Exhibition, Southern Street Prosperity from the Fourth
Exhibition, After the Rain from the Fifth Exhibition, and Garden from the Sixth
Exhibition. These are bursting with color, dazzling and complex, full of details and
embellishments, just like tapestries. They are full of the tropical features. After 1932,
when Guo went to Japan to participate in the Imperial Exhibition and to pay visits to
famous Japanese artists, starting from the next year, his painting style changed. The
color level of his colors dropped a great deal, and he even started to show the
tendency for grey and faded tones in his paintings. Next, the contemporary works of
Lin Zhi-Zhu, who resided in Japan for a long time to study and develop, such as
Morning Cool (which was selected into the Year 2600 Celebration Exhibition) and
Winter’s Day (entering the fourth Governor’s Exhibition), also have very clear
characteristics of pale blue and faded colors. After he returnedto Taiwan in the late
colonization period, his color levels started to gradually rise. After the war, his
paintings developed from the quiet and lofty colors to rich and elegant colors.31
30.
31 .
Same as 26.
Huang Dong-Fu, “From Quiet and Lofty to Rich and Elegant – Lin Zhi-Zhu’s Postwar
Transformation of Color,” Taiwan Gouache-and-colorPainting Pioneer – Lin Zh-Zhu Exhibition
21
Lin Zih-zhu Bathing in the Morning Breeze 1940 249.3×188.0 cm
Eastern gouache on paper Collection of NTMoFA
However, looking at the high color level of the Oriental painting style of
Taiwanese painters in the colonization period from the perspective of the Japanese
painting world, its maturity and refinement do not seem to be sufficient. As the
Taiwan Exhibition jurist, Seigai Kinoshita, said:
The application of color and composition of paintings in the
Taiwan Exhibition could be a method or a phase of research. The
research of painting requires trying things in many different areas, but
the ultimate goal is the spirit of Japanese painting.32
In addition, Houshun Yamaguchi, a jurist of the first Taiwan Exhibition, also
pointed out that Xue Wan-Dong’s Game used a “primitive coloring method.”33
In spite of this, the Japanese colonial government authorities and the generation
of Japanese painters who came to Taiwan to participate in the Taiwan and Governor’s
Exhibitions, were virtually unanimous in encouraging Taiwan’s painters to develop
local Taiwan features that were different from Japan. Under the premise of the
Taiwanese flavor of local features and tropical climate, even though there was still a
great distance in terms of the refinement and precision of the Oriental paintings in the
Taiwan and Governor’s Exhibitions as compared to the Imperial Exhibition, the jurists
often encouraged painters to be different from the standards of the Japanese art.
Catalogue, Taichung: National Taiwan Museum of art, 2007, pp. 45-54.
Kinoshita, Seigai, “Taiwan Exhibition Retrospective,” Taiwan New People’s News, Jan. 15, 1937.
33.
Yamaguchi, Houshun, “First Governor’s Exhibition Oriental Painting,” op. cit., Yan Juan-Ying, pp.
270-271.
32.
22
Something worth to be noted is that in the Korea Exhibition, which was held five
years before the first Taiwan Exhibition, a similar situation occurred. The Japanese
jurists also encouraged Korean painters to develop their own local features.
Concerning this situation, the Korean art critic, Kim Hyun-Sook, concluded that the
Japanese required painters to develop a Korean subjectivity, but actually under the
theory of the “Great East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere” proposed by the Japan colonial
government, with the theory of the center and the periphery with Japan as the center
of Orient, it further solidifies the thinking mode of “Japan as center” and “Korea as
local,” and also limits ‘Koreanness” to be only “localness.” 34 This analysis can
explain from a broad perspective the subtle attitude of the Japanese authorities and
artistic figures when they encouraged the artistic style of their colonies Korea and
Taiwan to show more local color.
The art critics like Sadakichi Osawa, Hidetada Ozaki, and Wei Qing-De at that
time wrote many times about their concern over the loss of the aesthetics of
brushwork and ink tones of traditional Southern School literati painting. They were
not jurists of the Taiwan and Governor’s Exhibitions, and they did not have the
authority of selecting talents, so their influence was limited. Even the jurist, Seigai
Kinoshita, often painted life drawing of the Maruyama and Shijo School. Kotou
Goubara submitted as a demonstration at Taiwan Exhibition a wash and ink painting
life drawing series of six-panel large screen Taiwan Mountains and Sea Screen. It
could be said that its imposing grandiosity turned a lot of heads. However, since the
special selections for the Oriental Painting section were all comprised of the
previously mentioned gouache-and-color painting style, the works in the Oriental
Painting section were mainly painting-from-life style with fine brushwork and
Kim Hyun-Sook, “The Question of Subjectivity in Korean Modern Art,” The Birth and Development
of East Asia Oil Painting. Taipei Museum of Art, 2000. pp. 119-123.
34.
23
emphasis on color. Just as education follows the contents of tests, the encouragement
orientation of the jurists really developed a guiding effect for those wishing to
compete.
C. The Limits of Oriental Painting
In review of the catalogs of ten Taiwan exhibitions and the six Governor’s
Exhibitions, this use of Taiwan’s culture and scenery as the subjects of realistic
painting definitely became a trend. Moreover, the pursuit of clarification in the
precision of modeling and the structuring of space differed greatly from the
ink-and-wash paintings from before the Taiwan Exhibition. Compared to the Japanese
Imperial and Association Exhibitions, it certainly showed that the subject selection for
painting in the Taiwan and Governor’s exhibitions had local characteristics. However,
compared to the Japanese art world, it showed the limitation of lacking the expression
of mental images and a diversity of styles.
Seigai Kinoshita analyzed the works of the Oriental painters in the Taiwan and
Governor’s Exhibitions, saying:
Compared to Japanese works that are more ideological, Taiwanese
produce mainly realistic works. Looking at the paintings of Taiwanese
painters in the Japanese (Oriental) Painting Section of the Taiwan
Exhibition is like looking at the catalog of the botanical gardens. Many
people wonder if there is a problem with the policies of the art leaders.
However, it’s also very special to carefully describe the wonderful
plants of this special place.35
At that time, Kinoshita could already clearly see that the Oriental Paintings of the
Taiwan Exhibition were limited by too much insistence on painting from life and
objectivity.
In addition, the Western style painter, Tetsuomi Tateishi, pointed out that:
The biggest problem for Japanese painting in Taiwan is that there
are very few chances for them to understand Japan’s glorious tradition
of the fine arts. Taiwan has a very weak cultural atmosphere, with the
Kinoshita, Seigai, “Concerning Japanese Paintings in the Taiwan Exhibition,” Oriental Arts, Oct.
1939.
35.
24
intense chaotic feeling of the colonial region. There are very few
people with a consensual understanding and the environment makes
people very provincial and close-minded.36
These words show the objective environment of the limitations of the Taiwanese
painting world at the time.
Since during the Japanese colonization period, Taiwan had no schools
dedicated to the fine arts, there was no way to let people who had an ambition to study
painting take an authorized class for fine arts training locally. Those who went to
Japan to study were mostly those who went to study Western painting styles, and very
few studied Oriental painting. Also, there were no art museums, so there were no
chances to study the works of famous Japanese painters in a regular collection. In
addition, Taiwan did not have anything like the “Association Exhibition,” “Nika
Exhibition,” “Sanka Exhibition,” or “Independent Exhibition” that could follow a
trend different from the official exhibitions, or even independent arts groups that
could go against prevailing styles, to stimulate a diverse views of painting styles.
Therefore, after the Fifth or Sixth Taiwan Exhibition, the style of the Oriental painting
of that time began to gradually become fixed. Limited by Taiwan’s local
characteristics, with its tropical climate, the Taiwan Exhibition’s Oriental painting
style could not find the rich diversity like that found in the Japanese Imperial and
Association Exhibitions.
In addition, the works that were made special selections at the Imperial
Exhibition, which was the most representative official exhibition at the time, or the
works of its jurists, were the works that attracted the most emulation by Taiwanese
painters. For example, the inspiration for the Great South Gate by Lin Ying-Gui
(Yu-Shan) from the first Taiwan Exhibition in 1927 was Sunset of Ten Thousand Year
Terrace by Kakou Tsuji from the second Imperial Exhibition in 1920. The inspiration
Tateishi, Tetsuomi, “Ninth Taiwan Exhibition Critique – Oriental Painting and its Critique in the
Eyes of a Western Style Painter,” Taiwan Daily News, Oct. 30, 1935.
36.
25
for Passing Spring by Chen Jin from the fifth Taiwan Exhibition in 1931 was Cool in
the Morning by Kiyotaka Kaburaki from the sixth Imperial Exhibition in 1925. Taking
Spring by Shungetsu Mochie from the ninth Imperial Exhibition in 1928 made a large
impact on close-up botanical Oriental painting of the Taiwan and Governor’s
Exhibitions. Gamecock by Juubin Araki from the eleventh Imperial Exhibition was
quite an inspiration for Gamecock and Castorbean by Lu Tie-Zhou in the sixth
Taiwan Exhibition in 1932. In comparison, the influence on the Taiwan and
Governor’s Exhibitions by the Association Exhibition was not as pronounced. This
basic orientation of the leadership position of the Imperial exhibition is another
limitation on the vision of Taiwan Exhibition Oriental painting.
IV. Conclusion
During the fifty years of the Japanese colonial period, though the Japanese
colonial government had the inclusion of Taiwanese as imperial citizens as its
ultimate goal, it is an inevitable fact that it did a great contribution to the
modernization of fine arts in Taiwan. Its related actions were, first, the universal
implementation of “painting” and “handicraft” courses into the regular education of
all levels of schools from the beginning of the twentieth century. Next was the
establishement of the Taiwan and Governor’s Exhibitions. These two measures not
only formally introduced the new arts trends of Western painting and
gouache-and-color painting to Taiwan, replacing the mainstream position of
traditional painting, they also injected new life into Taiwan painting that had been
withering away after the Ming and Qing Dynasties, building the first peak for the new
developments in fine arts in Taiwan’s early period.
Oriental painting of the Taiwan Exhibition mainly copied itself after the new
modern Japanese painting style of the Japanese Imperial Exhibition. However, in
26
terms of subject, modeling, and color, it maintained the “local color” of Taiwan’s
tropical climate that made it different from the painting world of Japan. This “local
color” was promoted and molded by the colonial government and leaders of the
painting world. Looking at it from the angle of the government, it was a viewpoint
that, under the theory that Japan was the core of the “Great East Asia Co-prosperity
Sphere,” Taiwan had to show its local characteristics as compared to Japan. However,
if you interpret this as the only motive of the Japanese leaders of the painting world
and the art criticism world, it seems like excessive politicization. I think that at least
some of their motives must have come from true artistic good intentions.
The Oriental painting of the Taiwan and Governor’s Exhibitions not only
compareed favorably to the Chinese paintings in the catalog of the second Global Arts
Exhibition held in Nanjing in 1937, they even surpassed them in terms of their
precision and real life orientation. Although it lacked some variety in terms of
painting style, this does not outweigh its merits. The progress of the arts in this period
still produced a gloriously shining page in the history of Taiwan’s fine arts
development.
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29