MIDLANDS STATE UNIVERSITY
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH AND COMMUNICATION
BAEH 202: AFRICAN LITERATURE
Offered by: Cuthbert Tagwirei
tagwireic@msu.ac.zw
0912118209
0914309307
Module synopsis
The module is designed to introduce students to the works of some writers who have
made significant contributions to the development of literature in Africa. It explores the
engagement of the African literary works with key issues such as African history,
slavery, colonialism, gender, postcolonial politics and the construction of nationhood.
Writers to be used for purposes of illustration include Chinua Achebe, Ngugi wa
Thiong’o, Ayi Kwei Armah, Buchi Emecheta, Ferdinand Oyono and Tsitsi
Dangarembga. It will be particularly important to note how the literature has developed
as a unique category, at times challenging and departing from Western forms and
concerns. Through lecture, research, discussion, in-class activities and formal writing,
students will learn the key areas under African literature.
Topics of study
1. Perceiving African Literature
1.1. Chinua Achebe- Hopes and Impediments
1.2. Chinua Achebe- Morning yet on Creation Day
1.3. Chinweizu et al- Decolonizing African Literature
1.4. Ngugi wa Thiong’o- Decolonizing the Mind
1.5. Ngugi wa Thiong’o- Writers in Politics
2. Images of Africa
2.1. Joseph Conrad- Heart of Darkness
2.2. Chinua Achebe- Things Fall Apart
2.3. Ayi Kwei Armah- Two Thousand Seasons
3. Tradition and Modernity
3.1. Okot p’Bitek- Song of Lawino
3.2. Wole Soyinka- The Lion and the Jewel
3.3. Ama Ata Aidoo- The Dilemma of a Ghost
4. Varied Colonial Experiences
4.1. Ferdinand Oyono- Houseboy
4.2. Ezekiel Mphahlele- Down Second Avenue
4.3. Luis Honwana- We Killed Mangy Dog and Other Stories
5. Representing African Womanhood
5.1. Tsitsi Dangarembga- Nervous Conditions
5.2. Mariama Ba- So Long a Letter
5.3. Chimamanda Adichie- Purple Hibiscus
6. Re-inventing the African Nation
6.1. Pepetela- Mayombe.
6.2. Alan Paton- Cry Beloved Country
6.4. Sembene Ousmane- God’s Bits of Wood
7. Post-Colonial Africa
7.1. Chinua Achebe- Anthills of the Savannah
7.2. Ayi Kwei Armah- The Beautiful Ones Are Not Yet Born
7.3. Ngugi wa Thiong’o- Devil on the Cross
Objectives
Students should be able to:
i)
Familiarize themselves with texts and concerns of African literature through
reading fiction and critical works by Chinweizu, Fanon, Achebe, Ngugi and
Rodney, among others;
ii)
Note the variations in African literary works from different geographical
places;
iii)
Problematise in discussions and formal writing the forms and concerns of
African literature and
iv)
Produce original interpretations of texts, employing the theoretical insights
and analytical tools they acquired through reading and classroom discussions.
Assessment

Questions relating to this module will appear in the final examination taken by
students. The questions will be based on the material from lectures and readings.
Students will be expected to answer THREE questions from a total of six in the
examination.

One major assignment and/or in-class test; and one group assignment will be
written during the semester. Group assignment mark will be on the basis of
individual participation during presentations and submission of a write-up. All
assignments will be handed in and signed for, personally, in class on the due date
and collected in the same manner when they are ready for collection.

Students will be allocated groups and assignments in class during the second or
third lecture session of the semester only. Excuses will not be tolerated.

Assignments and exams will be graded for: 1) evidence that you have closely
analysed the text, 2) evidence of your familiarity with secondary sources, 3)
originality and creativity in applying relevant concepts to textual analysis, 4)
clarity, 5) organisation and style.

Students should attend all lectures and participate in the proceedings. Every
lecture session, students should each bring at least three questions generated by
the concerns for that day, and be prepared to pose them for the class. Participation
will contribute 10% of the final mark.

Course work constitutes 30% of the student’s overall grading.

Students without a course work mark will automatically have their exam mark
‘nullified’.

Assignments are to be typed- Times New Roman, font size 12, double spaced and
justified. The cover page should display the following information in the order
given: surname, first names, registration number, programme, module title,
lecturer, topic question and due date. After the bibliography, the following
information should be displayed in vertical form: analysis of texts, familiarity
with secondary sources, originality, clarity and organisation.

Students will sit for a THREE hour examination at the end of the semester.

The examination constitutes 70% of the student’s final grading.

Plagiarism will be considered as non-submission. The following constitute
plagiarism: 1) Turning in as your own work a paper or part of a paper written by
another. This would include but is not limited to work taken from another student,
from a published author or from the internet. 2) Turning in a paper that includes
unquoted and / or undocumented passages someone else wrote. 3) Including in a
paper someone else’s original ideas, opinions, or research results without
attribution. 4) Paraphrasing without attribution. 5) Turning the same paper in for
credit in more than one class.
1. Perceiving African literature
Chinweizu et al (1985) propose a criterion for defining African literature which considers
the following aspects:
i)
The primary audience for whom the work is done. Clearly, the trio believes
every text has a particular audience in mind and that audience can be deduced
from the work. What is certain is that for African literature the audience
should be none other than Africans.
ii)
The cultural and national consciousness expressed in the work, whether
through the author’s voice of through the characters and their consciousness,
habits and choice of words.
iii)
Nationality of writer- which should be determined by one’s passport.
iv)
The language in which work is done.
What this entails is that texts written by Englishmen/women, even when set in Africa and
comprising of African characters do not qualify as African texts. It is quite inevitable in
such a case that the text will expose a decidedly Western consciousness and set of
prejudices calculated to appeal to Western readers.
Chinweizu et al’s criterion has not gone unchallenged. Debates about what constitutes
African literature have extended to other critics including Achebe and Ngugi wa
Thiong’o.
Achebe believes the African writer’s task is to educate society about the African past by
redeeming it from the denigration it has suffered in western discourses. Society should
consequently regain belief in itself.
This does not amount to romanticizing the past. Instead, the writer should portray Africa
with its imperfections and convince his/her society that, even with those imperfections,
the past was not one long night of savagery from which the Europeans delivered them.
The African writer actually guides the society in reassessing itself in order to find out
“where we went wrong, where the rain began to beat us.” (Achebe 1988:29)
In Achebe’s view, African literature is about Africa. It has its basis the African view
point of Africa and the world.
In terms of language, Achebe is cautious. He suggests the use of “a language spoken by
Africans on African soil.” He adds, “A language in which Africans write, justifies itself”
(Achebe 1988:63.)
Drawing from Marxist principles, Ngugi wa Thiong’o (1998) views the writer as a
product of history, time and space. In this sense the writer does not have an existence
outside his/her society. S/he belongs to a social class and is therefore a participant in the
class struggle of his/her time.
The line between writer and politician in Africa is thin. The writer is led into active
politics from the moment he begins to articulate the people’s collective consciousness.
This explains the reasons why various writers have been exiled or incarcerated at any
given time in Africa. (Ngugi, Mphahlele, Biko, e.t.c.)
Ngugi declares that writers should be honest and faithful in portraying the struggles
around them. They must actively support the African working class struggles by taking
their side against imperialists, whether black or white.
On language, Ngugi does not subscribe to the use of foreign languages in African
literature. He identifies English, French and Portuguese, among other European
languages, as the languages of cultural imperialism.
According to Ngugi (1987), language has a dual role, one of which is to carry and
transmit a culture. From that perspective, it becomes difficult to justify the use of foreign
languages in articulating an African consciousness.
Apart from misrepresenting African experiences, using a foreign language serves to
reinforce the inferiority complex of Africans who tend to regard their languages as
incapable of communicating their messages. It also serves to enrich foreign languages at
the expense of native languages.
Ngugi (1987:4) states: “The choice of language and the use to which language is put is
central to a people’s definition of themselves in relation to their natural and social
environment.” This obviously poses a lot of problems for those who consciously choose
to write in foreign languages.
Readings*
Achebe C. (1988) Hopes and Impediments: Selected Essays
Chinweizu et al. (1985) Toward the Decolonisation of African Literature
Ngugi wa Thiong’o. (1998) Writers in Politics
Ngugi wa Thiong’o (1987) Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African
Literature
2. Images of Africa
The proliferation of discourses on Africa from the ‘west’ has led to animated debates on
African history, culture and religion, among others.
The ‘west’ has largely portrayed Africa as a continent in its primitive state, still backward
and uncivilized. As reflected in Ani (1994) Africa has been considered “a remote place at
the extreme of the universe” (Homer 1700BC), “a timeless place in which there are no
arts, letters or social organization” (Thomas Hobbes), “ahistorical” (Hegel) and a place of
darkness (Trevor-Roper.)
These discourses have been used to justify the enslavement and colonization of African
people. Colonialism has been frequently regarded as a ‘civilizing’ mission while AfroAmericans are said to have benefited from slavery.
Scholars, such as Fanon (1967) and Said (1991), have explained how ‘western’
discourses have always constructed the identities of the marginalized in a negative way,
by attributing negative and inferior qualities to them. The education systems in European
colonies served to reinforce the idea that Africans were inherently inferior to ‘whites’ and
therefore fit for servitude.
In fiction, the image of Africa and Africans as primitive and ahistoric is often reproduced
in texts by European writers. The colour black is stressed upon as symbolic of evil. Some
of the texts go to the extent of employing animal imagery to denigrate Africans.
African literature has responded to Eurocentric discourses in various ways. Some African
texts are records of the African past. Writers assign themselves the task of redeeming
Africa from the demonisation by the ‘west.’ In such texts, Africa is not portrayed as
static, but as a continent whose progress was stalled by the coming of whites.
While some writers tend to romanticize Africa, others have been more pragmatic by
representing Africa as a continent with its strengths as well as weaknesses.
The three texts in this section provide varying images of the African continent. While
some definitions of African literature will understandably exclude Conrad’s Heart of
Darkness, there is need to explore its representation of Africa vis-à-vis texts by Armah
and Achebe.
Readings
Ani M. (1994) Yurugu: An African-Centred Critique of European Cultural Thought and
Behaviour
Fanon F. (1967) “On National Culture” in The Wretched of the Earth
Said E. (1991) Orientalism
Ashcroft et al. (1995) The Empire Writes Back
3. Tradition and modernity
African literature dealing with the effects of colonialism grapples with the issues of
acculturation, cultural erosion and cultural hybridity, among others,
The issue is dealt with from different angles. Some writers are outrightly against
‘western’ culture and its claims of progress and civilization, while some are quite
accommodative. What is clear is that ‘western’ cultural invasion together with the
infiltration of material luxuries poses a serious threat to traditional African values.
Writers problematise the question of progress. They pose questions such as
 Do African cultures epitomize backwardness as is often suggested in ‘western’
discourses on Africa?
 What is progress?
 Is it synonymous with modernity?
 Is progress to be understood in terms of discarding tradition in favor of ‘western’
practices and values?
 In what way does modernity translate to real progress?
Because of such burning concerns, some African writers resolve the conflict between
tradition and modernity in favor of tradition. They write in defence of African customs
and practices. In such cases ‘western’ practices and values are wholly ridiculed and
rejected, while African ones are celebrated and romanticized.
Such sentiments find explicit articulation in the Senghorian concept of Negritude which
was out to demonize everything ‘western’ and celebrate everything African. This
ideological school strove for the cultural reclamation of African values. Its members
advocated for cultural purity.
However not all African writers take this position. Some literary works attempt to strike a
balance between tradition and modernity by celebrating only those values and practices
of both cultures considered to be worthy of celebration. This goes in tandem with Homi
Bhabha’s notion of liminality, the idea of the 'in-betweenness' or straddling two cultures.
Writers who take this position do not overlook the shortcomings of African culture. They
are willing to accept change as long as it leads to real progress.
Students should note the formal devices used in texts (such as flat characterization and
imagery) and evaluate how they are employed in relation to the issues raised.
Readings
Ngugi wa Thiong’o. (1994) Homecoming
Bhabha H. (1994) The Location of Culture
Biko S. I Write What I Like
4. Varied colonial experiences
Colonialism in Africa took on different forms although the effects and processes have
many similarities from one colony to the other.
On paper the major colonial powers each had a policy designed for the effective
administration of its colonies. The British mainly used indirect rule and multiculturalism, while the French and the Portuguese had versions of assimilation policies. It
should be noted that these policies did not reflect what was on the ground.
South Africa was colonized by the English and Dutch in the seventeenth century. There
existed an unease power sharing arrangement between the two European nations until the
1940’s when the Afrikaner national party came to power.
In 1948, racism was institutionalized in South Africa through the enactment of apartheid
laws. Apartheid, euphemistically known as ‘separate development’ was a system of
segregation which separated races in every aspect of social life. Apartheid was almost
similar to American Jim Crow laws which separated ‘blacks’ and ‘whites’ in all spheres
(work, education, residence, travel, recreation, e.t.c.)
In South Africa, Africans were driven from their homes to township slums where they
were to be confined and regulated through a system of pass laws indefinitely. Education,
medical care and other public services were segregated, with Africans getting services
inferior to the whites.
In other parts of Africa, the British administered the colonies through traditional
structures such as the chiefs and headmen’s councils. Segregation policies were also
enacted, but they were at their worst in South Africa under the Afrikaners.
Portugal sought to Europeanize the local populations and assimilate them into Portuguese
culture in all its colonies. As a result segregation was not as explicit as in South Africa. It
operated on a policy of racial integration.
The French policy of assimilation promised French citizenship to the Africans. Africans
were taught that, by adopting French language and culture, they could eventually become
Frenchmen/women and enjoy the full benefits afforded French citizens. Education was
therefore a vital tool for expanding French culture.
African writers have in many ways exposed the follies of these policies. They expose the
hypocrisy which underlies all colonial ventures. Ultimately, the African is inferior to the
white man.
Under this section students should note and evaluate the varied African colonial
experiences as they are portrayed by African writers. They should be able to identify the
differences and similarities in experience as they are reflected in texts by writers from
different historical and geographical backgrounds.
Readings
Olaniyan T. (2005) “Africa Varied Colonial Legacies” in Schwarz H and Sangeeta R
(Eds). A Companion to Postcolonial Studies
5. Representing African womanhood
Postcolonial critics note that African literature by male writers largely dealing with
nationalist issues has ignored the plight of women altogether or has used them in the
service of their primary agendas to present Africa as stable and uniform prior to
colonialism.
Female characters in these texts play no significant roles. They are always on the fringes
of both story and society.
Writers like Achebe have been accused of male chauvinism in some of their works (e.g.
Things Fall Apart) where female characters are portrayed as weak, passive and
complacent in spite of the patriarchal oppression to which they are subjected.
Female writers, informed by feminist principles have responded to such representations
by exposing the injustices perpetrated against women in both colonial and post-colonial
societies.
They expose African women not only as victims of colonialism or post-independence
African governments, but also as victims of patriarchal oppression in cultural and
religious communities, be they Islamic or Christian.
Unlike their male counterparts, the women suffer a double yoke and consequently fight
from both fronts.
However, the female characters are not the cynics portrayed by male writers. They are
conscious of the patriarchal oppression and are determined to emancipate themselves.
What is unique about the writings by African women is their representation of female
agency and the celebration of female sexuality. Through education and alliances, among
other strategies, female characters are shown to create their womanhood. Female writers
are redefining womanhood and redressing the distorted images of women.
This is not, however, to say that female writers completely ignore other issues beyond the
plight of women or all male writers represent women unfairly in their texts. Moreso,
some female writers reproduce gender inequalities in their texts.
It will be interesting to note the variations in writings by African female writers in their
representation of African womanhood while comparing them with their male
counterparts.
Readings
Petersen K. “First Things First: Problems of a Feminist Approach to African Literature”
in Ashcroft et al The Postcolonial Reader
6. Re-inventing the African nation
Nationalism is not a new phenomenon to Africa. African nationhood predates
colonialism. There are numerous examples of pre-colonial African nations such as Mali,
Benin, Monomotapa, Great Zimbabwe and Ethiopia.
The Berlin conference disrupted the process of nation-building by arbitrarily carving up
Africa into numerous European colonies while disregarding traditional boundaries that
existed prior to colonialism.
Some critics have criticized the adoption of these arbitrary geographical boundaries after
independence citing that the boundaries lack a social, political and linguistic basis.
Needless, the spirit of nationalism was revived within the modern African states as a
response to colonialism. African nationalists found it pragmatic to cultivate national
sentiment within the imposed states.
African writers were also part of the nationalist drive against imperialism. They did not
only portray what was happening, but contributed to national sentiment through their
works. Literature played a significant role in cultural nationalism.
One characteristic of African nationalism is the invocation of the pre-colonial past by
drawing from national myths, rituals, songs and symbols such as the Great Zimbabwe.
The resurgence of nationalism also marked a symbolic return to the ancestral spirits for
inspiration.
These aspects constitute much of African nationalist literature. Apart from this is a focus
on the dissolution of barriers to unity, which might be based on ethnicity, class or gender,
for the purpose of nation-building.
The liberation struggles across the continent marked the climax of nationalist expression.
In the literary works by African writers there is part glorification of nationalism and part
indictment of the nationalists who betrayed national sentiment.
Socialist/Marxist doctrines informed most of the struggles against imperialism. In such
cases, the nation was reconstructed from a socialist basis. The liberation war was
perceived not as the struggle between races, but as a conflict between classes. Writers
also reflected this dimension of nationalism, although some would advocate for nations
whose foundation was religious or cultural.
As will be noted in the following section, nationalism has its high and low moments. The
attempt at nation-building did not always meet with success.
Readings
Cabral A.(1972) “Return to the Source”
Fanon F. (1967) “On National Culture” in The Wretched of the Earth
Amuta C. “Fanon, Cabral and Ngugi on National Liberation” in Ashcroft et al. A
Postcolonial Reader
7. Post-colonial Africa
In “Pitfalls of National Consciousness,” Fanon highlighted the follies that befall African
nations after the attainment of political independence. Fanon is not alone in this
exposition. Other postcolonial critics also grapple with this issue.
A general overview of African countries immediately after independence would paint a
gloomy picture of Africa. This feeling has been taken up by African writers of the
generation immediately after independence. One word sums most of it: disillusionment.
This disillusionment emanates from the following:
 Class inequalities persist irregardless of the fact that the ‘white’ oppressor has
been defeated in war;
 The land has not been returned to the ‘black’ majority;
 The new governments have adopted the colonial systems of governance;
 Corruption has become rampant
 In short, the expectations of the majority have not been met.
The questions of interest might be who/what is to blame for the slow development of
African states. Is it enough to point at the ‘west’ or at the African leaders? What forces
are at work?
African literature has been unequivocal in its portrayal of the post-independent era. It
would, however, be foolhardy to conclude that the literature paints one gloomy picture of
the continent since different writers respond differently to the circumstances. Some adopt
a pessimistic outlook, while for some there is still hope for Africa.
For Ngugi wa Thiong’o (1987:1) “imperialism is still the root cause of many problems in
Africa.” The working class comprising of workers and peasants is the most affected.
Imperialism, through neo-colonialism, continues to dominate the political, economic and
cultural lives of the Africans. Global capital manages the former colonies through multinational companies and financial power houses.
Ngugi does not however believe the working class is docile in the face of imperialism.
They remain defiant.
Achebe (1983) sees it differently. He emphatically declares that the problem of postindependent Nigeria is the absence of committed leaders. The leaders are only interested
in enriching themselves and remaining in power.
Readings
Rodney W. How Europe Underdeveloped Africa
Fanon F. (1967) “Pitfalls of National Consciousness” in The Wretched of the Earth
Freire P. (1972) Pedagogy of the Oppressed
Achebe C. (1983) The Trouble with Nigeria
* Reading lists at the end of each section are indicative and not exhaustive.