The emerging link between emotional intelligence and team
performance: Are there implications for the assessment of
student group projects?
Lyn Murphy
Manukau Institute of Technology
lyn.murphy@manukau.ac.nz
Abstract
The development of student team projects and assignments continue to be an area receiving
attention in academic fields. Team work and team assessment, have, over the past few years,
become integral components of many undergraduate and postgraduate programmes. One
area which is emerging as a key indicator of team task performance is emotional intelligence.
Recent research indicates that the combined emotional intelligence of team members will
influence team task performance and that emotional intelligence can be increased with
training. This paper reviews the literature on emotional intelligence in relation to team task
performance. The paper concludes that training in emotional intelligence should be
considered for all programmes where students are to be assessed on their team task
performance.
Key Words
Emotional Intelligence, Assessment, Performance
Introduction
There is a continuing trend toward using team assignments in many academic disciplines.
(Sheeran, 1994). Argument in favour of using team assignments include that they, reflect the
realities of the real world (Mello 1993), increase student motivation (Nichols and Miller 1994);
develop individual responsibility (Oldfield and MacAlpine 1995); co-construct knowledge
(Vygotsky 1978); and improve communication, organisation, presentation and leadership
skills (Stefani, Butcher,and Tario 1995).
Although educators often recognise the importance of working in teams and undertaking team
assessments they often provide little or no specific curricula to help students develop the
necessary skills to become effective team members. (McKendall, 2000). Some instructors do
little more than assign the teams, often because of lack of time or knowledge of how best to
prepare students properly for group activities. Effective teamwork requires training in how to
work in teams. When students fail to participate in group assignments it often is for reasons
other than unwillingness to work, such as communication apprehension, cultural diversity, or
lack of communication skills. (McCroskey, 1980). Although some educators have begun to
teach communication skills as part of their curricular training in emotional intelligence is much
less common. This paper suggests that emotional intelligence is a skill which a student will
require to successfully participate in a team.
Training in emotional intelligence is different from training in communication although
emotional intelligence can be viewed as an evolved form of communication. (Mayer, Salovey,
Caruso, 2004). Verbal communication is more circumscribed—that is, it involves the
understanding of the relationships among people rather than the more general types of
relationships that verbal communication can address (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, & Sitarenios,
2001).The degree of institutionalisation is a key difference between emotional intelligence
and verbal communication. The degree to which a culture recognises information as
important, records its meanings, and acknowledges expertise in the area is referred to as ‘the
institutionalisation of information’ (Mayer et al., 2004). Verbal communication and language is
fully institutionalised and is taught in schools, however emotional intelligence is only just
beginning along the path of institutionalisation
Recent research suggests that the combined emotional intelligence of team members will
influence the task performance of teams (Druskat & Wolff, 2001; Jordan & Troth, 2004;
Murray & Jordan 2006); Emotional Intelligence has been positively linked to productivity, job
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satisfaction, and teamwork (Dulewicz & Higgs, 2000). There are a number of other benefits in
developing emotional intelligence. An individual with high emotional intelligence can better
perceive emotions, use them in thought, understand their meanings, and manage emotions
than those with low emotional intelligence. (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2004). Understanding
how to manage emotions is also essential for maintaining relationships in the workplace
(Martin, Knopoff, & Beckman, 1998).
This emerging research suggests that increasing the emotional intelligence of students will
not only improve the relational and behavioural aspects of the assignment team, but will also
increase the task performance and consequent student grades. When students lack the
emotional intelligence skills necessary to participate effectively in group assignments, the
system breaks down. This paper suggests that educators should make the development of
appropriate emotional intelligence skills a part of the current class curriculum or require
students to take emotional intelligence courses as a prerequisite to classes that require group
assessment.
This paper reviews several key models of emotional intelligence, reviews the literature on the
relationship between emotional intelligence and performance and then explains how
emotional intelligence can be taught using the Mayer and Salovey (1997) four branch model
of emotional intelligence.
Models of Emotional Intelligence
A distinction between the mental skill of emotional intelligence and personality traits was first
suggested by Salovey and Mayer (1990) who defined emotional intelligence as ‘a set of skills
hypothesised to contribute to the accurate appraisal of and expression of emotion in oneself
and others” (p185). Mayer et al argued that emotional intelligence was a mental ability and as
such was capable of being developed and measured.
Emotional intelligence was popularised by the prolific writings of Goleman (1995, 1998a,
1998b, 2002.) Goleman looked to the field of neurology to explain emotional intelligence
arguing that emotional functions evolved with the development of the brainstem. Five
components of emotional intelligence are identified by Goleman I his early model. The first
three are personal skills which include self awareness, self regulation and emotion. The last
two relate to social competencies and include empathy and social skills. Later Goleman
revised this model and deleted motivation as a core personal skill (Cherniss & Goleman
2001).
Goleman advocated for the training of emotional intelligence in the workplace arguing that
while intellectual Intelligence (IQ) is important for reaching a threshold requirement for high
performance and personal and organisational success; emotional intelligence is responsible
for progress beyond this minimum achievement (Goleman, 1995, p.34) and that organisations
that promote emotional intelligence will be more effective and productive (1998b, 4). A major
criticism of Goleman’s work was the broad nature of the competencies which often had few
links with the theory of emotion or intelligence (Mayer et al 2004). Similarly Onsman (2003,
suggested Goleman’s model could be abbreviated to “being nice” (p.251).
Some models of emotional intelligence are based on personalty traits and therefore show a
strong correlation with them (Brackett & Mayer, 2003). Bar-On (1997) characterised
emotional intelligence as "an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that
influence one's abilty to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures"
according to Bar-On & Parker (2000) who created a model of emotional intelligence
consisting of five key competencies. They developed a commercially available test for
assessing against these competencies. The five dimensions of the Bar-On model are: (a)
interpersonal emotional quotient (EQ) which summarises a person’s emotional intelligence
and includes self awareness, independence and self regard; (b) interpersonal EQ which
includes empathy and social responsibility; (c) adaptability EQ, including problem solving
skills; (d) stress management EQ and (e) general mood EQ which includes optimism and
pessimism. These qualities are assessed using self reporting measuring tools. As such the
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Bar-On model and other personality based models may assess items other than those
associated with emotional intelligence. (Bar-On et al, 2000, p.364, Mayer et al. 2004).
Building on earlier research, Mayer and Salovey (1997) developed a four branch model of
emotional intelligence. The model shows emotional intelligence as a multidimensional
construct with each branch assisting the development of the other branches. The model
includes the abilities to (a) accurately perceive emotions, (b) to access and generate
emotions so as to assist thought, (c) to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and
to (d) reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth.
There also is a developmental progression of skills from the more basic to the more
sophisticated within each branch (Mayer and Salovey, 1997).
The first branch to accurately perceive emotions requires the perception of emotion including
the nonverbal perception and expression of emotion in the face, voice, and in communication.
It involves the ability to recognise emotion in others' facial and postural expressions. (Mayer
et al, 2004). A part of this self-awareness is to express emotions and emotional needs
accurately to others. The second branch encapsulates the capacity of emotions to assist
thinking. It refers to a person’s ability to use emotions when they prioritise their thinking. It
allows people to focus on important information that explains why specific feelings are being
felt in any situation (Jordan and Troth, 2004). Izard, (2001) suggests that knowledge of the
link between emotions and thinking can be used to direct individual planning. The third branch
shows understanding emotions as the ability to analyse emotions, predict their probable
trends over time, and understand their outcomes. The developmental of a person’s ability to
understand emotions runs in parallel with the growth of language and propositional thought
(Mayer et al., 2004). The fourth branch of the Mayer and Salovey model is closely linked to
the elements of personality (Mayer et al., 2004). It involves the management of emotion in
relation to a person’s knowledge and awareness of self, as well as a person’s important
objectives. It can include coping with emotions and coping with the events that cause
emotions.
Team Performance and Emotional Intelligence
A growing number of writers suggest high emotional intelligence has a positive influence on
performance in teams (Druskat & Wolff, 2001; Jordan & Troth, 2004; Murray & Jordan 2006)
A range of possible reasons for this relationship have been suggested: high emotional
intelligence means greater emotional awareness and the greater ability to manage other team
members leading to increased team performance (Jordon & Troth 2004) Higher emotional
intelligence leads to better communication and therefore better decision making in teams
(Pelled, Eisenhardt & Xin, 1999) Higher emotional intelligence leads to more effective conflict
management and therefore greater team performance (Jordon & Troth, 2004). Emotional
intelligence observed Mayer et al. (2004); will positively contribute to job performance when
the maintenance of positive personal commitment is most important to success”.
The concept of group emotion was developed by Kelly and Barsade (2001) which identifies
the emotional traits of group members within a work team environment. The term group
emotional intelligence was also used by Druskat and Wolfe (2001) to describe the collective
emotional intelligence of teams. Druskat and Wolfe examined cross-functional manufacturing
teams and concluded that group emotional intelligence was the biggest predictor of team
success. This they explained is because teams that possess high levels of group emotional
intelligence have developed norms that strengthen trust, group identity, and group efficacy.
As a result, their members cooperate more creatively in the team project and collaborate
more fully with one another (Druskat and Wolfe 2001)
Research conducted by Jordan and Troth (2002) with 448 undergraduate university students
who were formed into teams. Each team was required to submit weekly reports of their team
meetings in relation to process effectiveness and goal focus over a period of nine weeks.
The results of the study initially showed that teams with the highest average emotional
intelligence performed better than team with low average emotional intelligence, however, the
low emotional intelligence teams eventually matched the high emotional intelligence teams’
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performance (Jordan et al., 2002). The researchers were not able to determine the cause of
the performance improvement of the low emotional intelligence teams.
In Slaski and Cartwright’s (2003) study of 120 retail managers assessments of emotional
intelligence, general health and stress scales were completed The experimental group was
then given emotional intelligence training one day each week over a four-week period. The
candidates were then reassessed. The results indicated that the emotional intelligence scores
of the training group increased significantly. However, Slaski and Cartwright (2002) found no
related increases in performance between the training and control group.
Another study in which 350 participants working in 108 teams were given an emotional
intelligence test and then asked to complete a problem solving task was conducted by Jordan
and Troth, (2004). Although emotional intelligence played no role in determining performance
in individual problem solving the study found that teams with higher levels of emotional
intelligence performed better than teams with lower levels of emotional intelligence in the
team problem solving task. Participant’s ability to manage their own emotions was significant
in the prediction of team performance. In relation to conflict within the team Jordan et al found
individuals within a team who had high emotional intelligence scores were more likely to use a
collaborative form of conflict resolution which was more productive than the avoidance style
adopted by the low emotional intelligence participants.
An eighteen-month experimental study to determine whether emotional intelligence can be
improved through training and to explore the impact of emotional intelligence training on the
performance of individuals and teams was undertaken by Murray and Jordan (2006). They
hypothesised that training in emotional intelligence skills and abilities will increase
emotional intelligence, that training work teams in emotional intelligence skills and abilities will
improve the task performance of work teams and that training emotional intelligence skill and
abilities will improve contextual performance of work teams. The study was conducted in a
large public sector organisation. The experimental group received a two and a half day
emotions focused training intervention and the control group did not receive any training. Both
groups were tested pre and post training. The study found emotional intelligence skills can be
improved through the provision of emotional intelligence training and that increases in
individual emotional intelligence was linked to improvements in team performance.
Emotional Intelligence Training
With an increased understanding of emotional intelligence and the competencies required to
possess it questions have been raised over whether or not emotional intelligence can be
taught (McShane & Travaglione 2003). The idea that intelligence can be divided into two
types: fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence, was suggested by Horn and Cattell
(1966). Fluid intelligence was thought to be the adaptability and basic reasoning ability of an
individual and regarded as unable to be learned. Crystallized intelligence, the level of ability in
skills valued by that individual’s culture on the other hand increases with experience and
therefore can be changed (Horn and Cattell; 1966). A growing number of authors have
described emotional intelligence as a crystallized and support the idea of emotional
intelligence training. (Davies et al., 1998; Mayer & Salovey, 1997, Murray & Jordan 2006).
The Mayer and Salovey (1997) model is often is cited as the most appropriate model of
emotional intelligence for research purposes (Jordan, Ashkanesy & Hartel, 2003; Jordan &
Troth, 2004; Murray & Jordan 2006). It will therefore be used as a basis for the following
recommended training activities. It should be noted that some of these activities form the
basis of the widely used The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT)
(Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002). If MSCEIT is to be used at a later date care should be
taken not to train students in passing the test.
Emotional intelligence training using Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) model.
To increase the ability to accurately perceive emotions
Video clips from which students must distinguish between accurate and inaccurate
expressions of emotions and thus honest and dishonest expression is one approach to
developing this skill. Video clips can also be shown with the sound turned off; students should
4
be asked to identify what emotions are being portrayed. Reflecting on the emotions felt in past
experiences has also been shown to increases the development of emotional recognition
(Caruso & Salovey, 2004).
Activities where students are asked to identify and discuss the emotions in pictures of people
in particular people’s faces will assist the development of emotional perception (Ekman &
Friesen, 1975.) Similar and more advanced activities can be developed asking participants to
discuss the emotions associated with pictures of more abstract landscapes and designs.
(Mayer et al. 2004) In addition activities which develop an awareness of body language and
bodily actions have been shown to be useful (Planalp, 1999; Planalp, DeFrancisco, &
Rutherford, 1996). Researchers at the University of Amsterdam used emotion-recognition
software to characterise the subject of Leonardo da Vinci's famous painting "Mona Lisa." The
researchers used faces of women to create a composite image. The task helped the
development of emotional recognition in the participants (Trzaska, 2006). Sharing stories was
shown to assist the development emotional awareness in a study by Van Buskirk & McGrath,
(1992).
To increase the ability to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought
Case studies in which students are required to look at issues from a number of emotional
perspectives including optimistic and pessimistic approaches may assist students to develop
the ability to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought. Comparing emotions to
tactile stimuli can also assist the development of this skill (Rime, Philippot, & Cisamolo, 1990).
Students should be given a range of materials and asked to describe the emotions this elicits.
Another activity involves asking students to discuss the emotions that will best encourage a
specific type of thinking for example planning a celebration or planning a memorial service.
(Erez & Isen, 2002)Training students to understand the causes and consequences of positive
and negative emotional cycles and knowledge of emotions during change was suggested by
Murray et al. (2006).
Studying works of literature alongside empirical psychology to further the understanding of
emotions was advocated by Elster (1999) who suggested William Shakespeare, Jane
Austen, and George Eliot are worthy of study. Oatley (2004) made a case for studying
imaginative literature for example drama, novels and short stories to analyse emotional life, its
vicissitudes, and its potential solutions. He suggested “experts include those who have written
about emotions whose work has sufficient resonance with generations of people that it has
become canonical and remains vivid and meaningful.” (p217).
To increase the ability to understand emotions
Training in this aspect of emotional intelligence may include discussing what causes
emotional intensity to increase and decrease in individual and group situations (Ortony, Clore,
& Collins, 1988). This can lead to discussions on how one emotional state can develop into
another for example happiness into mania; betrayal into anger. Another skill which can be
developed through discussion is to identify the range of emotions which make up a complex
emotional state for example simultaneous feelings of loyalty and frustration. This is called
identifying the blends of an emotion (Mayer et al., 2004). Role plays where students must
Identify and generate specific emotions that assist task completion was suggested by Davis,
Conklin, Smith, & Luce, (1996). Barsade, (2002) suggested training in the causes,
consequences and skills of emotional contagion.
To increase ability to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional
and intellectual growth.
Learning how to focus on or remove from focus any emotion depending on it’s usefulness in a
given situation assists this area of emotional intelligence. This is referred to as flow
(Seligman, 2002) and is about expertise in engaging creatively in what one is doing, as
opposed to worrying, or wishing to be somewhere else, or feeling oppressed by the situation.
Strategies can be taught to manage emotions this may include taking a walk when feeling
angry or to see the cup half full rather than half empty. Oatley (2004) advocates studying
people who have survived serious adversity such as torture, major illness, war or family
violence. Survivors are experts at managing their own emotions.
5
Students can be asked to identify strong emotions they have had at times of decision making
and discuss these in relation to whether they helped or hindered finding a solution to a
problem, and how they might in the future tap into helpful emotions and tune out of hindering
ones. Training may include studying case studies in which the trainee is expected to indicate
how they would maintain or change their feelings in such a situation (Gross, 1998) Students
can also be shown case situations where they should indicate how they will manage others
feelings so that a desired outcome is achieved (Ford & Tisak, 1983). Learning to manage
stress was suggested by Ashkanasy & Daus, (2002). Emotions can be developed by learning
visualisation, deep acting and empathy (Ashkanasy et al., 2002).
Putting it into practise emotional intelligence training in undergraduate
programmes.
There is an increasing tendency to use team assignments in undergraduate programmes. As
this paper has shown increasing evidence supports the idea that the combined emotional
intelligence of team members will influence the team’s task performance and consequently
their grades. As emotional intelligence is trainable, this could be used to improve the
effectiveness of team work and consequently grades. This final section of this paper will look
at how this can be achieved in an undergraduate programme.
There has been a range of ideas suggested on how emotional intelligence training should be
undertaken. The importance of empathy in emotional intelligence was highlighted by
Goleman (1995) who considered understanding another’s emotions as an important first step
in developing emotional intelligence. Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee (2002) suggested emotional
intelligence training must have clear goals, support should be introduced and practice be
reinforced, role models be created and that participants should have an awareness of their
personal strengths and weaknesses. They believed trainees should have clear learning goals
before they commence their training programme and that Training programmes should also
be evaluated for their effectiveness. An advocate of emotional intelligence training; Cherniss
(2000) suggests that training should be experiential rather than lecture based and
recommends that it be delivered by facilitators who are passionate about the emotional
intelligence competencies being developed. Further, encouraging student reflection, emotion
journals and practice in interpersonal skills will improve emotional intelligence competencies
(Clark et al., 2003).
Taking these ideas into account The Manukau Business School has introduced three
compulsory integrated papers to develop specific skills required across their business
discipline subjects. Emotional Intelligence training has been identified as a critical component
of these papers and therefore is introduced in the first module. Training begins with an
introduction to emotional intelligence and equal time is spent explaining and training in each
of the four emotional intelligence skills using Mayer and Salovey’s (1997) model. The training
is interactive with a discussion session at the end of each training activity. To enable the
student to determine their own areas of strengths and developmental areas a freely available
self scoring emotional intelligence test is administered. Research is currently being
undertaken to investigate the success of this training and its impact on performance.
Conclusions
This paper investigated the emotional intelligence in a team setting and its consequences for
team performance. Emotional intelligence was defined by Salovey and Mayer (1990) as ‘a set
of skills hypothesised to contribute to the accurate appraisal of and expression of emotion in
oneself and others” (p185). Emotional intelligence is a mental ability and as such is capable of
being developed and measured (Salovey and Mayer 1990). Emotional intelligence is different
from verbal communication and personality. Studies were shown to support the idea that
people can be trained to use their moods or emotions to assist in their own and their team
members thinking and consequently their task performance. A case was presented for
educators who use group based assignments to consider the use of emotional intelligence
training for their students. It is proposed that a team whose members attain higher than
average emotional intelligence scores will perform better on its team assignments. If
6
assessment grades are to be given on team performance then students should be given the
emotional intelligence training they need to achieve optimum results.
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