The Understanding of Music
Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
Classical Era (slide #1, 2, 3)
In the Classical era, society was guided by the principles of order, balance, objectivity, and
reasoning. The period is known as the Enlightenment, part of the Age of Reason. It was a
progressive period, when social critics were promoting the ideas of freedom, liberty, equality,
and the “natural (or God-given rights) rights” of all people. John Locke of England discussed
“government existing as a social contract with the governed” – or the people. Voltaire of France
objected to the abuses of the ruling monarchies and the church. Rousseau, also from France,
stated that “man is born free, yet everywhere he is in chains”. Immanuel Kant from Germany
issued his “Dare to Know”, suggesting that is was not enough to simply discern ethical
principles, but that there was an obligation to take action even at personal risk to implement
change, and the American Thomas Jefferson, who wrote about the “inalienable rights of life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”.
The two most notable events were the American Revolution and the French Revolution. Some
of America’s founding documents - our Declaration or Independence and the Constitution are
considered to be virtual “Enlightenment Manifestos” or the best statements of those ideals.
The French Revolution began with the noble ideals of “liberty, equality, fraternity”, by which
they meant the ‘brotherhood of man’, and promoted the “3rd estate”, meaning the people.
These and other reforms towards more representative and democratic societies resulted in
diminishing power of the ruling monarchies - their era of dominance was coming to a close, and
the influence of the middle class was rising in part because of the political changes, but also
because of the industrial revolution and advances in science. The invention of the steam
engine and the cotton gin led to mechanized agriculture, Benjamin Franklin discovered
electricity, and vaccination was perfected. During this period, new reference sources such as
the French Encyclopedia, the Encyclopedia Brittanica, the German Lexicon, and Webster’s
Dictionary were published. These efforts along other periodicals and monographs supported
that idea that if people were going to be capable of “self-government”, they must be an
educated culture. The arts were also inspired by ancient Greece and Rome, especially in
Architecture. Many of our earliest universities, the nation’s capital, and private estates like
Thomas Jefferson’s home feature the column façade of ancient Grecian buildings. It is also
significant that ancient Athens had the first democracy, with annual elections, a written
constitution, and a jury system, principles included in the developing social order of the new
era.
Music in the Classical Era (slide #4)
During the Classical Era, Vienna was considered the “cultural capitol of Europe”. Classical music
is referred to as the “Viennese School” and Vienna was the chosen residence of the composers
we will study as well as Schubert from the early Romantic period. Music was a part of daily life.
In Vienna everyone took lessons and performed music in the home. That contention is
supported by history which indicates that in this relatively small city, there were 300 piano
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The Understanding of Music
Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
teachers alone not counting musicians in other fields. That musical heritage continues today –
in the late 20th century, the country of Austria spent almost as much on state-sponsored opera
as it did on national defense, a level of support for the arts that is unheard of in the entire
history of music. Patronage by the royal courts and aristocrats remained a major source of
support for musicians, but as we study the composers, we will learn about the beginning of
free-lance careers – Haydn had a lucrative royal court position - Mozart engaged in the difficult
life of an independent composer - Beethoven, though supported financially by wealthy
aristocrats, was essentially a free artist and perhaps the first to be successful as an independent
composer.
Women during the Classical era were enjoying increased opportunities as performers and
teachers, some becoming true ‘stars’ and making a career in music. Music performance began
to shift for the palace to the public concert hall and opera theatres.
Elements of Musical Style (slide #5)
Before you begin to study the details of Classical music, review this chart which provides an
overview of the changes from Baroque to Classical Music.
Classical music is based on the development of melody, and for that reason homophonic
texture is the dominant style, with only brief sections of polyphonic imitation. Another area of
critical importance is the use of diatonic harmony (or Major and Minor keys) in the
development of musical forms. The history of music composition shows a continual increase of
instructions provided by the composer for the purpose of dictating the sound of his music.
Dynamics which already included the basic forte and piano markings began to use gradual
changes such as crescendo and diminuendo, and sforzando, which is a heavy accent on a single
note. The late Baroque practice of indicating specific tempo markings became standard
practice, and included the use of gradual changes such as accelerando, ritardando, and a
tempo. The music is very lyrical and singable as many melodies and rhythms make use of
traditional folk song characteristics.
Classical Forms (slide #6)
The Classical Era is a time of a monumental increase in instrumental music. While the oratorio
and opera genres developed in the Baroque era continue to evolve in this time period,
instrumental music begins to take on a more prominent role. The symphony develops from the
instrumental overture found at the beginning of most operas and oratorios. From there, we
have the development of chamber music, specifically the string quartet. These latter two forms
propel the time period into the development of new forms for musicians and composers.
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The Understanding of Music
Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
The Baroque Orchestra (slide #7)
During the Classical Era, the orchestra gradually became larger. The strings were already
complete in the Baroque section. The clarinet was invented, completing the basic four families
of woodwind instruments in pairs. Trumpets and french horns were also used in pairs.
Beethoven increased the size of the orchestra and added additional instruments, particularly
trombones and piccolo. When the piano was invented, it replaced the harpsichord as the
favorite keyboard instrument. This is because of the Classical composers’ interest in musical
contrast. A harpsichord could play only 2 volume levels – loud and soft, but the piano is
capable of playing the full range of dynamic levels and articulation styles with a subtlety and
nuance not possible on a harpsichord.
Expanding Musical Ideas (slide #8, 9)
Instrumental music in the Classical era is referred to as “Absolute Music” or music without any
literary reference. This is different than the “Program Music” example of Vivaldi’s Spring
Concerto we studied which was based on a poem. In absolute music, the development of
“musical form” based on melody and harmony “contrast” is the most important expressive
characteristic. No longer does the “Doctrine of Affections” (or one mood) pervade an entire
piece. Contrast is found in the use of multiple melodies, changing harmonies, dynamics,
tempos, and varied articulation styles. Here is an example from Beethoven’s 5th symphony with
the melody in a legato, or smooth connected style Audio - Beethoven legato
Here is another section of the same piece in a “staccato” or short, separated style.
Audio - Beethoven staccato
“Marcato” refers to “an entire section that is heavily accented” and is a term not used in our
textbook, but it is a style we should know. Here is an example from Beethoven’s 5 th Symphony
of marcato style.
Audio - Beethoven marcato
Here is an example from Beethoven’s String Quartet which has a few crescendos (or gradually
louder) on repeated notes, and a ritardando (or gradually slower) followed by the “a tempo” or
return to the original pace.
Audio - Beethoven String Quartet
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Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
Musical forms are built from the multiple themes (or melodies) which can be manipulated in
various ways referred to as thematic development. The use of motives, sequences and ostinato
are also common development practices. Motive and sequence we have studied before. An
“ostinato” is repetition at the same pitch level, not to be confused with “sequence” which we
learned as repetition at different pitch levels.
The Multi-movement cycle – First Movement (slide #10)
The Classial era standardized musical form into a 3 or 4 movement cycle, and we will look at the
characteristics of each movement. First, harmony is a crucial factor – you will notice that our
assigned music includes the harmony or Tonic key as part of the title of the piece – Haydn’s
Symphony #100 in G Major, Beethoven’s Symphony #5 in C Minor. Even though our listening
guides sometimes indicate specific harmonies used in other sections of a piece (such as the
parallel, the relative, the Dominant, the Sub-dominant), we may consider all of them as
“contrasting” or “related” harmonies, because contrast is the purpose of any harmonic change.
Thus we will examine harmony as only two options – the tonic key, or the “contrasting related”
key.
The first movement of a cycle is typically sonata form or sonata-allegro form (the word allegro
indicating that is a fast tempo movement). It has three large sections, the exposition, the
development, and the recapitulation. The primary melodies are Theme I and Theme II, which
contrast both in harmony and in performance style. One common device is for a theme section
to build (or crescendo) to a climax and end with repeated cadences, rocking back and forth like
the music is stuck in one place. Here is an example of theme I from Mozart’s 40th Symphony.
Audio - Mozart Theme I
Theme II is of course a contrasting melody in a related harmony. Notice that is a less active
rhythm, legato style and involves woodwinds, instead of simply the strings used in Theme I.
Here is Theme II from Mozart’s 40th Symphony.
Audio - Mozart Theme II
Between Theme I and Theme II is the bridge or transition – either term is correct. The purpose
of a bridge is the gradual change of harmony leading from the tonic to a related key. Because it
is a gradual change instead of an immediate change, a bridge is very unstable and constantly
shifting it’s pitch level. You can think of this as harmony travel, much like turning on various
streets to reach your destination. It becomes stable only with the repeated cadences at the
end, when it has arrived at the new harmony. Here is an example of Mozart’s bridge.
Audio - Mozart’s bridge
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Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
The exposition ends with a closing section. Normally, this does not involve new melodies but
simply rounds out the exposition with previous melody ideas and the expected repeated
cadences at the end. Here is Mozart’s closing section.
Audio - Mozart’s closing
The development is simply a manipulation of the primary theme and may use any number of
devices as indicated on the chart.
Audio - Mozart’s development
The recapitulation is a repeat of the exposition with one major difference – both of the main
themes are in the tonic of home key. The sonata form also ends with a coda or short ending
section.
The Second Movement (slide #11)
The second movement is normally a Theme and Variations form. We studied that during the
materials unit. As the chart shows, the entire piece is based on the same theme, but each
variation involves changes in melodic, rhythmic, or harmonic content. One key factor to
remember – the theme and the final variation are in the tonic key. Other sections may have
the same or different harmonies. The small case letters simply indicate that usually the theme
is a 2-part or Binary melody consisting of ‘a’ and ‘b’ phrases. An example we will study later is
Beethoven’s 5th Symphony, the second movement
The Third Movement (slide #12)
The standard 3rd movement is the minuet and trio, a basic A B A or ternary form. A minuet is a
dance. The second minuet is called a trio because it was common to have this dance performed
by only 3 instruments. The closing minuet did not have to be written down. At the end of the
trio, they simply inserted the word da capo which means return to the beginning and play the
opening theme again, thus developing a ternary structure. The small case letters indicate that
usually each theme is a type of 2-part or binary melody. An important fact to remember is that
the minuet sections are in the tonic key, while the trio is in a contrasting or related harmony.
Our example of minuet and trio is Mozart’s Eine Kleine Nachtmusick, the third movement,
which we will study later.
The Fourth Movement (slide #13)
Rondo form was the basic fourth movement structure. We have already studied a rondo by
Mouret during the Baroque era. The essential elements of a rondo are that the A Theme
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Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
returns after each contrasting section. Notice that the A Theme is always in the tonic key, while
the other sections are in a contrasting or related harmony.
Multi-movement Cycle (slide #14)
This chart is a summary of the four-movement cycle. The basic tempo format is fast, slow,
moderate, fast, and common tempo terms are listed. The key of each movement and the
standard form of each movement is indicated. The changes in the third movement, shown in
parenthesis, refer specifically to Beethoven, who used a Scherzo & Trio instead of the standard
Minuet & Trio. This cycle was the common structure for symphonies, string quartets, and some
sonatas (especially towards the end of the period). The cycle was developed by using the
previous three movement sonata/concerto structure, and inserting an additional dance-like
movement which became the third movement. You should print out this page and use as a
reference when we are studying the assigned music.
Joseph Haydn (slide #15, 16)
Haydn was a violinist, and keyboard player. He was influenced at an early age by the folk songs
and dances of his hometown, a small village in Austria. By the age of 8, he was in Vienna to
study music and begin his career. In his late 20’s, Haydn received his big break – being
employed by the House of Esterhazy, a Hungarian noble family. This was a very lucrative
position with an orchestra, opera company, and choir to conduct. It has been called “patronage
at it’s best” not only because of the substantial salary, but also because Haydn’s contract did
not contain the normal “exclusive use” clause. Haydn therefore enjoyed more freedom to
create music, accept commissions, and travel than earlier composers who were viewed as
servants. Haydn is often cited as the “father of the string quartet”, and “father of the
symphony”, two genres which developed the Classical period. Haydn was a young musician
when Bach was still composing in the Baroque style, and lived a very long life into Beethoven’s
middle years, thus Haydn’s music reflects the dramatic changes from Baroque to Classical Style.
Haydn is known for his symphonies, twelve of which are called the London Symphonies
composed for trips to that city. He also wrote two oratorios, a favorite genre in England. His
other music includes concertos, operas, keyboard music, and most notably string quartets.
Mozart considered Haydn the true “Master of the String Quartet”.
Here are a couple Haydn examples – first, one of the earliest Trumpet concertos
Audio - Trumpet concerto
Here is an example from one of his oratorios, The Creation.
Audio – Oratorio
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Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
Mozart (slide #17)
Mozart was born in Salzburg, and our text refers to him as “the most extraordinarily gifted child
in the history of music” – a child prodigy. He began concert tours at the age of 6. The benefit
of this was not only that it brought fame and wealth to the family, but more importantly,
Mozart was exposed to a wide variety of musical specialties in various countries, including the
keyboard music of France, the choral tradition in England, the German polyphonic style, and
Italian opera. On one occasion, he attended a performance at the Sistine Chapel and heard a
motet, a fairly complex genre we have studied. After hearing the piece only 1 time, he wrote
down the parts as if he had composed it himself. Mozart had a perfect “musical memory”. This
of course was illegal because the music was the private property of the Church. Though the
usual consequence would have been a reprimand or excommunication, the Pope deemed it
such an amazing accomplishment, that he knighted the young Mozart.
Mozart’s first position was as a violinist with the Archbishop of Salzburg, the same orchestra his
father worked for. He was unhappy in this job being the ‘rookie’ and not receiving the salary or
opportunities afforded to veteran musicians. By his mid-20’s, Mozart was in Vienna
establishing a reputable career as ‘freelance’ musician. In this era, a music career without the
support of a major patron was difficult, resulting in periods of financial instability. Haydn
considered Mozart “the greatest composer of our time”, and wrote many letters to the
aristocrats of Vienna complaining about the meager wages Mozart received.
Mozart composed music in many genres, but especially of note are his final symphonies, the 1st
major set of piano concertos, and of course opera in all styles. During the Classical era, no
composer could compare to the “Master of Classical Opera”.
Here are a few examples. Mozart wrote one of the 1st Clarinet Concertos.
Audio - Clarinet Concerto
The next example is his last piece, the Requiem, left unfinished but completed later by a
student from Mozart’s own sketches.
Audio - Mozart Requiem
Beethoven (slide #18)
Beethoven was perhaps the greatest composer in all of history, and we will study him in more
detail than others. He led a troubled personal life of abuse, hearing loss, and heartbreak. He
was born in Bonn, Germany and his grandfather was the conductor of the Bonn court orchestra.
Unfortunately, his father was an abusive alcoholic. Even though Beethoven showed great
promise at an early age, he would frequently be beaten or awakened in the middle of the night
to play piano and even locked in the basement when his performance did not please the father.
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Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
In his teenage years, he took the legal step of becoming formal head of household, caring for
his younger brothers and a father he despised. This experience left Beethoven a bitter,
isolated, and unhappy person given to fits of rage, traits that would follow him throughout the
rest of his life.
Finally at the age of 22, he was able to move to Vienna, the city of opportunity to begin his
career. The textbook refers to this time as “modified patronage”, but essentially Beethoven
was a free artist. Though he received financial support from the wealthy aristocrats, there
were no strings attached. They stated that Beethoven should be “free to compose and realize
his genius, unburdened by the necessities of life”.
He was an instant star, playing his piano works of incredible energy, and was even known to
have broken strings because of his aggressive style. Despite the support of patrons, Beethoven
remained a very independent and defiant person - stating on one occasion - “I can be
subsidized, but I cannot be bought”. On another occasion, he stormed out of a performance for
one of his patrons, exclaiming “There will be many Count Litzknowky’s in this world, but there is
only one Beethoven”.
In his late 20’s, Beethoven began to lose his hearing, and he was devastated. He retreated to a
place called Heilgenstadt, where doctors tried every solution but without effect. He wrote the
famous Heilgenstadt statement, expressing his deep despair over losing the one sense that is
most crucial to a musician. It was like a last will and testament – “It would take little for me to
end my life, it was art only that held me back”. Ironically, like many of his letters, it was never
mailed, but found in his desk upon his death.
Beethoven also had a series of failed romantic relationships. Unfortunately, most of his lovers
were aristocratic, wealthy, and even married ladies who were infatuated by the musical star.
But these were short-lived romances because they would not marry a man who had no royal
title. The relationships caused great anxiety, as seen in his letter to his “Immortal Beloved”. The
woman being addressed is somewhat in dispute, and the letter, like many others, was never
mailed.
Beethoven’s last personal crisis was a lengthy and bitter custody battle for a nephew.
Beethoven won, but obviously he was not the fatherly type, and the relationship was a
miserable existence for both of them.
In all of the these times of personal crisis, Beethoven composed very little, but immediately
rebounded from his period of despair, and the next few years would produce some of the
greatest masterpieces the world has ever known. His music was not only his passion, but a
refuge, therapy, an escape, and his means of recovery from a daily life that he simply could not
deal with.
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The Understanding of Music
Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
Chamber Music (slide #19, 20)
The Classical era has been called the “Golden Age of Chamber Music”, and the string quartet
was the most important ensemble. Chamber music is for a small number of performers, and
often composed for evening social affairs in aristocratic homes. Other types include keyboard
pieces, duos, trios, or quartets, serenades, and divertimentos. A string quartet consists of two
violins, one viola, and one cello and is cast in the four-movement cycle we discussed earlier.
Haydn Emperor’s Quartet (slide #21)
Haydn’s Emperor’s Quartet is based on a patriotic hymn he wrote for the Emperor when
Napoleon’s armies invaded Austria. It became their National Anthem until Hitler’s Germany
began to use the melody in the late 1940’s when Austria chose a new National Anthem.
Haydn Listening Guide, pg. 1 (slide #22)
Our excerpt is the second movement. As typical according to the four-movment cycle chart,
this second movement is a slow tempo (adagio), and in theme and variations form. It is also
marked cantabile, which means in a singing style.
Haydn Listening Guide pg 2 (slide #23)
Here are a few excerpts. The opening theme is in the violin with chordal accompaniment.
Notice the fz markings in the third phrase. This is an example of Sforzando – an accent on a
single note or chord. Do not confuse this with marcato, a term we learned referring to an
entire section of music that is heavily accented.
Audio - main theme
Here is a brief excerpt of Variation I featuring a duet between the second violin melody and the
first violin playing a high-range elaborate rhythm part.
Audio - Variation I
And here is an excerpt of Variation II with melody in the lowest instrument – the cello – and
accompaniment parts in the upper strings.
Audio - Variation II
Listen to the rest of this piece as you follow your listening guide.
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Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
Eine Kleine Nachtmusic (slide #24)
Our example of Mozart’s chamber music is a serenade, translated “A Little Night Music”. It is
written for only string instruments, and probably for a social occasion. The first and third
movements we study begin with a “Rocket Theme”, a popular melody device during the
Classical period which was created by the Mannheim School in Germany.
Eine Kleine listening guide (slide #25)
The 1st movement is the typical fast tempo (Allegro) and in Sonata-Allegro form. Here is an
example of the march-like Theme I.
Audio - excerpt Theme I
Eine Kleine listening guide (slide #26)
Theme II is a very graceful descending melody in contrast to the ascending Rocket Theme used
in the beginning.
Audio - excerpt Theme II
Eine Kleine listening guide (slide #27)
The third movement is the typical Minuet and Trio form, and a moderate range tempo, marked
“Allegretto” which means moderately fast. Listen especially to the contrast of “staccato” and
“legato” styles. Here is the opening staccato “Minuet” melody.
Audio - Mozart minuet
Here is the legato “Trio” melody.
Audio - Mozart trio
Haydn and the Symphony (slide #28, 29)
The classical orchestra as discussed earlier was a constantly expanding ensemble with the
invention of the clarinet created woodwinds, trumpets, and horns in pairs, and additional
instruments added by Beethoven. The heart of a classical orchestra was the string family, with
other instruments being used for contrast, and a more massive sound. Our first example is
Haydn’s Symphony #100 or “Military” symphony, one of his so-called “London Symphonies”. It
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is written in the standard four-movement structure, but the second movement is not a typical
format. Instead of a slow tempo, it is marked Allegretto or moderately fast. It is also written in
ternary form instead of the typical Theme and Variations. Because of the influence of Janissary
Bands (or military bands), the orchestra has an expanded percussion section.
Haydn Symphony listening guide (slide #30)
Here is an excerpt from the graceful A section.
Audio - A section
The B section includes the percussion for the military effect.
Audio - B section
The Coda starts with a trumpet fanfare – Trumpet was originally a military instrument, long
before it’s inclusion in the orchestra. Here is an example of the Coda.
Audio - Coda
Beethoven music (slide #31)
Beethoven is regarded as the “transitional composer” from classical style to the romantic era.
The major changes in his style begin during his second period, shortly after discovering his
approaching deafness at Heilgenstadt. He stated “it wanted me to seize fate by the throat”.
The result was an expanded expressive range with large powerful orchestral sounds and more
important use of the brass instruments. The final period continued his style development.
Essentially, Beethoven changed the entire purpose of music from being a form of simple
entertainment, to an art that expressed personal emotions and noble ideals, characteristics
that would become the standard for Romantic composers.
Beethoven Music (slide #32)
Beethoven is known for several genres. His string quartets are emotional and difficult pieces.
We heard an excerpt of one earlier when discussing dynamics and tempos. One performer
commented that the piece should be re-written because it was too difficult to play, but
characteristic of Beethoven’s personality, he remarked “do you think I give a damn about your
miserable violin when the muse visits me”. He is especially known for his “Piano Sonatas”,
which are required pieces for any professional artist and referred to as the pianist’s “New
Testament” (the so-called “Old Testament” of piano study is Bach’s “Well-Tempered Clavier”).
His greatest achievement may be the 9 symphonies, which were standards for future
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generations. His third symphony was originally written for one of his idols, Napolean
Bonaparte, during the very beginning of the French Revolution. However, a year later,
Napolean declared himself Emperor of France and proceeded to invade and conquer Europe.
When this happened, Beethoven stated “now he too will trample on the rights of men, and
indulge only his ambition”. He tore Napoleon’s name from the music, and re-titled it the
“Eroica” symphony in tribute to the ideals of the French Revolution. The Fifth Symphony we
will study on our listening list. The ninth symphony is a landmark work, being the first
symphony to use a chorus, singing the words of Schiller’s Ode to Joy. The poem’s references
such as “all men will be brothers” was a key to Beethoven’s philosophical beliefs. In more
recent times, it was performed when the Berlin Wall came down, and on other occasions
representing liberty and freedom. Here is an excerpt of “Ode to Joy” melody.
Audio - Ode to Joy
Fidelio, his only opera, was about a political prisoner and written at the conclusion of the
Napoleanic wars, symbolizing newly freed Europe. Beethoven wrote very little sacred music,
but like other composers we will study, at the end of his life, Beethoven began to contemplate
death and life after death. The result was his only sacred Mass called the “Missa Solemnis”.
Beethoven’s 5th Symphony (slide #33)
Beethoven’s 5th Symphony is our next musical example. It is based on a motive of three short
and one long notes that are used in all movements to unify the piece. He called this motive
“fate knocking at the door” and as noted earlier, this was written shortly after discovering his
hearing loss. In many ways, it is a window into his despair and his recovery at that point in his
life. Listen to this opening theme – very angry and vengeful.
Audio - Beethoven I, opening
The symphony ends as a testament to his determination to recover from adversity. There may
not be a more heroic, triumphant melody than the opening of this fourth movement.
Audio - Beethoven IV, opening
Print out this page for a summary of the characteristics of the first movement.
Beethoven listening guide, I, pg 1 (slide #34)
As we study the fifth symphony, we will also review the standard four-movement structure.
The first movement is the typical fast tempo (allegro), and in the typical form (sonata-allegro),
and in the tonic key (for Symphony No. 5, this is C Minor). We have just heard Theme I with the
motive opening. Here is the contrasting Theme II, involving a related harmony, and more
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woodwinds. Notice that Beethoven always introduces Theme II with an expanded 6-note
motive making it 3 short and 3 long notes.
Audio - Beethoven, Theme II
Beethoven Listening Guide, I, pg. 2 (slide #35)
For some reason (I have no idea why) the Recapitulation which normally is a repeat of the
Exposition, includes a short Oboe solo at the end of Theme I.
Audio - Beethoven Theme I, Recaptulation
Finally, here is an example of his typical expanded Codas. Mozart and Haydn codas were very
short, as if to say “here is the primary melody, and that’s all – the end”. Beethoven keeps
extending a coda and even includes additional melodic ideas not heard in the earlier sections of
the music.
Audio - Beethoven coda, I
Beethoven, II (slide #36)
Beethoven’s 2nd movement, as expected, is a slow range tempo (Andante, meaning a walking
pace), in Theme and Variations Form, and in a contrasting harmony (not in C Minor).
Beethoven uses 2 contrasting themes in this movement. Print out this page as a summary of
the important characteristics
Beethoven, II, listening guide, pg. 1 (slide #37)
Here is an example of opening legato melody of the second movement.
Audio - Beethoven, II, Theme I
Here is an example the motive theme, first in woodwinds, but then repeated as a very majestic
melody in the Brass
Audio - Beethoven, II, motive theme
Beethoven, II, listening guide, pg 2 (slide #38)
The variations consist primarily of a faster note version of the first Theme. Here is an example.
Audio - Beethoven, II, later variation
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Listen to the second movement following the Listening Guide.
Beethoven, III (slide #39)
As is common, Beethoven substituted the original third movement Minuet & Trio with a
Scherzo and Trio. It is still ternary (or ABA), but uses a faster tempo, marked allegro. Print out
this page as a summary of the third movement characteristics.
Beethoven, III, listening guide (slide #40)
The opening of the third movement is another example of a “Rocket Theme”
Audio - Beethoven III, opening
The next melody, although not labeled a theme is a “marcato” or heavily accented statement of
the motive in the French Horns.
Audio - Beethoven III, motive
The trio is the contrasting section and uses imitation in the style of a fugue.
Audio - Beethoven III, Trio
Beethoven, IV (slide #41)
Beethoven’s fourth movement is the typical fast tempo (allegro), in one of the optional forms
(sonata-allegro), but IT IS NOT IN THE TONIC key of C minor. It is in C major. As we discussed
earlier, this is a triumphant melody, perhaps symbolizing his conquest over losing his hearing.
There is also no break between the third and fourth movements. In normal concert
performance, a symphony is performed with a break between each movement for the players
to adjust their instruments and prepare for the next section. Beethoven wrote a transition
which builds suspense and drama leading into his triumphant fourth movement theme. Print
out this page as a summary of the fourth movement characteristics.
Beethoven, IV, listening guide (slide #42)
Here is the transition leading non-stop from the third movement to the triumphant Theme I of
the movement four. Notice also the French Horns used in the transition section.
Audio - transition, Theme I, French horn transition
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The Understanding of Music
Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
Theme II, although very fast, is based on the motive of three short and one long.
Audio - Theme II
This movement has a very powerful development section, but ends softly. Beethoven is very
aware that after a development climax, the listener is not prepared to appreciate his main
theme – it would be anti-climactic. Therefore at the end of the development, he inserts a
calming section to clear the air and our hearing senses, gradually building to the recapitulation
of theme I in a similar manner to that used in the opening of the movement.
Audio - Development and Theme I
Classical Concerto (slide #44)
Classical concertos are a three movement structure similar to the Baroque. They basically
follow the characteristics of the first, second and fourth movements of the multi-movement
cycle. Our example refers to “Concerto Form”, but if we examine the Listening Guide we see
“Exposition, Development, and Recapitulation”. In other words, it is really Sonata-Allegro Form
as used in a Concerto. In the concerto, the orchestra plays the first exposition. In place of the
traditional repeat, the second exposition is for the soloist accompanied by the orchestra. The
only addition to the form is a new third theme specifically for the soloist. The other
modification in the recapitulation is a “cadenza” - a section for only the solo instrument without
accompaniment and the cadenza is sometimes improvised.
Classical Concerto (slide #45)
This is a chart of the typical 3-movement cycle used for the Concerto, and some Sonatas.
Mozart, Piano Concerto Listening Guide, pg. 1 (slide #46)
Our example is Mozart’s Piano Concerto, movement I. As expected, it is a fast tempo (allegro),
and in concerto form or sonata-allegro form. Here is an example from the second exposition
with Theme I played by the piano and orchestra accompaniment.
Audio - Mozart
Here is an example of the additional third theme or piano soloist theme.
Audio - Mozart piano theme
And here is an example of Theme 2 from the second expostition.
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Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
Audio – Mozart, second theme
Listen to the development which contains some of most impressive and virtuosic piano parts.
Mozart piano concerto Listening Guide, pg. 2 (slide #47)
The recapitulation is also the piano with orchestra accompaniment. Here is an example of a
cadenza - the section for piano soloist with no accompaniment.
Audio - Mozart cadenza
A very important HINT about this concerto – On the exam, I will only play one of the sections
with piano melody and orchestral accompaniment, because solo with orchestra
accompaniment is the primary definition of a concerto.
The Sonata (slide #48, 49)
A sonata is a piece for solo instrument or solo instrument with keyboard accompaniment. Do
not confuse this with a concerto which has orchestra accompaniment. Sonatas may be in the
four-movement cycle or the three-movement cycle, both discussed earlier. Our example is
Beethoven’s Moonlight Sonata, the first movement. It was written for one of his lover’s. It is a
very beautiful, but somewhat melancholy melody. That seems perfectly appropriate, knowing
that his romantic relationships were not blissful and euphoric affairs, but difficult and filled with
anxiety.
Beethoven, Listening Guide, pg 1 (slide #50)
As might be expected of Beethoven, this first movement is not the typical structure. Instead it is
a slow tempo (adagio), and is modified song form instead of the usual sonata-allegro. Here is
the beautiful first verse or strophe.
Audio - opening of Beethoven
Beethoven, Listening Guide, pg. 2 (slide #51)
Here is the Coda of the Moonlight Sonata
Audio - Coda of Beethoven
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The Understanding of Music
Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
Classical Choral Music and Opera (slides #52, 53)
The Classical period included the same genres of choral music as the Baroque, but opera
changed dramatically. Replacing the previous opera seria was a new style called “opera buffa”
or comic opera. The word is related to buffoon, a comical ridiculous character in some of the
stories. Opera buffa became the favorite style of the Classical era for many reasons. It was in
the vernacular or common language instead of always in Italian. It frequently featured multiple
singers on stage engaged in acting and drama, instead of the typical solo singer of earlier styles.
And the story lines were more enjoyable, often satires of the aristocratic class, a favorite
subject in this age of enlightenment, as opposed to the ancient mythology plots of opera seria.
Mozart - Don Giovanni (slide #54)
Our example is Don Giovanni, a Mozart opera buffa with elements of opera seria. It is the tale
of the legendary lover Don Juan. In this story, Giovanni is often disguised so his identity
remains secret. He kills the Commandant, the father of Donna Anna, one of his lovers. Our
musical excerpt includes Giovanni, Leporella who was the Buffa character in the plot, and
Donna Elvira, yet another woman Giovanni has romanced and abandoned. At the very end of
the drama, Giovanni dies at the hands of the Ghost of the Commandant. Our excerpt contains
aria and recitative styles.
Don Giovanni listening guide, pg. 1 (slide #55)
Our music begins with an Aria by Donna Elvira (another of Giovanni’s lovers), Don Giovanni, and
Leporello. It is a Da Capo aria, or ABA, Here is an excerpt from the B section.
Audio - excerpt, first Aria
Don Giovanni listening guide, pg. 2 (slide #56)
The next section is a recitative – notice the speech like vocal style and the very sparse
accompaniment. Here is an excerpt.
Audio - excerpt, Recitative
Don Giovanni listening guide, pg. 4 (slide #57)
The last section is the famous Catalog Aria, where Leporello lists all of the female conquests of
Don Giovanni. It is in Binary form. Here is an excerpt.
Audio - excerpt, Catalog aria
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The Understanding of Music
Unit 3: The Clasical Era – Lecture Notes
Don Giovanni listening guide, pg. 5 (slide #58)
Here is an excerpt from the B section.
Audio – excerpt, Catalog aria
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