The Art of Ancient Greece
(slide 1) Greece today exists as a smaller nation than the expanse of city states that originally
comprise what we call Ancient Greece. (slide 2) Ancient Greece stretched from points in Italy to
Turkey. (slide 3) For the Greeks the human body was the visible means of conveying perfection.
Even Greek gods assumed human form and were often not free from human weakness. Though
they were immortal, they appeared as human figures and assumed all aspects of physical
perfection. READ FROM P. 107 DETAILING ORIGIN OF GODS. .
http://www.cs.williams.edu/~lindsey/myths/myths_16.html also offers a good explanation of individual Titans and Olympians if
you’re curious.) Sounds a bit like Mardi Gras for those of us who haven’t taken Latin and know little
about Greco-Roman culture. Many figures look a bit like Mardi Gras hit them, too
Unlike the art of ancient Egypt, there is a distinct trend of aesthetic change over the course of the
artistic production in Greek culture. (slides 4,5) of early geometric period vs. Hellenistic
naturalism)
The main periods of Greek development are:
Geometric and Orientalizing Periods 9th-7th C. BCE
Archaic Period 6th C. BCE
Classical Period 5th C. BCE
Late Classical Period 4th C. BCE
Hellenistic Period 323-31 BCE
Whereas all of these historic periods reflect different artistic styles, certain aesthetic ideals
remain consistent over what was nearly a millennium of achievement. Balance, harmony and
symmetry as well as fascination with the human body are all critical components of the Greek
aesthetic.
Greek art dwells upon the nude even in the earliest periods. Consider the Geometric Period
figure of Hero and Centaur. (slide 6) Even mythic creatures highlight the nude human anatomy.
The Greek artist has attempted to show the scene, thought to be the battle between Hercules and
a Centaur (who had assaulted Hercules’ wife) by aligning the arms of both figures as if in a
wrestling match. The elbows of both figures are cocked and tense as if in battle. The sculptor
represents both figures in the nude, and representation mimics real athletic competitions where
Greeks exercised and competed without clothing specifically so that audiences might better
appreciate the beauty, strength, and athleticism of competitors. Yes, the Olympic Games were
originally conducted with nude athletes. It’s extremely important to recognize how nudity
implies sexuality in our culture – that connection doesn’t transfer to Ancient Greece.
(Naked/Nude game)
The Archaic Period (6th C. BCE) saw the human figure developing more quickly and fluidly.
Again the artist was fascinated with the male figure and the representation of not only a naked
body but also a body that has a clearly defined musculature. (slide7) A kouros is a young male
often used as a grave marker. This kouros is reminiscent of the work of Egypt (slide 8) Both
works show the male figures with their arms clasped to their sides and striding forward, which is
NOT a natural posture. Clearly the Greeks had learned from Egyptian sculpture and sought to
emulate elements of it. (back to slide 7) The major departure for the Greek Archaic work is the
presentation of the figure as naked. Also in the kouros figure the arms are not part of the marble
but carved freely, unlike the Egyptian work. Again the emphasis is on the natural representation
of the body. (slide 9) Juxtaposing the Lady of Auxerre and the kouros together shows the
continuing Greek fascination for the human body. Traditionally in the Archaic period, the female
figure was depicted as clothed and the male figure was depicted in the nude. Yet both figures
indicate the evolution in the representation of human anatomy. The Lady of Auxerre artist has
made an attempt to indicate her anatomy. Again comparing this figure to the Egyptian couple
(back to slide 8) the Lady of Auxerre shows a more realistic handling of her anatomy. (slide
9)The roundness of her shoulders, cocked elbow, and hand to her breast suggest a more
perceptual understanding of figural representation. Both the Lady of Auxerre and the kouros
figure represent the Deadalic style, after the sculptor and architect, Daedalus. Historic records
show that he spent time in Egypt and was revered as the greatest sculptor of early ancient
Greece. We don’t know if these two sculptures were created by his hand, but we can be certain
they mimicked the more free and natural style he pioneered after absorbing the elements of great
Egyptian sculpture.
(slide 10) The Archaic Period of Greek sculpture continues the trend towards increasing
naturalism in depicting the human anatomy. The calf-bearer displays detailed abdominal
muscles, and considerable attention has also been paid to the musculature and veins of the
forearms. Even more interesting is the figure’s smile, which is a hallmark of all sculpture of this
period. Art historians think the smile was an artistic convention meant to signify that the figure
is alive, because the smile appears even in scenes where one wouldn’t expect that emotion, like
this dying warrior. (slide 11)
(slide 12) The Kroisos figure) is another grave marker sculpted only two generations after
(slide 7) the earlier Kouros figure. In the span of seventy years, figural representation has
undergone great strides in human figural depiction. (slide 13) Even though the Kroisos is
depicted in the same manner, striding forward with arms locked to his sides, the musculature is
becoming more well-defined and the artist seems intent on a far more perceptual aesthetic. The
Kroisos is also notable because traces of the original paint can be clearly seen. All Greek statues
were painted, but not in the garish colors of Egypt. Typically, eyes, hair, lips, and any clothing
would take color.
(slide 14)The Peplos Kore is a sister statue of the Kroisos figure, and it also shows the
developing concern for depicting a more natural figural representation. The artist has attempted
to move this figure from an eternal moment typical of Egyptian sculpture to a "momentary
pause." The slight tilt to her head and the smile suggest that this is a depiction of a living person,
at a specific moment in time. Because she is wearing a belted dress known as a “peplos”, there is
less of a focus on her anatomy. Still, her body’s proportions are certainly more naturalistic than
the earlier Lady of Auxerre (slide 15)
(slide 16) The final break with the static and geometric Egyptian style of representation came
with the Kritios Boy c.480 BCE (5.33) created in the Late Classical Period (5th C. BCE). This
figure truly occupies the space it is in, in a relaxed sense. By distributing its weight
asymmetrically, the statue defies rigid symmetry and is imbued with lifelike warmth. The
posture adopted by the figure is critical in this endeavor, and this dip in the right hip and the bent
leg is called “contrapposto.” Another contemporary work in bronze that employs contrapposto
to even greater effect in conveying the perceptual approach is the warrior figure sculpted in
bronze. (slide 17) Here the tilt of the head and the positioning of the figure’s arms only add to
the appearance of a convincing figure nearly in motion. This final evolution in the Early
Classical period laid the foundation for the Late Classical period that saw the human male figure
go from "frozen" moments to existing in real space and nearly moving within that space. (slide
18) This bronze statue of Zeus (missing the characteristic thunderbolt) similarly indicates how
vastly different the freestanding active poses in classical Greek sculpture are from the earliest
static Egyptian influences. The artist convincingly portrays potential energy in a specific moment
in time. Some of the technical accomplishment can be attributed to the medium of bronze,
created in the so-called “lost wax method” (see p. 131 top). (slide 19) Essentially, this allows for
pliable clay models as a base. Clay is overlaid with hot wax, which is then overlaid with more
clay, then wax, then clay. Ultimately, the wax is melted out and the molten bronze is poured into
the model. It predictably assumes the shape of the wax and offers a far more durable alternative
to granite or marble, while enabling the sculptor a far more flexible medium.
(Slide 20) The Classical Greek aesthetic of convincing potential energy isn’t limited to bronze
statues. Although nearly all of the original Greek marbles statues are lost (owing to their
destruction during warfare) we have faithful Roman copies of the originals. Myron’s Discus
Thrower is another great example of a convincing representation of potential energy. The body
of the athlete has been idealized, and so is the athlete’s facial expression. (slide 21) He doesn’t
convey the physical and mental stress of the competition, but rather insists on maintaining
perfect focus. Here we get a glimpse into classical Greek philosophy, and specifically the ideas
of Plato. Plato believed that the world is filled with imperfect copies of one perfect ideal, and
that truth and beauty are to be found in that perfect ideal. In other words, physical
manifestations of concepts and ideas are only imperfect versions of those “ideal” ideas. Striving
for perfection in the arts requires toning down the perceptual approach and often ignoring what
the eye sees in favor of more ideal proportions and concepts. In Myron’s Discus Thrower, the
facial expression conveys the ideal of athletic focus as opposed to the imperfect manifestation of
it (clenched teeth, grimace, furrowed brow, etc). Think of the Platonic influence as the ancient
equivalent of Photoshop.
(slide 22) One of the most popular Greek sculptors to adhere to Platonic thought was Polykleitos.
He invented a canon for representation of the human male that insisted on mathematically
harmonic proportions. (see p. 133) His Spear Bearer may appear to rest in a casual stance, but
this is because of meticulous attention to opposing diagonals. Contrast the right arm and the left
leg, the left arm and the right leg, the opposing tilt of the head in one direction and twist of the
hips in the other.
(slide 23) Praxitiles was a sculptor who did not break with the Early Classical tradition of great
beauty and perfect bodies for the divinities; but rather complemented that approach by investing
gods and goddesses with a sensual quality that focused on their more "human" natures. Greek
gods and goddesses had all the flaws of humans: anger, jealousy, envy, and lust. But they also
had human virtues: nobility, loyalty, courage, wisdom. In his Aphrodite of Knidos, Praxiteles has
captured the sensual beauty of the goddess with a novel approach. Females to this point had been
portrayed with clothing. Here, the sculptor strips her bare without overplaying her erotic nature
and turning her into a sex object. Aphrodite is the Greek goddess of love, and she is both nude
and beautiful. But the sculptor employs a hand gesture that conveys modesty and a serene facial
expression, enabling the viewer to look at what was then a rare female nude without feeling like
a voyeur.
Ultimately, however, the balance and idealization of Classical Greek sculpture gives way to
more realism and drama in the Late Classical and Hellenistic periods. (slide 24) Lyssipos was a
sculptor who enjoyed depicting more nervous energy than balance. The fig leaf over the
Scraper’s genitals is a Roman modification unique to this copy. The work is called the Scraper
because it depicts an athlete scraping off body oil following an athletic competition. Notice the
athlete’s facial expression. His lips are parted and his gaze confronts the viewer head-on. This
“you lookin’ at me” approach is rare up to this point because Classical Greek sculpture had
endeavored to depict idealized balance and dignity on a plane above and beyond the pride of
mere mortals. (slide 25) Lysippos’ Weary Hercules similarly reflects an unprecedented
emotional quality for a Greek God. His musculature is exaggerated even beyond what we might
expect of Hercules, and the overall effect is to force empathy from the viewer, as opposed to
admiration. (slide 26) Story of Hercules’ labors….obviously this is the view from behind.
(slide 27) Later Hellenistic sculpture elevates the level of drama and energy much further.
The Laocoön group represents such a shift as it exhibits movement and emotion. Laocoön was a
Trojan priest who tried to warn the Trojans against bringing in the Greek gift of the Trojan Horse
and consequently suffered a miserable death at the hands of sea serpents under the control of
vindictive Greek gods. It is a study in motion and emotion as we witness both the technical skill
of the sculptors and the suffering of Laocoon and his sons. Which elements are highly
perceptual? Which elements are more conceptual to promote the narrative?
(slides 28,29) Yet another example of this kind of hyperbolic sculpture depicts the defeat of the
Gauls in warfare. In Gallic Chieftain Killing Wife and Self, the same dynamic gestures seen in
the Laocoön group are repeated in the Gallic couple. The wife, dying or dead is still supported by
the chieftain, her husband. He is in the act of plunging his sword into his chest as the final
gesture of defiance. The sculpture serves as a stunning example of the height of drama: the
moment of death and the act of suicide.
(slide 30) Even the badly damaged Nike of Samothrace (designed as part of a fountain) radiates
energy. Both the figure’s contrapposto, impressive stride, and the active drapery folds indicate
the drama of the moment. Nike was the Greek goddess of contests and she bestowed victory.
The statue was designed to cultivate pride and awe, and even the headless version succeeds at a
very basic level. (slide 31) alternate view.
(slide 32) But perhaps the most interesting of all late Greek sculptures is the Old Market
Woman. She shows how far the aesthetic has drifted from the classical ideal. This is probably a
rendering of a real woman with all of her flaws and frustrations on display. Bent and broken
before the sculpture itself was ravaged by time, this woman indicates the other extreme from her
earliest predecessor, the Kouros boy. (slide 33) What has changed within the span of 500 years?
Contrast those changes across 500 years with the stability of 3000 years of the Egyptian
aesthetic. What do the changes tell us about Greek culture?
As we discussed at the outset of the unit, Greek Vase painting also reflects radical development
and change over the course of 500 or so years. (slide 34) An ancient funeral vase or “krater”,
illustrates the earliest geometric style. Standing three feet tall, the vase leaves almost no space
empty, filling the non-narrative spaces with geometric patterns. Hence the term, “Geometric
Period” for the earliest Greek art. Human figures painted on the body of the krater are almost
schematic in shape. The point of the illustration is like much Egyptian painting, narrative in
nature. This is an individual’s funeral and we see mourners lined up, demonstrating their grief by
the gestures of raised arms. Unlike the Egyptians, this is a straightforward depiction of a funeral
without mythic creatures.
(slide 35) In the middle of the 5th century, however, we begin to see a small number of fine,
large shapes have figures disposed on different levels, not on a single ground line as in earlier
art. Clearly, some were experimenting with more realistic poses, attempting to show the human
body as it was in life, not stylized as it had been in art. This particular vase involves “red figure
painting” as opposed to the “black figure painting” of the previous vase. (slide 36) Artists seem
to have been plalying with possibilities in these so-called bilingual vases where they painted the
same composition in two different styles on the front and back of the same vase. The distinction
in technique is a function of negative vs. positive space, as the clay that hasn’t been painted turns
red when fired.
(slide 37) Still later examples of vase painting suggest the same trend towards emotional content
and perceptual dynamism as we see in the Hellenistic sculpture of ancient Greece. This particular
vase is neither “red-figure” nor “black figure” but employs the “white ground technique”,
allowing for the use of more color in the painting. Although these colors haven’t held up over
time, the basic design is clearly suggestive of a sad occasion. Hermes is essentially giving his
half-brother away to be raised in safety from his father’s jealous wife. The nymphs offer a
maternal possibility, but Hermes’ posture is indicative of the tragic nature of the event.
GREEK ARCHITECTURE
Begin with Architectural Basics on Companion Disc, then field trip down Dufossat and Back up
Soniat.
Most Greek buildings in the Archaic and Early Classical periods were made of wood or mudbrick, so nothing remains of them except a few ground-plans, and there are almost no written
sources on early architecture or descriptions of buildings. (slide 38) Consequently, our
knowledge of Greek architecture comes from the few surviving buildings of the Classical and
Hellenistic periods in addition to later Roman efforts attempting to mimic the Greek aesthetic.
The vast majority of surviving structures are temples built from limestone, which is common in
Greece. Limestone isn’t nearly as durable as marble or granite, and so most surviving structures
are in pretty bad shape. Greek temples were essentially statue chambers containing a god's sacred
image. (slide 39) This floorplan shows the central windowless chamber (known as the “cella”) ,
which was generally accessible only to priests. Think of it as you might a Catholic altar.
The two main styles of Greek architecture are the Doric style and the Ionic style. (See pages 116117 for a more detailed explanation.) (slide 40) The Doric style was used in mainland Greece and
spread from there to the Greek colonies in Italy. The Doric style was more formal and austere,
(slide 41) the Ionic more relaxed and decorative. (slide 42) The more ornate Corinthian style was
a later development of the Ionic. (slide 43) These styles are best known through the three orders
of column capitals, but there are other differences in most points of design. We won’t be
covering them, but it is useful to remember that the distinctions are a function of geographic
origin, and not the passage of time.
(back to slide 41) The Ionic order became dominant in the Hellenistic period, since its more
decorative style suited the aesthetic of the period better than the more restrained Doric. The Ionic
style is thinner and more elegant. Its capital is decorated with a scroll-like design (a volute).
Unlike the Greek Doric order, (back to slide 40) Ionic columns normally stand on a base which
separates the shaft of the column from the stylobate or platform.
In their original Greek version, Doric columns stood directly on the flat pavement (the stylobate)
of a temple without a base; their vertical shafts were fluted with parallel concave grooves; and
they were topped by a smooth capital that flared from the column to meet a square abacus at the
intersection with the horizontal beam ("entablature") that they carried.
(slide 44) The Acropolis, a fortified citadel built atop a massive limestone hill 500 feet above sea
level dominates the city of Athens, Greece. The Acropolis contains some of the world's most
famous structures built in the classical architectural style. (slide 45) These buildings include the
Parthenon (a Doric temple built for Athena, the goddess of wisdom), and (slide 46) the
Erechtheum, notable for its (slide 47) “caryatids”, or sculpted female figures serving as
architectural supports as columns normally would. (slide 48) This is a model of the Acropolis –
note the Parthenon stands to the top left.
(back to slide 43) The Parthenon is the most important and characteristic monument of the
ancient Greek civilization and still remains its international symbol. It was dedicated to Athena,
the patron goddess of Athens. The Greek temple was to be not just the house of the cult statue
but it also took on the role of a monument. Greek temples were dedicated to the gods and
goddesses and the pedimental sculptures also served as a text to reflect the glory of the divinities
and to remind the public of the service they owed to the city-state.
Sadly, in times of attack the Acropolis became the last fort of defense. The Acropolis hill, so
called the "Sacred Rock" of Athens, is the most important site of the city. The Turks used the
Parthenon as a powder magazine when the Venetians seized the Acropolis in 1687. One of the
Venetian bombs fell on the Parthenon and caused a tremendous explosion that destroyed a great
part of the monument which had been preserved in a good condition until then. The disaster was
completed in the beginning of the 19th century, when the British ambassador in Constantinople,
Lord Elgin, stole the greatest part of the sculptural decoration of the monument (frieze,
pediments), transferred them to England and sold them to the British Museum, where they are
still exhibited. (slides 49,50,51) Your text argues that it was the best possible outcome in terms
of the preservation of the treasures, but the Greek government begs to differ and is still fighting
the British Museum for their return.
1)
http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/news_and_press_releases/statements/the_pa
rthenon_sculptures.aspx
THEN
2) http://www.newacropolismuseum.gr/eng/
do slideshow under photos
THEN
3) Elgin Marble debate
Knowing this much about Greek architecture, what do you make of the basic monuments in
Washington, D.C.? (slides 52, 53, 54)
Note: There is a helpful exercise on the companion disc in Chapter 5 under the “Architectural
Basics.” It’s a game that asks you to label the various components of temple architecture.
Knowing these terms can be very helpful when describing architectural features you find
interesting and meaningful.