PRINCIPLES OF TRAINING
SPECIFICITY
-
Training must be geared towards the demand of the activity.
Specificity is applied in two ways:
 The Individual (genetics which will determine how a
performer adapts to training)
 The Sport/Activity (including the predominant energy
systems, major fitness components, movement
patterns, muscle fibre types and muscles and joints
used for the activity)
PROGRESSION
-
Our bodies adapt to the stresses and loads put on them.
After a while, no further changes will occur unless training is
gradually increased to keep the body adapting. Progression
needs to be steady and constant. Linking overload and
adaptations is known as progressive overload. Fitness
adaptations are greater earlier in training and slow down as
training increases. A point of diminishing return may
eventually be reached where any further progression of
training overload may bring about little or no adaptations and
could lead to burn out.
OVERLOAD (FITT)
-
To make the body adapt, it must be made to work harder
than it normally does. This is Overload and can be achieved
by manipulating 4 factors of training:
 FREQUENCY – how often you train, e.g. how
many units per week, per phase or per year
 INTENSITY – how hard you train e.g. how fast,
heavier weights, less recovery etc
 TIME – how long you train for within each unit
 TYPE – aerobic or anaerobic training
REVERSIBILITY
-
Fitness levels drop quickly when periods of inactivity occur
Training programmes need to avoid any long periods of
inactivity. Reversibility can be remembered by the phrase “If
you don’t use it, you lose it”. The most common effect of
inactivity is known as atrophy. This is a decrease in the size
of muscle cells which happens after about 48 hours. If you
stop training the fitness/adaptations gained will be reversed
in a third of the time it took to gain them. Fast fitness gains
are quicker to reverse than those gained over a long
period of time. Aerobic adaptations reverse quicker than
anaerobic adaptations.
MODERATION
-
Although we need to Overload the body for it to adapt, we
need to make sure we do not overload too much, too quickly.
Overuse injuries will occur and burn outs can occur. We can
get too tired as well as getting psychologically drained.
However, if too little overload is experienced then very few
adaptations to training will occur.
VARIANCE
-
If long periods of training need to take place for your activity,
then boredom can occur as well as a lack of interest or
motivation. Therefore, a variety of training sessions, avoiding
repetitive sessions need to be carefully planned. Variety can
also prevent overuse injuries such as stress fractures, shin
splints, osteoarthritis etc.
1
PERIODISATION OF TRAINING
PERIODISATION
-
The organised division of training into a number of specific
blocks, periods or phases. The main objective of
periodisation is to ensure athletes progressively develop to
reach a skill/physiological peak at the correct time for an
ultimate sporting target. This target could be a competition
event like the Olympics.
Periodisation can be split into three basic structures: macro-cycles, meso-cycles and
micro-cycles.
MACRO-CYCLE
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This is a longer term plan of training aimed at achieving a long-term goal
This is typically a single year which ensures peak condition for the competition
season. Each year of training is very similar to the last
Some athletes have a Macro-Cycle as long as four years (Olympics and World
Championships) – these are sometimes termed Mega-Cycle
In a single year athletes may have two Macro-Cycles (each with a separate goal)
MESO-CYCLE

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This is an intermediate block of training aimed at achieving a particular mediumterm goal (e.g. increase strength, power or endurance)
This would last between 4 and 16 weeks
There are normally three Meso-Cycles in a Macro-Cycle (pre-season, competition
and off-season training)
When planned in greater detail each Meso-Cycle can be sub-divided into smaller
Meso-Cycles to form shorter intermediate-term goals
The length and number of Meso-Cycles is dependent upon the activity and the
individual
PRE-SEASON
 Basic Fitness Phase – this aims at developing basic/general all-round fitness
 Specific Event Phase – intensity of training will progressively increase and the
focus will be on the fitness components important for the individual event (e.g.
skills, speed, technique ready for competition)
 Pre-Competition Phase – the training load/volume is reduced, but any highintensity training will mirror that of the actual event (practice games) with longer
recovery intervals
COMPETIITON SEASON
 Maintenance Phase – the aim is to maintain fitness levels between competitions
and remain injury free. Training continues but is reduced at lower intensities with
the focus being on team play/technique etc.
 Monitoring and Recovery Phase – here, athletes monitor signs of over training
and burn outs. Training intensity is reduced and recovery is increased
TRANSITION/OFF SEASON
 Rest/Recovery Phase – this is the initial rest or low-level active recovery and any
treatment for injuries (typically between 2 and 4 weeks long)
 Preparation Phase – this is where athletes gradually build-up low-level
training/activity or cross-training to help prepare the body for the start of preseason training (typically between 2 and 4 weeks long)
2
MICRO-CYCLE

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This is the number of training sessions within a unit
Micro-Cycles are typically one week of training aimed at achieving a short-term
goal (although they can last up to three weeks)
The term ‘unit’ refers to each training session or different parts of an individual
training session (e.g. three training sessions in a week would mean that MicroCycle would consist of three units OR if one training session had two aims then
that session may have two units)
BENEFITS OF PERIODISATION
Apart from the main aim of ensuring the athlete reaches a peak performance at the correct
time; Periodisation also ensures that many of the principles of training are applied when
planning a training programme:
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Specificity – each block is designed to prepare for a specific performance
component
Progression/Testing – monitoring/testing helps guide the performer when the
training overload may require:
o Stepping up to increase adaptations
o Decreasing to prevent overtraining and burn out
o Tapering down of training intensity and increasing recovery time
Overload – enables the performer to manipulate training intensity, volume,
frequency and rest
Moderation/Reversibility – helps prevent overtraining by ensuring adequate
recovery, but at the same time not allowing time for fitness/skills to decrease
Variance – training is split into smaller units to maintain motivation, avoid boredom
and overtraining and allow recovery
Warm up/Cool Down – each unit of training should incorporate a warm up and
cool down
TESTING
Testing will enable the athlete/coach to monitor whether the training load is correct:
 At the start of training, to ensure the overload is not too high/low
 During training, to asses when it may need increasing to ensure further adaptations
or even decreasing to prevent burn out.
WARM UP

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A warm up should come before any activity or training as it helps prepare the body
physically and mentally for exercise to follow
A warm up should consist of three phases:
o Pulse-raising Activity
o Mobility
o Stretching
3
BENEFITS OF A WARM UP
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It prepares the cardio-respiratory and musculo-skeletal systems for more intense
exercise
It increases:
o Muscle temperature which increases oxygen release, nerve impulse
conduction and contraction, thereby improving muscular force, speed and
reactions
o Enzyme activity required for cellular respiration
o Release of synovial fluid, lubricating joint structures
o Elasticity of muscle/connective tissues
o Redistribution of blood flow from organs to muscles (vascular shunt)
It reduces:
o Risk of injury
o Early onset of anaerobic work, build-up of lactic acid and early fatigue
COOL DOWN


An active cool down should follow any activity/training as it helps speed up the
recovery process to a pre-exercise state.
A cool down should consist of two phases:
o Pulse lowering activities – moderate/low-intensity aerobic activity
o Stretching of active muscles
BENEFITS OF A COOL DOWN
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Maintains venous return (VR), stroke volume (SV), cardiac output (Q), minute
ventilation (VE) and blood pressure
Gradually reduces muscle temperature
Stretching returns muscles to their pre-exercise length
Reduces the risk of injury and DOMS
Flushes capillaries with oxygenated blood
Speeds up removal of lactic acid
Prevents blood pooling
DELAYED ONSET OF MUSCLE SORENESS (DOMS)
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This occurs about 24 - 48 hours after exercise
This is not caused by Lactic Acid (as it is removed within an hour after training)
DOMS is caused by the damage caused by excessive forces acted on the muscles
particularly through excessive eccentric muscle contractions
TO PREVENT DOMS:
o Make sure you are thoroughly warmed up
o Avoid eccentric muscle contraction at the start of training
o Use the principles of Progression, Moderation and Variability are used to
avoid excessive overload
o Allow time for recovery
o Use of massage, hot baths and ice therapy may help to reduce DOMS
4
COMPONENTS OF FITNESS AND IMPROVING PERFORMANCE
AEROBIC CAPACITY


This is defined as “the ability to take in, transport and use oxygen to sustain
prolonged periods of aerobic/sub-maximal work”
Aerobic Capacity is dependent upon:
o Pulmonary ventilation and external respiration (take in O2)
o Internal transport via heart, blood and blood vessels (transport O2)
o Muscle cells to use O2 for energy production (use O2)
VO2 MAX
 Aerobic Capacity is closely associated with VO2 max
 VO2 max is defined as “the highest rate of oxygen consumption attainable
during maximal/exhaustive work”
 An ability to work at a high percentage of VO2 max (below anaerobic threshold) is
thought to be one of the best indicators of aerobic endurance
 Below is a Table of typical values for VO2 max across different activities
ACTIVITY/SPORT
Non-athlete
Football
Cycling
Cross-Country Skiing
Swimming
Rowing

Male VO2 max average
(ml/kg/min)
45-54
42-64
62-74
65-94
50-70
60-72
Female VO2 max average
(ml/kg/min)
36-44
47-57
60-75
40-60
58-65
Factors affecting VO2 max include:
o Individual Physiological make-up
 Respiratory System to consume O2
 Heart to transport O2
 Vascular System to transport O2
 Muscle cells to use O2
o Hereditary/Genetics
o Training
o Age (VO2 max decreases by about 1% per year)
o Gender (VO2 max values for women are about 60-70 ml/kg/min and about
70-75 ml/kg/min for males)
MEASUREMENT OF AEROBIC CAPACITY
PHYSICAL WORKING CAPACITY TEST (PWC 170)
 This is a sub-maximal test on a cycle ergometer
 The performer cycles at three progressive low-to-moderate work intensities (100115 bpm, 115-130 bpm and 130-145 bpm) and their HR values are recorded
 As HR increases linearly with work intensity, a line can be drawn through these
points on a graph and the line can be extended to predict the intensity level they
would be working at when their HR reaches 170 bpm
 170 bpm is chosen as it is close to maximal work
MULTI-STAGE FITNESS TEST (MSFT)
 This is a progressive and maximal 20-metre shuttle run test
 The performer runs shuttles in a certain time, indicated by a bleep which becomes
progressively shorter between shuttles. The performer continues until the cannot
keep up or until they drop out
5

The performers then have a level and shuttle number score which can be
compared to standardised tables to predict a VO2 max value
AEROBIC TRAINING
 It is important to measure the intensity of training to ensure the performer is
training within the ‘training zone’
 The ‘training zone’ can be worked out from a percentage of maximum HR
 The required HR percentage will vary dependent upon the specific adaptations that
the athlete wants
 Aerobic Training will involve whole-body activities like running, cycling, rowing and
swimming and is aimed at overloading the cardio-vascular/respiratory systems to
increase aerobic capacity/VO2 max (which is done by using the FITT principle of
Overload)
 The types of training will include:
o Continuous Training which involves sub-maximal work (swimming,
rowing, cycling or running) for prolonged periods (20-30 minutes plus). This
is more suited for long distance/endurance athletes. HR should be above
the critical threshold (minimum of 55% max HR
o Fartlek Training (Swedish for Speed play) is continuous steady state
training interspersed with varied higher intensity work periods and slow
recovery periods. It is a mixture of continuous and interval training and
changes the pace of work, incline (up and down hills) and terrain, such as
grass and sand). HR will remain above critical threshold and within training
zone to ensure adaptations occur and overload both aerobic and anaerobic
energy systems.
o Interval Training consists of periods of work with periods of recovery
(relief) and can be modified for specific training needs by adjusting the
duration, intensity, recovery/relief duration and number of work/relief
intervals. A typical aerobic ratio would be 2:1 (Work : Relief) whereas a
typical anaerobic ratio would be 1:3 (Work : Relief).
o Repetitive Running is interval training under another name, but is more
suited for distance runners who have very formalised training programmes.
A 5000m runner may split their training into five 1000m aerobic work
intervals with shorter relief periods to allow the runner to increase their
intensity of running speed. Over a period of time they would aim to reduce
their recovery/relief until a point when they can run the whole 5000m
without any relief.
ENERGY SYSTEM AND FUEL
 The energy to resynthesise ATP during aerobic work is supplied from the aerobic
system (involving Aerobic Glycolysis, Kreb’s Cycle and Electron Transport Chain)
 Aerobic work is fuelled from glycogen and free fatty acids (FFA’s), but this varies
depending upon the duration and the intensity of the aerobic training and the
availability of glycogen and FFA’s
 Glycogen is the major fuel for the first 20-40 minutes of exercise
 During mild to more severe muscular effort, the body relies mostly on glycogen for
fuel
 After about 20-45 minutes there is a greater breakdown of fats alongside glycogen
as the energy fuel
 As the duration increases, after about 20-45 minutes glycogen stores start to
deplete and there is a greater mix of glycogen and fats to fuel aerobic work
 Fat provides substantial energy during prolonged, low-intensity activity
 When glycogen stores become almost fully depleted after about two hours, FFA’s
have to be used for aerobic energy production
 If exercise intensity is too high then OBLA is reached and glycogen has to be
broken down anaerobically to continue resynthesising ATP
6
AEROBIC ADAPTATIONS
ADAPTATIONS
RESULTANT INCREASE/DECREASE
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
Respiratory
Increase in:
muscles become
 Efficiency of mechanics of breathing
stronger
 Maximum exercise lung volumes (f x TV = VE)
 Maximal breathing rate
 Respiratory fatigue resistance
 Maximum VE due to increase in f x TV
Decrease in:
 Sub-maximal breathing rate
Increase in
Increase in:
alveoli surface
 External respiration/diffusion
area
 A-VO2 diff (less O2 exhaled = more used)
CARDIO-VASCULAR SYSTEM: HEART
Hypertrophy
Increase in :
(increase in
 Volume EDV (filling capacity)
myocardium
 Ventricular stretch and recoil
size/thickness/
 Force of ventricular contraction (emptying)
volume)
 Stroke Volume (SV)
 HR recovery after exercise
Decrease in:
 ESV (volume after contraction)
Resting and sub-maximal HR (<60 = bradycardia)
VASCULAR SYSTEM
Increased
Increase in:
elasticity of
 Vascular shunt efficiency, to redistribute Q
arterial walls to
from organs to active muscles
vasodilate/
 BP regulation
vasoconstrict
 Exercise systole BP leading to improved
blood/O2 supply
Decrease in:
 Resting systole/diastole BP
Increased
Increase in :
number of red
 Gaseous exchange/O2 transport
blood cells/
 Venous Return (VR)
haemoglobin
 Stoke Volume (SV) and Cardiac Output (Q)
volume.
Decrease in:
 Viscosity during exercise, despite increased
Increased
water loss (to sweat)
plasma volume
Increased
Increase in:
capillarisation
 Surface area
(density) of
 a-VO2 diff
alveoli and Type
 Time for diffusion
I muscle fibre
 Removal of CO2/lactic acid during OBLA
tissues
Decrease in:
 Distance of diffusion
 Velocity of increased blood flow
7
NET EFFECT
Increased VO2
max
Increased blood
flow
Increased
maximal cardiac
output (Q)
Increased O2
transport
Increase
circulatory
efficiency
Improved O2/
CO2 transport
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Increased Type I Increase in:
and IIa
 Strength and reducing fatigue
hypertrophy/
 Skill efficiency
efficiency (due to Decrease in:
increase in size/
 Energy costs
strength)
Increased
Increase in O2/CO2 transport/diffusion of exercise
muscle
capillarisation
Increased Type Increase in:
IIa fibre
 Fibre type percentage working aerobically
availability to
 Ability to use fuel and O2
work aerobically Decrease in:
 OBLA
Increased
Increase in O2 storage and transport to mitochondria
myoglobin stores
Increased
Improved:
aerobic enzymes
 Reliance on metabolism of fat instead of
glycogen
 Aerobic metabolism of glycogen
Increased speed/
 Conserves glycogen stores
ability to use fats
 Increases amount of ATP from fats
earlier
Increased
Improved utilisation of O2/fat for aerobic metabolism
number of
mitochondria
Increased
Increase in energy fuels to resynthesise ATP
muscle
glycogen/fat
stores
CONNECTIVE TISSUE
Increased
strength of
muscle tendons
Greater
thickness/
strength of
ligaments
Increased
thickness/
compression of
cartilage
Increased
calcium content/
strength of
bones
Reduced body
Decrease in dead weight, leading to an increase in
fat composition efficiency (Power to weight ratio)
HEALTH LIFESTYLE AREAS
Combined
 Increase in the lactate threshold
effects
 Delay of OBLA
Overall net
Increase in:
effect: Increase
 Intensity of aerobic performance
in VO2 max
 Duration of aerobic performance
8
Increased
maximal
capacity of
muscle fibres o
generate ATP
aerobically
Increased
strength of
musculoskeletal lever
system to
endure
prolonged
activity
Less risk of
injury
Reduced rate of
aging
Aerobic
metabolism
 Skill/work efficiency
Increase in:
 Muscles’ ability to use fuels/O2
 Ability of body to mobilise/supply fuels and O2
to working muscles
Dependent upon individual fitness at start, but 20-30%
improvement possible with sedentary inactive
Increase in
maximum rate
of aerobic work/
endurance
Decrease in
lactate
production
Assessment of Your VO2 max

Using one of the above Tests of Aerobic Capacity, find out your VO2 max.

VO2 max = _____________________________________

Compare your result with the aerobic demands of your chosen activity/sport.

Plan an aerobic training programme based on this assessment of your aerobic
capacity and the requirements of your sport.
STRENGTH
TYPE OF STRENGTH
DEFINITION
Maximum Strength
The maximum force the
neuromuscular system can
exert in a single voluntary
muscle contraction (e.g. 1
repetition maximum)
The force exerted by the
neuromuscular system while
the muscle length remains
constant/static
The ability to expand a
maximal amount of energy
in one or a series of strong,
sudden high-intensity
movements or apply a
successive and equal force
rapidly
The ability of the
neuromuscular system to
overcome a resistance with
a high speed of contractions
The ability of a muscle to
sustain or withstand
repeated muscle
contractions or a single
static action
Static Strength
Explosive/Elastic Strength
Dynamic Strength
Strength Endurance
9
METHOD OF
EVALUATING
Leg Dynamometer
Grip Dynamometer
No single or generic test for
static strength due to the
variation between joints
Vertical Jump Test
Wingate Cycle Test
Abdominal Sit-Up Test
FACTORS AFFECTING STRENGTH
Factors affecting Strength include:
 Muscle Composition
o Percentage of fast twitch muscle fibre
o Cross-sectional area of muscle
o Muscle size
 Gender
 Age
 Physical Inactivity (Atrophy)
 Strength Training
 The weakest point in the range of motion
STRENGTH TRAINING
Terminology
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Repetition = the number of times an exercise is completed
Set = once a certain number of repetitions are completed (followed by rest)
Resistance = the weight that is lifted
RM = Repetition Max (the maximum weight that can be lifted)
Generic Guidelines
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Resistance needs to be at least 50% of the maximum capacity for a given
muscle/group (above 80% increase the risk of muscle damage)
Maximum Strength training uses low repetitions and high resistance
Endurance Strength training uses high repetitions and low resistance
For the development of Power, the resistance is moderate (which allows higher
repetitions so that a higher speed of movement can be achieved)
Moderation: general strength conditioning needs to be established before focusing
on specific muscle groups to prevent overtraining
Exercise large muscle groups before smaller muscle groups
Use periodisation to prevent overtraining by varying the volume and intensity of
training
Allow appropriate recovery between individual exercises and exercise sessions
Specificity: training with slow joint movements will increase strength only at slow
speeds and training with fast joint movements will increase strength at both slow
and fast speeds
Use progressive overload
Circuit and Resistance Training guidelines for Aerobic and Anaerobic athletes
CIRCUIT TRAINING
Interval Duration
Interval Intensity
Interval Relief
Ratio of Work : Rest
AEROBIC ATHLETE
3-5+ mins/20 mins (longer)
Low/moderate = 5070%/<speedd
Lower: 1 : 1 jog/walk/jog
Frequency
3-4 circuits; more
reps/stations
3-5 sessions weekly
Specificity
Aerobic energy system
10
ANAEROBIC ATHLETE
0-90 seconds (shorter)
High = 70-85%/>speed
Higher: 90 seconds to 3
mins/ 1 : 3+
3-5 circuits of fewer
reps/stations
3-7 sessions weekly (48
hours between sessions if
same muscle group)
ATP/PC/LA energy System
RESISTANCE TRAINING
Duration (reps)
Intensity (weight)
Relief/Recovery
Number of Work : Relief
(sets)
Frequency
Specificity
AEROBIC ATHLETE
More reps – 10+ (20+
common)
Low/moderate = 50-70% of
1RM
Lower 1 : 2 (30-60 secs)
Fewer: 3-5 sets of 10+ reps
3-5 per week
Aerobic system
ANAEROBIC ATHLETE
Fewer reps – 1-10
High = 70-95% of
1RM/>speed
Higher/full 1 : 3+ (2-5 mins)
More: 3-6 sets of 1-10 reps
3-7 sessions weekly (48
hours between sessions if
same muscle group)
ATP/PC/LA energy System
(>speed of motion)
TRAINING METHODS
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Multi-Gym – this is where exercise machines are used and each machine will
target specific muscles/groups of muscles. The machines provide resistance in a
safe way. However, they do not always replicate actual sporting movements
Free Weights – these are free standing weights that improve specific joint
movements. They are not as safe as the Multi-Gym and they often require a
‘spotter’. With free weights athletes can use a Super Set which is where 2
antagonist muscle groups are exercised without rest between sets
Plyometric Training – this is aimed at athletes who require a large degree of
power e.g. Long Jumper and involves jumps and bounds. It is linked to the
development of power: explosive, elastic and dynamic strength. It is based on the
knowledge of the Stretch Reflex action to recruit more motor units to increase
force production. After landing a jump, the quadriceps is quickly and eccentrically
lengthened which initiates the stretch reflex, a powerful elastic recoil reaction to
prevent injury. If a concentric contraction immediately follows, the recoil force from
the stretch reflex is added to the concentric force and this increases the overall
force/strength produced. Plyometric training involves placing an eccentric stretch
on a muscle to initiate the stretch reflex which recruits increased motor
units/muscle fibres which preloads the elastic/contractile properties of muscle
fibres to increase the force of contraction. Plyometric training does have a risk of
injury and DOMS from eccentric muscle contractions. Therefore, good pre-strength
is essential before undertaking plyometric training. Moderation, progressive
overload, warm-up and cool-down are also essential to help reduce the effect of
injury and DOMS.
Circuit and Interval Training – this uses a series of exercises (stations) that form
one complete circuit which can be repeated a number of times. The performers
body acts as the resistance, although a circuit can be completed using a multi-gym.
Stations alternate muscle groups to allow time to recover; unless the aim is to
increase lactate tolerance of a muscle/group where the same station can be
repeated more times (this is termed ‘stage training’). There is a relief between each
station and circuits.
o Work/Interval Intensity – number of circuits completed (3-6); number of
stations (10-15); number of repetitions (11-20+)
o Work/Interval Duration – length of the work interval
o Relief/Interval Duration – recovery time (0-30 secs)
o Number of work/relief Intervals
11
ENERGY SYSTEMS
STRENGTH
Elastic/Explosive
Dynamic
Endurance
ENERGY SYSTEMS
Alactacid
Lactic Acid
Aerobic
FOOD/FUEL
ATP and PC
Glycogen/Glucose
FFA’s/Glycogen/Glucose
STRENGTH ADAPTATIONS
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Strength training can produce between 25-100% improvement in strength within 36 months depending on the starting level of strength
Strength improvements are a result of both neural and physiological adaptations
Short-term gains are primarily due to neural adaptations and long-term gains are
primarily due to physiological adaptations (hypertrophy)
NEURAL ADAPTATIONS
 Increased recruitment of additional fast twitch muscle fibres
 Increased recruitment of motor units
 Improved co-ordination and simultaneous stimulation of motor units
 Reduction in proprioreceptor/antagonist muscle inhibition allowing the antagonist to
stretch further and the agonist to contract with more force
PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS
Skeletal Muscle
 Hypertrophy – increase in muscle size (predominantly in fast
twitch muscle fibres) and/or Hyperplasia – increase in muscle
fibre number
 Increased number/size of contractile protein (width of
actin/myosin filaments)
 Increased actin/myosin cross-bridges
Metabolic
 Increase in ATP, PC and Glycogen stores
 Increased buffering capacity/tolerance of fast twitch fibres to
work with high levels of lactic acid
 Increase in efficiency to remove lactic acid
 Increased glycolytic enzyme actions; glycogen phosphorylase
and PFK
 Net effect: increased anaerobic threshold/capacity and
recovery of ATP/PC, and LA systems
 Increased intensity/duration of performance and delaying of
OBLA/fatigue
OTHER ADAPTATIONS
 Increased strength of connective tissues – tendons, ligaments and bones (increade
calcium production), which helps offset early symptoms of osteoporosis
 Social/psychological: an increased hypertrophic body is often seen as attractive
and therefore desirable and may increase an individual’s self-esteem and social
standing in both sporting and lifestyle contexts
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CARDIOVASCULAR ADAPTATIONS
Hypertrophy of the Heart
Increased Blood Pressure – due to powerful muscle contractions obstructing
arteries passing through active muscles
Slight increase in capillary density
Decreased volume of the left ventricle – due to an increase in the size of the left
ventricle wall
Increase in muscle mass may decrease aerobic strength endurance if there is no
increase in mitochondria
12
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ENDURANCE STRENGTH ADAPTATIONS
Increase in the number of mitochondria in muscles
Increase in capillary density
Increase the metabolic rate by increasing aerobic capacity
STRENGTH TRAINING AND A HEALTHY LIFESTYLE
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Most of he negative effects of strength training come from pure maximum strength
training undertaken by body builders/weight lifters – due to very heavy weights,
very slow movements and isometric contractions
Strength and endurance training together may hinder strength developments
Good strength will sustain and improve participation in physical activity
It is recommended that 8-10 strength training exercises of 8-12 repetitions of each
exercise twice a week
Increase in muscle mass will increase energy expenditure, which may help achieve
a more healthy body composition (reduced fat mass)
Assessment of Your Strength

Using one of the above tests, find out your Strength (which would relate to your
chosen activity/sport).

Strength = _____________________________________

Compare your result with the strength demands of your chosen activity/sport.

Plan a strength training programme based on this assessment of your score and
the requirements of your sport.
FLEXIBILITY

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
Flexibility is “the range of motion (RoM) around a joint or a series of joints”
Flexibility is joint-specific, sport-specific and has two components Static Flexibility
and Dynamic Flexibility
Static Flexibility is the ‘range of movement without taking into account speed of
movement. It is the maximum RoM a muscle or connective tissue will allow without
external force.
Dynamic Flexibility is the range of motion which takes into account the speed of
movement and reflects the joints’ resistance to movement
Flexibility is the RoM and stretching is the training method used to increase
flexibility
A lack of flexibility in some muscles can affect an individual’s natural body
alignment (posture)
BENEFITS OF FLEXIBILITY TRAINING
 Reduced risk of injury (prevention)
 Improved posture, alignment and ergonomics
 Reduction of DOMS
 Performance Enhancement:
o Flexible muscles perform better than tight muscles
o Improves range of motion at joints
o Increased RoM for applying force (Power)
o Improved economy of movement (strength endurance/aerobic capacity)
o Improved motor performance/skills
13
FACTORS AFFECTING FLEXIBILITY
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Type of joint (ball and socket joint has more flexibility than a hinge joint)
Joint shape (arrangement, shape and alignment of articulating surfaces)
Length/elasticity of connective tissue (ligaments and tendons)
Muscle length/elasticity
Gender (generally females are more flexible than males)
Age (flexibility decreases with age)
Elasticity (suppleness of skin and adipose tissue)
Temperature (elasticity of muscles and connective tissue improves when warm)
Muscle mass (excess muscle mass around a joint will restrict RoM)
Nerves (nerves passing through the joints)
Hypermobility (this increases RoM but can lead to joint instability and increases the
risk of injury)
Flexibility Training
MEASURING FLEXIBILITY


Sit and Reach Test
Goniometry (uses a double-armed goniometer, which is an angled-ruler, which
measures the degrees of movement at selected joints)
o Goniometry is usually performed on hip flexion, hip extension, hip
abduction, shoulder flexion and shoulder extension
FLEXIBILITY TRAINING


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Maintenance Stretching – stretching as part of a warm up and cool down which
helps maintain an individual’s RoM but does not increase it
Developmental Stretching – whole or part of training sessions (a minimum of 1015 minutes) devoted solely to stretching, which increases as individual’s RoM
To improve flexibility performers must stimulate sufficient overload using the FITT
principle
o Frequency – 2-4 times a week
o Intensity – varying from mild tension through to the extreme point of
resistance
o Time/Duration – hold each stretch for a minimum of 10 seconds and a
maximum of 30+ seconds and repeat 3-6 times
o Type – Static, Dynamic, Ballistic or PNF
Specificity is also needed (selecting the correct joints and the correct type of
stretching)
Static Stretching



Static Active Stretches – these are unassisted and the performer actively
completes voluntary static contractions of an agonist muscle to create the force to
stretch the antagonist muscle just beyond its end point of resistance while held still
Static Passive Stretches – these are assisted by an external force
The problem with static stretching is that it does not prepare the joints for the more
dynamic and powerful RoM that will be performed in the actual activity
14
Ballistic Stretching

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
This involves the use of momentum to move a joint forcibly through its extreme end
of range or point of resistance. It involves fast, swinging, active or boncing
movements to complete the joint’s full RoM
Ballistic stretching does carry greater risk of muscle soreness/injury and produces
limited long-term adaptations for increasing muscle length
Ballistic stretching mimics the action in the sport being carried out and can be done
in a safe and progressive way (Gymnasts tend to use this method frequently)
This should only be performed by athletes who already have a good range of
flexibility
Dynamic Stretching



This is a more controlled version of ballistic stretching and involves taking the
muscle through a joint’s RoM, with muscle tension but with the entry and exit under
more control
This develops a more optimum level of dynamic flexibility
This should only be performed by athletes who already have a good range of
flexibility
Proprioreceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF)

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PNF attempts to inhibit the stretch reflex mechanism to allow a greater stretch of
the muscle/connective tissues
Muscles contain muscle spindles which, when a muscle is stretched, stimulate the
central nervous system via the spinal cord to activate the stretch reflex
The muscle contracts in a protective mechanism to prevent the muscle from being
overstretched and this is what PNF attempts to stop occurring
A PNF technique called ‘static-contract-relax’ involve the following stages
o Static = muscle is stretched just beyond the point of resistance
o Contract = isometric muscle contraction held for a minimum of 10 seconds
o Relax = muscle is then relaxed and the sequence is repeated at least three
times
The isometric contraction inhibits the stretch reflex, allowing the muscle to be
stretched further in each consecutive PNF stretch
Most PNF techniques require the assistance of a partner to resist the movement of
the performer as they contract their muscle isometrically
PNF produces quicker and equal or better flexibility gains than static stretching
FLEXIBILITY ADAPTATIONS
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Increased elasticity/length of muscle/connective tissues
Increased resting length of muscle/connective tissues
Muscle spindles adapt to the increased length, reducing the stimulus to the stretch
reflex
Increased RoM at a joint before the stretch reflex is initiated
Increased potential for static and dynamic flexibility (RoM)
Increased distance and efficiency for muscles to create force and acceleration
Increased RoM reduces potential for injury to muscle/connective tissues during
dynamic sports movements
15
Assessment of Your Flexibility

Using one of the above tests, find out your Flexibility (which would relate to your
chosen activity/sport).

Flexibility = _____________________________________

Compare your result with the flexibility demands of your chosen activity/sport.

Plan a flexibility training programme based on this assessment of your score and
the requirements of your sport.
BODY COMPOSITION

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Body size = refers to the performers height and weight
Build = refers to the performers muscularity, height or fatness of their frame/shape

Body Composition = refers to the chemical make up of the body and is split into
two components:
o Fat mass = refers to the percentage of body weight that is stored as fat
(within adipose tissue)
o Lean Body Mass = the weight of the rest of the body (including muscle,
bone, etc)
The average for males is 12-18% body fat
The average for females is 22-28% body fat
The average for elite athletes is 6-12% body fat for men and 12-20 for females
Below is a table of typical % body fat for different sports

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SPORT
Basketball
Cycling
Field Hockey
Rowing
Swimming
Track – Runners
Track – Jumpers
Track – Throwers
Triathlon
Volleyball
MALE
6-12%
5-15%
8-15%
6-14%
9-12%
8-10%
7-12%
14-20%
5-12%
11-14%
FEMALE
20-27%
15-20%
12-18%
12-18%
14-24%
12-20%
10-18%
20-28%
10-15%
16-25%
MEASURING BODY COMPOSITION


Hydrostatic Weighing
o This is the most commonly used and accepted measurement of body
composition
o It is where the athlete is weighed while being totally immersed in water
o The difference between this weight and weight on scales is the athlete’s fat
mass %
o Fat is less dense and floats in water so the more fat an athlete has, the
more difference there will be from their scale weight out of water
o This is not readily available to most athletes
o This only estimates fat-free mass
Bioelectrical Impedance Spectroscopy (BIS)
o This sends a low, safe electrical current through the body
16
o
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The current passes through fluids in muscle tissue, but encounters
resistance when passing through fat tissue. This is called Bioelectrical
Impedance
o The athletes body fat % can be calculated when set against their height and
weight
o Although this is accurate, it relies on fluid levels in the body and can be
affected by hydration levels of the athlete
Skinfold Measures: Skinfold Callipers
o These are the most widely used method of measuring Body Composition,
as it is easily accessible, cheap and practical
o This measures the level of subcutaneous fat below the skin from different
sites around the body and is measured in millimetres.
o The sum of all these skinfold readings are used to estimate body fat %
o The four most common sites for this test are: triceps, biceps, subscapular
and suprailiac
o More detailed tests use up to six sites. Some of these are gender specific
due to males and females storing fat in different places
o This is a good estimate of body composition
o For this to be accurate, the tester needs to be properly trained
Body Mass Index (BMI)
o This is a method used to measure weight and obesity
o BMI is a measure of an adult’s weight in relation to their height (their weight
in Kg is divided by their height in metres squared) (see Table 5 on p.467)
o Normal values of BMI are 20.1-25.0 for men and 18.5-23.8 for women (the
higher the value, the more obese an individual is)
o BMI does not directly measure percentage of body fat, but provides a more
accurate measure of obesity
o It allows for natural variations in body shape and allows individuals to check
if they are at risk of weight-related health problems in relation to their height
o This is not suitable for young children, pregnant women, old people,
athletes and those with a higher than average muscle mass
WHY IS BODY COMPOSITION IMPORTANT?
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Overweight = Body weight exceeding the normal standard weight based on
height/frame size, or having a BMI between 25.0 and 29.9
Obesity = Having a very high amount of body fat (20-25% in men and 30-35% in
women) in relation to lean body mass, or having a BMI over 30.0
Overweight and Obesity occur as a result of an imbalance between energy intake
(food consumption) and energy expenditure (work/physical activity)
If energy intake exceeds expenditure then energy is stored as fat (adipose tissue)
Therefore. To lose weight, energy expenditure must exceed intake
ENERGY EXPENDITURE
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Metabolic Rate (MR) = The body’s rate of energy expenditure
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR) = The lowest rate of energy expenditure needed to
sustain the body’s essential physiological functions while at rest (after 8 hours
sleep and 12 hours of fasting)
Resting Metabolic Rate (RMR) = This term is used in order to avoid the need to
measure sleep
The body’s Total Daily Expenditure is split into the following areas:
o RMR is about 60-75%
o Physical Activity is about 20-30%
o The remainder is energy used in the process of eating, digesting, absorbing
and using food (this is referred to as the Thermic Effect)
17
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Below is an equation to calculate your RMR in terms of calories per day/hour:
o Male Adults = Multiply the body weight by 10, add double the body weight
to this value (e.g. for a 150lb male - 150 x 10 + 300 = 1800 cal/day and ÷
24 = 75 cal/hour)
o Female Adults = Multiply the body weight by 10, add the body weight to
this value (e.g. for a 150lb female - 150 x 10 + 150 = 1650 cal/day and ÷ 24
= 69 cal/hour)
o These figures represent the amount of calories you need to consume to
sustain your body’s energy requirements at rest (RMR)
Calorie (cal) / Kilocalorie (kcal) = The amount of heat energy needed to increase
the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius – exactly 1000
small calories, or about 4.184 kilo Joules (kJ). Calorie (cal) and Kilocalorie
(kcal/Kcal) are the same and are used interchangeably
Metabolic Equivalent Task (METS) = The ratio of a performer’s working
metabolic rate relative to their resting metabolic rate
o METs use oxygen consumption per unit of body weight per minute (ml
O2/kg/mmin) to estimate exercise intensity, as oxygen consumption is
directly proportional to the energy expenditure during activity
o At rest your body uses about 3.5 ml O2 per kilogram of body weight per
minute (3.5 ml/kg/min) and this is about 0.0175 kcal/kg/min
o 3.5 ml/kg/min or 0.0175 kcal/kg/min equals 1 MET and equates to your
resting VO2. This reflects the RMR
o MET’s reflect the ratio of a performer’s working metabolic rate relative to
their RMR, so two MET’s indicates the energy expended is twice that at
rest, three MET’s reflects triple the resting energy expenditure, etc
Below is a table showing MET’s per hour expended for different activities:
MET’s
1.0
1.3
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
3.8
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.3
6.5
7.0
8.0
8.5
9.0
10.0
10.5
11.0
12.0
12.5
16.0
ACTIVITY
Sitting/lying quietly
Standing
Reading; Talking on the telephone
Walking (less than 3.2 km/hr, level surface)
Walking downstairs; brisk walking; Yoga; stretching; Bowling
Cycling (50 watts, light effort); Walking (4 km/hr)
Horse Riding; Rowing Machine (50 watts, light)
Walking (5.6 km/hr, level surface)
Cricket
Table Tennis, Badminton (recreational)
Doubles Tennis
Gymnastics
Swimming (light), slow jogging
Walking (7.2 km/hr, level surface)
Hiking (hilly)
Badminton; Skating; Rowing Machine (100 watts, moderate effort);
Stationary Cycling (150 watts, moderate effort); backpacking
Football, Hockey, Skiing Downhill
Squash; Running (12-minute mile)
Running (5.2mph, 11.5-minute mile); Basketball
Running (6mph; 10-minute mile)
Stationary Cycling, 200 watts, vigorous effort
Running (6.7 mph; 9-minute mile)
Rowing machine, 200 watts, very vigorous effort
Running (7.5mph; 8-minute mile)
Outdoor Cycling, more than 20mph
18
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It is possible to estimate the amount of calories you use while participating in
physical activity by using your RMR and the MET’s value for your particular
activity/daily activity
This is done by multiplying your RMR by the activity’s MET’s value, e.g.:
o A 150lb female Footballer undertaking a 60-minute Football game (8
MET’s) will use 550 calories:
o 150 (lb) x 10 + 150 ÷ 24
x
8.0 = 550
(RMR)
(MET’s)
A more accurate calculation of energy expenditure into kcal for physical activity
using MET’s, would be using the information that 0.0175k cal/kg/min is equal to 3.5
ml/kg/min. Using the same example as before:
o Weight in kg = 150lb = 68.1 kg (1lb = 0.454 kg)
o MET’s = 8 MET’s x 0.0175 = 0.14 kcal/kg/min
o Energy Expenditure per minute = Weight x MET’s = 0.14 x 68.1 = 9.534
kcal/min
o Energy Expenditure for whole activity = 9.534 x 60 = 572.04 kcal (for
the whole game = 60 minute)
This equation can be used by athletes to calculate the required nutritional intake to
meet the energy expenditure or to calculate how many minutes they need to work
for to balance out intake and expenditure
ENERGY INTAKE
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This is the food consumed or dietary intake
You need to be able to evaluate critically your own diet and calorie consumption
The recommended daily calorie intake for women is 1940 calories per day and
2550 calories per day for men. This will depend on lifestyle, age, height, weight,
activity and body composition
A balanced diet should consist of:
o 10-15% Protein
o No more than 30% Fat
o 55-60% Carbohydrates (CHO)
o Foods in the ‘5-a-day group’ (including vitamins, minerals, water and
roughage)
5-a-day food group includes:
o Bread, cereal and potatoes (starchy foods)
o Fruit and Vegetables
o Meat and Fish
o Milk and dairy foods
o Fats and Sugars
Athletes performing in endurance events will need more than the recommended
10-15% intake of carbohydrates
Calorie Counting
o An estimate of RMR energy expenditure can be based on 1.3 calories
needed per hour per kg of weight
o An estimate of Physical Activity energy expenditure can be based on 8.5
calories needed per hour of activity per kg of weight
o E.g. A male performer weighing 75kg would have a RMR of 2340 calories a
day (75 x 1.3 x 24) and with 90 minutes of physical activity would have an
energy expenditure of 956 calories a day (75 x 8.5 x 1.5).
 Therefore, the total daily energy expenditure of 3296 calories a day
o From this a performer can calculate what they should consume in terms of
energy intake (depending on whether their target is to achieve a positive,
negative or neutral energy balance
19
o

We can apply our recommended percentages for a balanced diet to this
total energy expenditure figure:
 1813 (55% of 3296) calories need to come from Carbohydrates
 989 (30% of 3296) calories need to come from Fats
 494 (15% of 3296) calories need to come from Protein
o However, these provide different energy yield in calories per gram;
Carbohydrates and Protein provide 4 calories per gram and Fats provide 9
calories per gram. Therefore, the performer would require a dietary
consumption of:
 (1813 ÷ 4 =) 453 grams Carbohydrates
 (989 ÷ 9 =) 110 grams Fats
 (494 ÷ 4 =) 124 grams Proteins
o This is a complicated procedure and this is why athletes have a nutritionist
to calculate their required consumption
Health Implications of Being Overweight/Obese
o When energy intake is greater than energy expenditure, this leads to weight
gain and possibly to individuals becoming Overweight or Obese
o Fat is not all bad; it is an essential energy fuel for endurance activity and it
has a role of insulation in the cold and it protects vital organs
o However, too much Fat is associated with:
 An increased risk of diabetes
 An increased risk of cancer
 Long-term stress on the cardio-vascular systems leading to
coronary heart disease, angina, varicose veins, deep vein
thrombosis, increased blood lipids, atherosclerosis (disease of
arteries), high blood pressure, stoke, poor temperature regulation,
low fatigue resistance, renal/gall bladder disease, respiratory
problems, lethargy and surgical operations at much higher risk
 Overload of joints, especially lower body joints, which adversely
impacts on body posture and alignment and consequently leads to
musculo-skeletal pain/injuries like lower back pain typical of lower
lumber lordosis of the spine
 Psychological harm due to the associated stigma, ridicule, staring,
bullying etc
 Under performance in both physical and mental work, such as
education
o Facts about Obesity:
 Rapid increase in obesity in last 10 years. Most adults in the UK are
already overweight – linked to a sedentary lifestyle
 Britons are among the heaviest in Europe
 Obesity increases with age. About 76% men and 68% women aged
55-64 years are overweight or obese (this has doubled since mid1980’s)
 62% adults and 30% children are already overweight or obese
 By 2010, 33% adults and 20% children will be obese
 By 2050, 60% of men and 50% women will be clinically obese
 Less than 5% children walk/cycle to school, compared to 80% 20
years ago
 Obesity-related illnesses put pressure on families, NHS and society.
Without action it will cost society £50 billion per year by 2050
 Obesity costs 18 million sick days per year, which leads to about £12 billion annual cost to the NHS and £2-3 billion cost to the economy
due to lost productivity
20
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
Performance Implications of Body Weight
o A main characteristic of successful performers is low body fat content
o Athletes generally carry less body fat due to their increased physical activity
levels
o Anaerobic/sprinter-type athletes tend to have a heavier body mass with
more musculature of the upper and lower body and a low fat mass
o Endurance athletes have a lower body mass with smaller muscles but with
very low body fat
o A low fat mass is more significant in endurance athletes as they will need to
carry it for longer which wastes energy that could be used to increase the
intensity or prolong their performance
o Increased weight from muscle mass is fine if it adds power/force to improve
performance
o Too little body fat can lead to:
 Body fat less than 5% in men and 10-15% in women is thought to
affect the immune system (which increases the risk of illness)
 There is increased risk of irregular menstrual cycles for female
athletes with body fat below 18%
 Low body fat decreases female oestrogen levels. This increases the
risk of developing osteoporosis (a decrease in bone mineral), which
decreases bone strength and increases the risk of bone fractures
Implications for Involvement
o When individuals that are overweight or obese participate in weight-bearing
physical activity there is:
 An increased energy expenditure cost, load bearing of joints and
risk of injury
 Decreased joint mobility/flexibility, economy of movement and
fatigue resistance
EFFECTS OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON BODY COMPOSITION



Inactivity is a major contributor towards obesity
Physical activity increases energy expenditure (energy expenditure consists of
activity expenditure and RMR):
o By increasing physical activity the number of calories burned as increases
o A significant calorie expenditure is incurred post-exercise and this
increases the metabolic rate for several hours and up to 24 hours after
prolonged exhaustive exercise
o Exercise minimises the loss of lean body tissue (muscle mass) which burns
more calories than fat mass
o Exercise can increase lean body tissue thereby burning even more calories
o Exercise increases the metabolism/use of fats as an energy fuel
o All of the above have the effect of increasing the bodies RMR, so more
calories are being burned when the body is at rest
o Exercise may suppress appetite so that calorific intake better balances
energy intake (prevent overeating)
In summary, physical activity helps create a negative energy balance by
speeding up weight loss and ensuring a greater percentage of the lost weight
is fat and not lean muscle mass
21
OTHER FITNESS COMPONENTS
AGILITY -
Ability to change body position in a precise and balanced
manner (measured by the Illinois Agility Run)
BALANCE -
Ability to maintain the Centre of Mass above the base of
support, static or dynamic (measured by the Stalk Stand
Test)
CO-ORDINATION -
Ability to put a number of body systems into action
simultaneously e.g. hand and eyes (measured by the Ball
Toss Test)
REACTION TIME -
Length of time between the reception of a stimulus and the
initiation of a response (measured by the Ruler Drop Test)
SPEED -
Ability to move body parts quickly (measured by the 30m
Sprint)
22
EXAM QUESTIONS
JANUARY 2002
1
c)
During a macro cycle training unit a number of physiological adaptations
will occur. Fig. 2 shows the effect of a particular type of training on skeletal
muscle.
ATP Stores
ATPase Activity
Creatine Kinase Activity
PC Stores
Phosphofructokinase Activity
0
20
40
60
80
Anaerobic Glycolysis
100
120
140
Percentage Increase
Fig. 2
What type of athlete might benefit from such training effects? If you were
this athlete’s coach, describe the guidelines you would follow when
designing a micro cycle training regime.
(7 marks)
JUNE 2002
1
2
The 1500m event requires very different energy demands from the shot put event.
This is even more apparent for top class performers. A large aerobic capacity
benefits a middle distance runner whereas the shot putter requires high maximal
strength.
a)
Define aerobic capacity and maximal strength and identify a test that
could be used to evaluate each of these fitness components.
(4 marks)
b)
After a particularly strenuous weight training session, the shot putter may
experience muscle soreness immediately after the session and the
following day. Explain the reasons for this during both these times and
identify strategies that could be used to keep the pain to a minimum.
(6 marks)
c)
The coach is responsible for ensuring the performer is in peak condition as
competition approaches. Using principles of training explain how this will be
achieved in a named activity.
(10 marks)
23
JANUARY 2003
1
In many activities in Physical Education and Sport, performers will use all three
energy systems and a range of energy fuels.
a) Fig. 1 show the relationship of the energy systems utilised over a one-mile race by
a top class performer.
B
100
Aerobic
90
%
Intensity 80
of
Process 70
A
Energy System Y
60
50
40
30
ATP/PC
Resting 20
Level
10
0
0
(ii)
1
2
3
4
Time (mins)
Fig. 1
Describe an interval training session that would put stress on the
predominant energy system being used between points A and B on
the graph.
(3 marks)
JUNE 2003
1
Physical fitness is an important factor in the success of a performer in Physical
Education or Sport.
a)
Agility, Balance, Coordination, Reaction Time and Speed are components
of skill related fitness. Define two of these components and identify a
recognised test for each.
(4 marks)
b)
Aerobic Capacity is important for endurance athletes such as triathletes to
enable them to work at a higher percentage of their VO2 max before they
reach OBLA (Onset of Blood Lactate Accumulation).
The table below compares VO2 max and OBLA values for two 18 year old
students. One is a club triathlete and the other a reasonable school team
Tennis player.
24
Triathlete
Tennis Player
VO2 max (ml. minˉ¹. kgˉ¹)
57
34
OBLA (as a % of VO2 max)
80%
50%
With reference to the efficiency of the vascular system, explain why the
triathlete is able to achieve these higher values.
(5 marks)
c)
Explosive Strength (sometimes referred to as Elastic Strength or Power) is
important for anaerobic athletes such as sprinters.
Outline the relevant guidelines that a sprinter needs to consider in
developing explosive strength and apply these guidelines to one Explosive
Strength training session.
(6 marks)
2
c)
The purpose of flexibility training is to improve or maintain the range of
movement over which muscles can act and joints can operate.
Selecting either the hip or shoulder joint, give examples of types of
flexibility exercises in an activity of your choice. Describe the types of
training that can be used to increase the range of movement in that joint.
What are the benefits of flexibility training to a performer? (13 marks)
JANUARY 2004
1
a)
Flexibility training is an important component of a training programme.
PNF (proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation) is one type of flexibility
training. Describe PNF stretching.
(3 marks)
b)
A cool down helps to return the body to its resting state by oxidising lactic
acid and lowering heart rate.
(ii)
Identify and explain the physiological adaptations that enable a
trained performer to recover faster than a non-athlete.
(7 marks)
JUNE 2004
1
b)
Fig. 1 shows the relative contribution of the three energy systems in two
performers, whose energy demands are quite different.
Design two interval training sessions to meet the specific needs of
performer A and performer B shown in Fig. 1 below.
(6 marks)
25
100
Lactic Acid
Percentage
of Total
Work
Output
Aerobic
ATP-PC
Lactic Acid
ATP-PC
0
Performer A
Performer B
Fig. 1
2
c)
Aerobic Capacity is a vital fitness component.
Identify the physiological factors that limit Aerobic Capacity. For an elite
performer in a named sport of your choice, describe how you would ensure
that Aerobic Capacity is developed during a training programme.
(13 marks)
JANUARY 2005
1
c)
A trained athlete can perform at a higher percentage of their VO2 max
before reaching OBLA than an untrained person.
(ii)
Describe how an athlete would make use of the principles of training
when designing a training programme aimed at delaying OBLA.
(6 marks)
JUNE 2005
1
a)
What type of performer would predominantly use an anaerobic energy
system?
State one fitness component that would be beneficial to this performer and
identify one test that could be used to evaluate this component.
(3 marks)
c)
Periodisation is a training principle that splits training into specific blocks.
(i)
What are the benefits of using periodisation when designing a
training programme?
(2 marks)
(ii)
Explain how a performer might use periodisation to structure their
training programme for one year.
(6 marks)
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2
c)
Two tests designed to evaluate the strength in the rectus abdominis muscle
are Maximum number of sit ups in 30 seconds and Time until exhaustion in
the Abdominal Curl Sit Up Test.
Explain why a performer would do better in the 30 Second Test than the
Abdominal Curl Sit Up Test. OR why a performer would do better in the
Abdominal Curl Sit Up Test than the 30 Second Test.
Design a strength training programme for either Strength Endurance or
Explosive Strength (Power).
(13 marks)
JANUARY 2006
1
a)
Define aerobic capacity and list the factors that affect a performers VO2
max.
(3 marks)
b)
To improve aerobic capacity most performers will undergo a period of
aerobic training while others may cheat using illegal means.
(i)
2
Outline a training programme designed to improve the aerobic
capacity of a performer.
(4 marks)
c)
Making reference to the physiological adaptations that occur in the
cardiovascular and respiratory systems, explain why a trained performer
can work at a higher intensity before reaching their VO2 max.
(5 marks)
c)
The type of training used during a training programme will depend on the
individual performer. For example, a goal keeper in association football will
have different training requirements from a midfield player.
Define interval training and identify the advantages of this type of training.
Identify two different types of performer. Describe how an interval training
session can be manipulated to suit the requirements of each. Outline one
interval training session that is specific to one of your performers.
Injury and muscle soreness are a risk to any performer.
Explain the physiological implications of warming up and cooling down.
(13 marks)
JUNE 2006
1
c)
Identify and define the type of strength most relevant to a 100m sprinter.
Design a weight training programme to improve this type of strength.
(6 marks)
JANUARY 2007
2
c)
Identify and describe one type of training, other than interval or circuit, that
could be used to develop aerobic capacity.
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of this type of training and
explain how target heart rates are used as an intensity guide.
(10 marks)
27
JUNE 2007
1
A performer carries out a number of fitness tests. Table 1 gives the results of some
of these tests.
Component of
Fitness
Test
Result
Aerobic Capacity
PWC 170 Test
Strength Endurance
Abdominal Curl
Conditioning Test
Vertical Jump Test
Test A
Predicted VO2 max
= 50 ml/kg/min
Stage 6
Elastic Strength
Maximum Grip
Strength
Hamstring Flexibility
Test B
Evaluation by
comparison with
norm tables
HIGH
VERY GOOD
37 cm
31kg
GOOD
AVERAGE
15cm
POOR
Table 1
a)
Identify Test A and Test B.
b)
(i)
Describe the method for the PWC 170 test used to measure aerobic
capacity.
(3 marks)
(ii)
Identify and explain four physiological factors related to the heart
and skeletal muscle that enable the performer to score so highly on
the aerobic capacity test.
(4 marks)
(i)
Describe two types of stretching that could be used to develop
flexibility.
(4 marks)
(ii)
Explain the physiological changes to skeletal muscle and
connective tissue after flexibility training.
(2 marks)
c)
(2 marks)
JANUARY 2008
1
c)
Table 2 identifies physiological adaptations that have taken place after a
period of aerobic training.
Heart Rate at rest
(beats/min)
Stroke Volume at rest
(ml)
VO2 max
(ml/kg/min)
Before Training
71
After Training
59
75
90
40.5
49.8
Table 2
Explain why these physiological adaptations have occurred, giving reasons
related only to the heart and vascular system.
(5 marks)
28
2
c)
Identify, define and give a method of evaluation for two components of
fitness other than aerobic capacity, strength and flexibility. (6 marks)
A carefully planned training programme is required to improve a specific
component of fitness.
Describe what is meant by each of the following terms:
 Macrocycles
 Mesocycles
 Microcycles
Discuss the benefits of periodisation in planning a training programme.
(10 marks)
JUNE 2008
1
Aerobic capacity or VO2 max is an important fitness component.
a)
Table 1 shows values for VO2 max for sportsmen and sportswomen in
different sports.
Sport
Rowing
Cross Country Skiing
Swimming
Male (ml/kg/min)
72
95
70
Female (ml/kg/min)
65
75
60
Table 1
b)
2
c)
(i)
Define VO2 max and identify a common method used to evaluate it.
(2 marks)
(ii)
Explain three physiological reasons why males tend to have higher
values for VO2 max than females.
(3 marks)
(i)
Outline the main features of a weight training programme designed
to develop maximum strength.
(4 marks)
(ii)
Identify two physiological adaptations that take place during the
training programme and explain how each helps to improve
maximum strength.
(4 marks)
Interval training is a versatile type of training in which periods of work are
interspersed with periods of recovery.
Outline an interval training session that is designed to stress the lactic acid
system. Explain how you would apply the training principles of overload,
specificity and reversibility to ensure your sessions remain effective
throughout the training programme.
(10 marks)
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