Acquired Maculopathy

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Acquired Maculopathy and Other Posterior Disorders

Joseph Sowka, OD, FAAO, Diplomate

Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD): The Continuum of Normal Aging and Disease

Degenerative Changes

 RPE and Bruch’s membrane disturbances

Formation of drusen

These changes are commonly observed in the eyes of most elderly persons to some degree

Cell death and functional loss

Only in some individuals do these age related changes progress to this stage

Transition from normal aging to disease (with a loss of functional vision)

Drusen are players in retinal disease, RPE disease, and AMD

Drusen occurs in 70% of all eyes over the age of 50 yrs

Drusen are signs of RPE abnormality/ atrophy

Precursor/ participant in AMD

Peripheral/ posterior pole location

RPE cells deposit collagenous basement membrane into Bruch's (drusen):

Mucopolysaccharides and lipids.

Cause unknown (choriocapillaris dysfunction?)

Solar exposure

Photodynamic effects can lead to superoxide free radical formation, which promotes drusen/ lipofuscin formation. Lipofuscin and drusen are thought to be

RPE phagocytized photoreceptor outer segments that are driven by a solar induced mechanism.

Increased deposition of drusen is associated with RPE thinning and atrophy

Choriocapillaris breakdown results in hypoxia (and release of VEGF), RPE atrophy, and drusen formation

Pathophysiology and implications of drusen are not fully understood- Drusen do alter Bruch's membrane and can lead to choroidal neovascularization

Hard drusen

Typically seen in dry AMD

Soft drusen

Amorphous material between inner and outer layers of Bruch's membrane

Large, ill-defined, confluent

More inclined to lead to exudative (wet) AMD

Allows formation of choroidal neovascular membrane (CNVM)

As RPE atrophy increases, the risk of wet AMD decreases. RPE atrophy represents poor choroidal perfusion and hypoxia- neo can not be supported due to choriocapillaris dropout.

However, vision still suffers.

Age Related Macular Degeneration (AMD): Risk Factors

Typical age: 75-85 years

Framingham population-based prevalence study criteria: 20/30 or worse

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Prevalence:

52-64 yrs 1.6%

65-74 yrs 11%

75 yrs + 27.9%

Family hx

Maternal or sibling history strongest

Hand grip weakness

Alcohol consumption

Cardiovascular disease

Hypertension

Hyperlipidemia

Hyperopia

Aphakia

Short stature

Lightly pigmented hair/ eyes

Caucasian

Wet form more common in Caucasian patients

Smoking (esp. men)

Heavy smoking more than doubles risk

Nutritional

Decreased vit B,E zinc, magnesium intake

Higher incidence with alcohol consumption: poor diet

However, moderate intake of wine and carotenoids (leafy greens) may help

Leutein may be most protective

Drusen (as discussed above)

Wet: soft drusen

Dry: hard drusen

Dry (Atrophic or Non-exudative) AMD

80% of AMD cases

Macular drusen is a risk factor for both wet and dry AMD

Soft drusen – typically wet AMD

Hard drusen – typically dry AMD

Depigmentation

Granular clumping of RPE/RPE hyperplasia

Macular RPE atrophy

Mottled, "moth eaten" appearance of retina/RPE

Coalesce into geographic atrophic areas of RPE and choroid

200-5000 microns (1/7DD-3DD)

Bilateral, symmetrical

10% will progress to wet AMD

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Clinical Pearl: Dry AMD is not diagnosed by a single finding, but instead constitutes a spectrum of findings involving drusen, RPE atrophy, functional vision loss and/or RPE pigment changes. The beginning of the spectrum constitutes normal aging changes and the end represents severe vision loss.

Dry AMD: Geographic Atrophy

Progressive loss of RPE and choriocapillaris

Macrophages replace drusen with fibrous tissue or dystrophic calcification

Once this occurs, CNVM will no longer form

Loss of photoreceptor function

Non-viable capillaries: neo will not form in non-viable, atrophic zones

20% risk of CNVM at edge of lesion

Loss of retinal layers

VA 20/25 - 20/400 (approx)

Dry AMD: Management

Photodocument

Home amsler

UV protection

Anti-oxidant vitamins with zinc supplements (Results of the Age-Related Eye Disease Study

(AREDS): Archives of Ophthalmology October 2001, JAMA October 2001)

For those taking high-potency antioxidants and zinc combined formula, there was a decrease (vs placebo) in the percent of patients who progressed to advanced AMD at

5 years

Visual acuity loss

Only the high-potency antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, beta carotene) and zinc combined formula statistically significantly reduced the odds of visual acuity loss

Neovascularization

The combined high-potency antioxidants and zinc product statistically significantly reduced the odds of developing choroidal neovascularization

Conclusions: Those with extensive intermediate sized drusen, at least one large drusen, or non-central geographic atrophy in one or both eyes or those with advanced AMD or vision loss due to AMD in one eye and without contraindications such as smoking, should consider taking a supplement of antioxidants plus zinc

F/u q3mos-q6mos

Low vision consult

90% of dry AMD pts are not legally blind

Wet (Exudative) AMD: Choroidal Neovascularization

8-20% of cases of AMD are wet (actually, up to 12% may be unknown, according to

Framingham study)

Presence of exudate, hemorrhages, or suspected gray-green lesion as this implies that choroidal neovascularization and wet AMD has formed. However, hemorrhage or exudation may obscure part or all of CNVM

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Choroidal Neovascularization

Bruch's disruption

 Diffuse thickening of Bruch’s with soft drusen which predisposes to breaks in

Bruch’s membrane

Presence of VEGF enhances development

 Other diseases can cause Bruch’s disruption

RPE/ Bruch's breaks

Diffuse thickening with soft drusen predisposes Bruch’s membrane to breaks

Soft drusen often precursor, but not always

Chronic Inflammation Theory

 Higher number of lymphocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts found in Bruch’s membranes of patients with AMD

 Inflammation causes breaks in Bruch’s membrane?

Implication are not yet understood

Choroidal neovascular membrane (CNVM) infiltrates from choriocapillaris

Under the RPE and sensory retina

RPE detachment with turbid fluid or blood may represent CNVM

Round/oval gray-green elevation

 Don’t look only for gray-green appearance. Look for fluid and blood.

Associated findings:

Lipid exudate

Blood

Sensory RD

Classic CNVM

Well defined membrane on angiogram

About 10% of cases

Occult CNVM

About 90% of cases

Ill defined membrane on angiogram

CNVM may be subfoveal, juxtafoveal (1-199 microns from center of macula), or extrafoveal (> 200 microns from center of macula

FA and possibly indocyanine green (ICG) imaging: hot spots with late spread of hyperfluorescence.

Must get FA within 72 hrs because membranes can grow 10 microns/day;

Suspected/actual CNVM is an ocular urgency

ICG may be indicated to better visualize outline of membrane

ICG dye absorbs and emits fluorescence in the near IR spectrum

Better able to penetrate hemorrhage, melanin, fluid

Better for occult CNVM detection

Hypoxia and VEGF

RPE tear

Serous RPE detachments

Hemorrhagic RPE/sensory retinal detachments

10% risk of wet AMD in 4.3 yrs if pt. has bilateral macular drusen

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90% of pts. who are legally blind from AMD have wet AMD

VA 20/200-20/800

Clinical Pearl: Sub-retinal hemorrhages are identified by your ability to see distinct retinal vessels overlying the hemorrhaging area. If you can see the retinal vessels, then the hemorrhage must be beneath the retina.

Clinical Pearl: Soft drusen are more inclined to lead to wet AMD

Wet (Exudative) AMD: Disciform Scarring:

Fibrovascular material following CNVM development

Most cases of CNVM progress to this stage

Replaces most of sensory retina, RPE

May continue to grow and invade new areas

Results in death of tissue and severe visual loss

Yellow-brown-black (RPE hyperplasia)

Surgical excision may modestly improve vision

Wet AMD: Management

Laser photocoagulation

Photodynamic therapy (PDT)

Intravitreal steroid injection

Anti-angiogenic factors

UV protection

Anti-oxidant vitamin therapy

Macular drusen - home amsler

Low vision consult

Wet AMD: Laser Treatment

50% of wet AMD cases are potentially laser treatable with subsequent reduction in vision loss (i.e., the CNVM is juxta-or extrafoveal)

Of those pts. (the 50%) that are treatable:

75% of wet AMD pts pass through this "treatable" stage

80% are treatable within 2 weeks

Only 50% are treatable in 4 weeks

Only 20% are treatable in 8 weeks

Krypton laser for juxtafoveal net (less likely to be absorbed by RPE)

Specificity for choroidal layers

 Recurrence rate: 47% of tx’ed eyes

Argon Study: argon laser for extrafoveal net (>200 microns from center of FAZ)

Treat with argon blue-green laser

Laser energy absorbed by RPE and choroidal pigment and turned into heat and dissipated into adjacent tissues. CNVM are closed by coagulative necrosis

Xanthophyll pigment absorbs green argon laser and transmits heat to adjacent structures, thus cannot be used juxtafoveally.

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Recurrence rate after treatment- 53%

There is no good treatment for a subretinal/ subfoveal hemorrhage. Some surgeons will inject a gas bubble into the eye and place the patient face down in order to tamponade the hemorrhage and spread the blood out.

There is no great treatment for a subfoveal CNVM. Some surgeons are lasering subfoveal membranes in the thought that the laser damage will be less severe than the natural course of the disease.

Short-term results are significantly reduced vision. However, long-term results support treating sub-foveal CNVM as these patients do better. However, patients can often retain good vision with a subfoveal CNVM for an indeterminate period of time. Laser reduces vision immediately. This treatment should only be done after vision has dropped to

20/200

Wet AMD: Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)

Patient receives IV infusion of a light activated drug that collects in the tissues of the macula.

Low powered laser (664 nm) activates the drug, which forms singlet oxygen. This induces platelet aggregation and thus CNVM thrombosis. This is chemical obliteration of CNVM without damaging overlying retina and RPE. Damages unhealthy tissue but does not disturb healthy adjacent or overlying tissues.

 Difficulty: Indicated only for subfoveal membrane whose areas is at least 50% ‘classic’

CNVM. Only about 10% of CNVM are ‘classic’.

Another problem: PDT causes up-regulation of VEGF which increases leakage and propensity to form neovascularization

Verteporfin: Visudyne

High rate of side effects

Highly photosensitizing. Must absolutely avoid the sun for 3 days

High degree of skin necrosis needing skin grafts if dye extravasates during injection

Can not have subretinal fibrosis

Leakage is reduced, but not stopped

70-80% leak again in 1 year; however, doesn’t bleed, scar, or atrophy

Clinical Pearl: Photodynamic therapy is a well-accepted therapy for wet AMD, though the stand-alone results are not great. Likely, it will be used in conjunction with other therapies for best results.

Wet AMD: Intravitreal Steroid Injection:

Stabilizes vascular membranes and reduces vascular permeability.

Endophthalmitis is most significant complication

Clinical Pearl: Intravitreal injections of steroids are being investigated and used for edema secondary to vascular occlusions, diabetes, cystoid macular lesions, and wet age related macular degeneration. This promises to be a significant advancement in the treatment of maculopathies secondary to edema.

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Wet AMD: Anti-angiogenic Therapy

Macugen (pegaptanib sodium)

Oligonucleotide with high affinity for VEGF, preventing its uptake by endothelial receptors

Intravitreal injection q 6 weeks

Approved, but has not fared well and is not commonly used as other chemicals have performed better

Stand-alone therapy

87.5% of eyes had stabilized or improved vision after 3 months

25% of eyes improved three or more lines

Macugen + PDT

60% of eyes improved three or more lines at 3 months

Lucentis (ranibizumab)

Recombinant anti-VEGF antibody fragment that binds to VEGF

Intravitreal injection q 4 weeks

Approved and more successful than Macugen

94% of eyes with stable or improved vision at 98 days

On average, two lines of vision gained

26% of eyes improved three or more lines at 98 days

Studies comparing monthly Lucentis injections vs. quarterly PDT are being done

Avastin

Anti-colon cancer drug; accidentally found when patients with wet AMD patients undergoing chemotherapy reported improved vision

Not approved for this use (intravitreal injection for AMD), but very popular and economical

Clinical Pearl; Despite all of the new developments in wet AMD management, if a patient develops subfoveal CNVM today, he or she is pretty unlucky.

Other Conditions Associated with Choroidal Neovascular Membrane Formation:

Degenerative conditions

Wet AMD (#1 cause)

Degenerative myopia (#3 cause)

Angioid streaks

ONH drusen

Idiopathic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy (ICSC) and RPE detachment

Inflammatory and infectious conditions

Ocular Histoplasmosis syndrome (#4 cause)

Toxoplasmosis

Tuberculosis

Sarcoidosis

Syphilis

Rubella

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Choroidopathies (serpiginous, birdshot, punctate inner)

 Beçhet’s syndrome

Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome (VKH)

Hereditary

 Best’s disease

Dominant drusen

Fundus flavimaculatis

Choroideremia

Retinitis pigmentosa (RP)

Tumors

Malignant melanoma

Choroidal hemangioma

Metastatic tumors

Trauma

Excessive PRP

Choroidal rupture

Miscellaneous

Idiopathic CNVM (#2 cause)

Radiation retinopathy

Retinal detachment

Tilted disc syndrome

Choroidal Rupture

Result of direct injury to globe

Hemorrhages present if recent

May involve macula

Vision loss occurs here only if RPE is damaged

Vision and field loss variable

Generally, retina overlying rupture is normal

5 yr possibility of CNVM

Idiopathic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy (ICSC)

Also known as central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) and central serous retinopathy (CSR)

Serous retinal or pigment epithelial detachments in macular area

Loss of foveal reflex

Transient and potentially recurrent

Recurrence rate is 20-30%

Breakdown of RPE cells allowing seepage to occur into sensory retina

Typically, a focal conduit through RPE into sensory retina

Theorized to occur secondary to vasomotor instability or sympathetic nervous excitation

Predisposing conditions such as drusen are absent

RPE detachment can commonly occur simultaneously

RPE separates from Bruch's; retina separates from RPE

Due to RPE disruption, there may be associated RPE hyperplasia

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Male: female 10:1

20-50 yrs (mid 30's). This should not be diagnosed in a patient over age 55 yrs

Must look for CNVM in older pts.

Type A personality

Caucasian

FA appearance: smokestack with 1 or 2 well demarcated cavities.

Sensory RD is diffuse

RPE detachment is well demarcated

Presents with decreased VA, metamorphopsia, hyperopic shift

Highly associated with steroid use (of all kinds)

Clinical Pearl: It is an error to diagnose ICSC in a patient over the age of 55 years. In these cases, consider the cause to be CNVM until proven otherwise.

Idiopathic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy: Management

Home amsler and observation

Discontinue all steroids

Excellent prognosis

60% recover 20/20

1-6 mos course

Self-limiting

RPE decompensation may complicate matters. "sick RPE syndrome"

Focal dysfunction of RPE resulting in slow, chronic oozing through RPE

Retina and RPE remain flat

Poor prognosis

Decreased VA with RPE changes

Possible CNVM formation

Direct photocoagulation to leaking areas in severe or non-remitting cases

Krypton better than argon: less recurrences

Laser treatment only considered after 3-4 mos of non-resolution (6 mos. Better)

Turbid fluid

Non-clearing

Intolerable sx to pt.

Sick RPE

Recurrence in eyes with visual field defect from previous episode

Previous event in other eye left permanent defect

Leakage must be outside of FAZ

Treatment does not affect rate of recurrence or final acuity; it only hastens the process

Laser may aggravate pre-existing choroidal neovascular membrane or ICSC. This is ‘like putting fertilizer on a weed’.

Clinical Pearl: Despite all of the advancement in treating wet maculopathies with intravitreal steroid injections, ICSC must never be treated with this modality. Severe vision loss has occurred.

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Retinal Pigment Epithelial Detachment:

Occur as idiopathic alterations in Bruch's membrane allows fluid to seep under RPE

Can occur as result of choroidal neovascularization

Usually occurs as some dysfunction of RPE, e.g. drusen

Serous RPE detachment: ophthalmoscopic appearance:

Oval/round, small, well demarcated dome-shaped elevation.

Clear fluid

If no CNVM- observe

Hemorrhagic RPE detachment: ophthalmoscopic appearance

Blood confined to sub-RPE space, dark red, elevated

Blood usually indicates CNVM

Occasionally, blood dissects through RPE and gives hemorrhagic RD and may even break through retina to give vitreous hemorrhage

90% of cases have concurrent sensory retinal detachment (ICSC) as well

On FA, the domed lesion fluoresces early and evenly and maintains well defined borders late into angiogram

Up to 30% of patients over 55 yrs who develop RPE detachments will have CNVM

CNVM can cause RPE detachment

RPE tears occur in 10% of cases

Permanent vision loss can result from RPE atrophy, RPE tear, or CNVM

Clinical Pearl: RPE detachment tends to be small and well localized and fills early on FA, but does not spread.

Clinical Pearl: RPE and CSC typically occur simultaneously.

Idiopathic Juxtafoveal Retinal Telangiectasia (IJRT)

 A similar condition to Coat’s disease and may be a variation

A cause of macular edema and reduced acuity

A developmental anomaly with subsequent leakage

Two forms: unilateral and bilateral

Unilateral

Occurs only in men

Asymptomatic until after age 40

1-2 DD area often temporal to fovea

Vision reduced, but not usually below 20/40

Similar to macroaneurysm, but too close to fovea

Bilateral

Occurs in either sex

Usually 40-60 years

Symmetrical

Less than 1 DD area

Vision typically 20/30 or better

Both may present with intraretinal edema and retinal hemorrhages

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Hard exudates and RPE hyperplastic abnormalities

This condition is greatly under-diagnosed

Always consider this condition in patients presenting with idiopathic parafoveal edema or dot/blot hemorrhages especially if there is no history of ischemic vascular disease

Idiopathic Juxtafoveal Retinal Telangiectasia: Management

Conservatism

Photocoagulation with grid argon green or krypton red if there is progressive loss of vision

Intravitreal injection of Avastin/ steroids

PDT

Consider testing for HTN and DM in patients with parafoveal hemorrhaging. If these diseases are not present, then telangiectasia is the likely cause.

There is no strong relationship between this condition and any systemic disease

Clinical Pearl: Always consider idiopathic juxtafoveal retinal telangiectasia in cases of mild paramacular hemorrhaging. Too often, this condition is overlooked and the findings are ascribed to diabetic retinopathy (even if the patient doesn’t have diabetes!)

Cystoid Macular Edema (CME)

Not a disease , but a finding

Special arrangement of nerve fibers in Henle's layer allows for CME

Honeycomb appearance. Initial fluid accumulation is within Muller cells, which gets into extracellular spaces causing cystoid spaces in OPL. Occurs almost always from leaking perifoveal capillaries

Cystic edema: difficult to perceive ophthalmoscopically

Petalloid appearance on FA; cystic appearance on OCT

If cause is inflammatory, there may also be disc edema

Often (erroneously) termed Irvine-Gass syndrome

CME s/p cataract extraction (ICCE complicated by vitreous loss))

60% detectable by FA

10% symptomatic

Peak incidence is 6-10 weeks after surgery

> 75% resolve spontaneously within 6 months

Causes:

Vitreous traction during surgery

Inflammation

Light toxicity from operating microscope causing free radical release leading to prostaglandin synthesis with subsequent vasodilation and vasopermeability of perifoveal capillaries

Also occurs secondary to:

Vaso-occlusive disease (vascular occlusion, DM)

ICSC

Pars planitis

Uveitis (posterior or anterior)

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Arterial disease

Retinitis pigmentosa

Nd:YAG capsulotomy

Ocular surgery

Cataract (Irvine Gass syndrome)

RD surgery

Vitrectomy

Glaucoma surgery

Cryo, laser

Radiation retinopathy

Choroidal tumors

AMD

Epiretinal membrane

PVD

Vitreous loss

Use of epinephrine in aphakes

Anecdotal evidence of Xalatan causing CME

CME is caused by many factors. Diagnosis is by clinical suspicion and confirmed by FA.

CME can be very subtle. Acuity may be 20/20.

Pt. may present with decrease VA and/or metamorphopsia or may be asymptomatic

Cystoid Macular Edema: Management

Post-cataract extraction- prognosis is good:

50% spontaneously recover in 6 mos; 20% may have it in excess of 5 yrs.

Topical steroids QID

Topical NSAIDS (Voltaren) QID

Oral NSAIDS

Diamox

Oral and depot steroids

Vitrectomy and/or grid photocoagulation

Now being commonly treated with intravitreal steroid injections

Long term CME can lead to foveal cyst formation which, after rupturing, results in a macular hole

Clinical Pearl: CME is frequently asymptomatic and best appreciated on a fluorescein angiogram.

Clinical Pearl: While CME after cataract extraction is often called Irvine-Gass syndrome, be aware that this term specifically refers to CME following complicated intracapsular cataract extraction.

Macular Holes

Anything disturbing the macula can cause a hole

CME is a strong precursor due to foveal cyst formation

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Foveal cyst is a strong precursor

There is a weak vitreoretinal adhesion at the macula

Proliferation of Muller cells may be responsible for the traction development

PVD can cause macular irritation and cyst formation

Vitreomacular traction (VMT) syndrome

Patients may have a perifoveal PVD with traction remaining on the center of the fovea

The disturbance to the architecture of the retina can range from macular edema to a localized retinal detachment

This leads to cyst formation

Opening of the cyst creates the hole

Cyst can rupture and result in hole formation

PVD can operculate macula (rare)

Macular holes can be lamellar (20/80 acuity) or full thickness (20/200 acuity)

6-22% bilaterality

New theories contend that tangential forces from contraction of the posterior cortical vitreous cause idiopathic spontaneous macular holes

Stages of Macular Hole Formation

Stage 1: foveal cyst from CME or disruption to vitreoretinal interface. May form lamellar hole. Mild acuity loss and metamorphopsia. Only 50% progress from here.

Lamellar holes are partial thickness and appear slightly reddish. Depressed foveal area w/o FLR. 20/80 acuity. Late hyperfluorescence on FA.

Stage 2: lamellar hole more likely to occur. Retinal tear possible. 70% progress from here.

Stage 3: Full thickness macular hole. Poor prognosis for vision central acuity.

Stage 4: Full thickness macular hole with poster vitreous separation

Full thickness holes: defined edges, round, very red due to transmission from choroid.

Early hyperfluorescence on FA. Maintenance of Bruch's membrane.

Macular Holes: Risk for Fellow Eye

Stage 1: 50% stability

PVD in fellow eye w/o cyst: very low risk

No PVD in fellow eye: 28-44% risk for fellow eye due to remaining vitreoretinal adhesion

RPE defects in fellow eye: 80% risk

Macular Holes: Treatment

Vitrectomy may relieve VMT

Vitrectomy to relieve traction in Stage 1 is very helpful. Vision may improve and F/T hole may be aborted

Vitrectomy in Stage 2 leads to vision stabilization

At this stage. The most effective surgical treatment for full thickness macular holes involves vitrectomy to remove traction at the hole edge and either gas or silicone oil tamponade. Here, the expanding bubble flattens out the edges of the hole and the recontact with the RPE seems to stimulate fibroblastic activity with a filling in of the hole. Not perfect, but vision does restore very well. Techniques are constantly changing. Works best if hole present for less than 1 year.

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Solar Retinopathy

Associated with:

Solar eclipse observation

Religious rituals

Drug (illicit) use

Sunbathing

The false belief that it is therapeutic

Psychosis

Stupidity

Sun gazing- photo-oxidative damage :

Solar retinopathy occurs likely from a combination of photochemical and thermal mechanisms.

Retinal cells die by apoptosis in response to light-induced injury and the process of cell death is perpetuated by diverse, damaging mechanisms.

Two classes of photochemical damage have been recognized.

The first type is characterized by the rhodopsin action spectrum, and is thought to be mediated by visual pigments, with the primary lesions located in the photoreceptors.

The high energy wavelengths and low levels of ultraviolet A (UV-A) radiation are absorbed by the outer retinal layers with subsequent photochemical damage, likely involving oxidative events.

The second type of damage is generally confined to the retinal pigment epithelium

(RPE). The RPE pigmentation absorbs sunlight energy, converting it to heat with a resultant rise in temperature, resulting in a burning of the RPE.

This RPE damage is often permanent.

Positive after images

Metamorphopsia

Acuity 20/30-20/100 (hours later)

May be edematous immediately afterwards

After several days, will have reddish spot with pigment halo, which progresses to red lamellar foveal depression

Cystic changes may develop

May simulate hole or progress to hole

Acuity may improve over 6 mos, but visual deficits will remain Reports regarding spontaneous visual recovery vary greatly.

Improvement in visual acuity occurs mostly during the first 2 weeks to 1 month after the incident; Further improvement in visual acuity is not observed after 18-months

There is no treatment for stupidity

Clinical Pearl: Small, symmetrical foveal cysts should be investigated for a history of sun gazing.

Preretinal Membrane

Also known as cellophane maculopathy, epiretinal membrane, preretinal gliosis, surface wrinkling, proliferative vitreoretinopathy, macular pucker

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Caused by break in ILM with retinal glial cells proliferating on surface

Occurs from VMT

Wrinkled cellophane appearance

Metamorphopsia, macular edema, vision loss, or asymptomatic

Often benign and self-limiting

Macular pucker in 3-5% of cases due to vitreous shrinkage following laser, cryotherapy, RD surgical procedures: proliferative vitreoretinopathy

May be idiopathic

Only 5% have < 20/200 acuity

Treatment: vitrectomy with membrane peeling

Vision < 20/70

 Typically has a rapidly advancing course initially, then stabilizes and doesn’t change.

Choroidal Folds:

Do not mistake this for epiretinal membrane

Can occur secondary to hypotony and congenitally short eyes

Horizontal folding of choroid, often across macula

Vision may be somewhat diminished or distorted

This is strongly indicative of a retro-orbital tumor or other mass lesion

Acquired hyperopia

These patients need orbital imaging

Clinical Pearl: Carefully examine every case of suspected epiretinal membrane to ensure that the patient actually does not have choroidal folds from a tumor. Choroidal folds are horizontal whereas epiretinal membrane often radiates from the macula. If in doubt, seek consult or order orbital imaging.

Degenerative Myopia

Also known as pathological myopia

Myopic stretching of photoreceptors, posterior pole and disc area

True alteration of globe structures

Ethnic predilection for Chinese, Japanese, Arabian descent

Common in fetal alcohol syndrome, Downs syndrome, albinism

Refractive error not conclusive

Globe elongation

Posterior staphyloma: leads to legal blindness

Choroidal and choriocapillaris atrophy

Lacquer cracks: breaks in Bruch’s membrane. Conduit for CNVM

Similar to angioid streaks, but do not always connect with the disc or radiate

Fuch's spots: RPE hyperplasia overlying CNVM

First sign of CNVM formation

Pathognomonic for CNVM in degenerative myopia

May cause sub-retinal hemorrhaging from rubbing the eye

CNVM generally is not treated because it generally does not grow significantly and often

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spontaneously involutes. Also, laser scar expands as the eye elongates

Angioid Streaks

Breaks in Bruch's membrane

Occur as a result of connective tissue diseases or disease that cause abnormal deposition of metallic salts in Bruch’s membrane, causing it to become fragile

Elastic fibers stretch, causing a thinning of the RPE allowing the choroid to be visualized

May be peripapillary or radial

Appear frighteningly similar to blood vessels

50% have associated systemic disease

Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (80-90%) - PXE

Inherited AR disease

Loss of skin resiliency with the appearance of papules in intertriginous areas (e.g.,

Axilla, behind knee, on neck)

Combination of angioid streaks and PXE is known as Groinblad-Stanberg syndrome

Vascular changes are most problematic: pts can have arterial damage that ranges from absent peripheral pulse to pain on exertion to severe hemorrhaging when the vessels rupture (bleeding in GI tract, nose, uterus, intracranially)

Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (8-15%)

Sickle cell disease (1-2%)

Others:

 Marfan’s syndrome

Senile elastosis

 Paget’s disease

Epilepsy

Acromegaly

Pituitary tumors

Risk of dry AMD

14% risk of CNVM- difficult to treat as Bruch's membrane is further compromised by the treatment. Do not do prophylactic treatment.

Associated buried drusen of ONH- may cause additional peripheral vision loss

May be asymptomatic or may present with disciform scarring

Polycarbonate lenses- avoid trauma

Medical w/u to r/o systemic disease

Retinal Arterial Macroaneurysm (RAM):

Isolated dilated area of a major retinal (arterial) branch

Isolated ballooning of the vessel wall

Can happen rarely within the venous system (retinal venous macroaneurysm)

Within the radius of the third branching

Usually unilateral, but may be multifocal

Associated with hypertension, arteriolosclerosis, retinal emboli, cardiovascular disease

Results from focal damage to vessel wall

Edema, hemorrhage, exudation often present

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Hemorrhage at various levels

Occurs in yrs 50-80, mostly females

25% show high rate of mortality at 5yrs

Threat to vision if macula involved

Once bleeding occurs, the macroaneurysm often becomes sclerosed

FA results: fills in the arterial phase with late stage leakage

Retinal Macroaneurysm: Management

Medical evaluation for systemic risk factors

Asymptomatic cases (without hemorrhage or exudation) not threatening the macula- monitor q6mos (use of home monitoring as well)

Localized hemorrhage and exudation not threatening the macula- monitor q1-3mos

Photocoagulation if the macula is threatened or edematous, or if there is not spontaneous selfsealing after 3 months of observable bleeding

Photocoagulation is recommended if there is pulsation to the aneurysm wall

Venous macroaneurysms may develop in areas of BRVO, HRVO, CRVO

Clinical Pearl: Retinal macroaneurysm should be considered in cases of extensive localized retinal hemorrhaging. This condition can mimic BRVO and is often found in association with BRVO.

Clinical Pearl: Retinal macroaneurysm can cause subretinal, intraretinal, pre-retinal, and vitreous hemorrhage. Think of RAM whenever you see a patient that has multi-layer hemorrhages.

Hyperviscosity Syndromes:

Increased blood viscosity

Abnormally high accumulation of blood components

Reduced O

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carrying capacity of blood

Hypoxia

Dilated (tortuous or non-tortuous) veins

Venous beading

Also see: CWS, edema, hemorrhages

Other findings:

Conjunctival vascular sludging

Crystalline deposits in bulbar conjunctiva and corneal stroma

Pars plana cysts

Choroidal effusion

Bilateral retinopathy of venous dilation and peripheral hemorrhages

Retinal findings may be absent in patients with extremely high viscosity and may be present in patients with other hematological changes such as anemia

May cause retinal vascular occlusions

Tends to resemble bilateral CRVO

Causes:

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Polycythemia (excess RBC's)

Increased platelets

Increased plasma proteins with myeloma

Massive leukocytosis in leukemia

Cryoglobulinemia

Waldenstrom's macroglobinemia is the most common cause of hyperviscosity

Myeloma in which large quantities of IgM (plasma protein) are produced

Weight loss, malaise, hepatosplenomegaly, bleeding tendencies

Management involves addressing underlying disease

Anemia:

Deep and superficial hemorrhages

CWS

Pale fundus

Disc edema possible

Normal retinal vessels

 Roth’s spots

Superficial hemorrhage with white, infarcted center

Similar to both diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy, except that there are no exudates as in diabetic retinopathy and there is no attenuation of the vessels as in HTN retinopathy

Treatment is the management of the underlying anemia

Clinical Pearl: Abnormally dilated retinal veins are an indication for you to pursue blood evaluation on your patient.

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

Microvascular ischemia from vasculitis

Choroidal infarcts may occur

Bullous subretinal fluid may occur

Common changes include: CWS (without HTN), hemorrhages, Roth's spots

Clinical Pearl: A large number of CWS (without other retinopathy) should lead you to consider SLE.

Drug Toxicity: Chloriquine and Hydroxychloriquine

Anti-malarial drugs: used to treat collagen-vascular disease (SLE) and arthritis.

Chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil): bull's eye maculopathy- Heavy macular pigmentation surrounding by depigmented area surrounded by pigmented area. Loss of acuity, night vision, color perception. Irreversible changes. Maximum safe dosage for chloroquine is 250mg QD. Maximum safe dosage for Plaquenil is 400 mg QD. Also causes reversible corneal stromal opacification. Manage with DFE q6mos and photos and threshold visual fields (central 10-2). It usually takes 2-3 yrs to occur.

Risk increase:

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Duration, dose, low body weight, renal disease, increased age

Drug Toxicity: Tamoxifen

Nolvadex

Treatment of breast cancer

Binds with estrogen receptors

Punctate white macular deposits

Looks like drusen or talc retinopathy

Reversible

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