Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD): The Continuum of Normal Aging and Disease
Degenerative Changes
RPE and Bruch’s membrane disturbances
Formation of drusen
These changes are commonly observed in the eyes of most elderly persons to some degree
Cell death and functional loss
Only in some individuals do these age related changes progress to this stage
Transition from normal aging to disease (with a loss of functional vision)
Drusen are players in retinal disease, RPE disease, and AMD
Drusen occurs in 70% of all eyes over the age of 50 yrs
Drusen are signs of RPE abnormality/ atrophy
Precursor/ participant in AMD
Peripheral/ posterior pole location
RPE cells deposit collagenous basement membrane into Bruch's (drusen):
Mucopolysaccharides and lipids.
Cause unknown (choriocapillaris dysfunction?)
Solar exposure
Photodynamic effects can lead to superoxide free radical formation, which promotes drusen/ lipofuscin formation. Lipofuscin and drusen are thought to be
RPE phagocytized photoreceptor outer segments that are driven by a solar induced mechanism.
Increased deposition of drusen is associated with RPE thinning and atrophy
Choriocapillaris breakdown results in hypoxia (and release of VEGF), RPE atrophy, and drusen formation
Pathophysiology and implications of drusen are not fully understood- Drusen do alter Bruch's membrane and can lead to choroidal neovascularization
Hard drusen
Typically seen in dry AMD
Soft drusen
Amorphous material between inner and outer layers of Bruch's membrane
Large, ill-defined, confluent
More inclined to lead to exudative (wet) AMD
Allows formation of choroidal neovascular membrane (CNVM)
As RPE atrophy increases, the risk of wet AMD decreases. RPE atrophy represents poor choroidal perfusion and hypoxia- neo can not be supported due to choriocapillaris dropout.
However, vision still suffers.
Age Related Macular Degeneration (AMD): Risk Factors
Typical age: 75-85 years
Framingham population-based prevalence study criteria: 20/30 or worse
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Prevalence:
52-64 yrs 1.6%
65-74 yrs 11%
75 yrs + 27.9%
Family hx
Maternal or sibling history strongest
Hand grip weakness
Alcohol consumption
Cardiovascular disease
Hypertension
Hyperlipidemia
Hyperopia
Aphakia
Short stature
Lightly pigmented hair/ eyes
Caucasian
Wet form more common in Caucasian patients
Smoking (esp. men)
Heavy smoking more than doubles risk
Nutritional
Decreased vit B,E zinc, magnesium intake
Higher incidence with alcohol consumption: poor diet
However, moderate intake of wine and carotenoids (leafy greens) may help
Leutein may be most protective
Drusen (as discussed above)
Wet: soft drusen
Dry: hard drusen
Dry (Atrophic or Non-exudative) AMD
80% of AMD cases
Macular drusen is a risk factor for both wet and dry AMD
Soft drusen – typically wet AMD
Hard drusen – typically dry AMD
Depigmentation
Granular clumping of RPE/RPE hyperplasia
Macular RPE atrophy
Mottled, "moth eaten" appearance of retina/RPE
Coalesce into geographic atrophic areas of RPE and choroid
200-5000 microns (1/7DD-3DD)
Bilateral, symmetrical
10% will progress to wet AMD
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Clinical Pearl: Dry AMD is not diagnosed by a single finding, but instead constitutes a spectrum of findings involving drusen, RPE atrophy, functional vision loss and/or RPE pigment changes. The beginning of the spectrum constitutes normal aging changes and the end represents severe vision loss.
Dry AMD: Geographic Atrophy
Progressive loss of RPE and choriocapillaris
Macrophages replace drusen with fibrous tissue or dystrophic calcification
Once this occurs, CNVM will no longer form
Loss of photoreceptor function
Non-viable capillaries: neo will not form in non-viable, atrophic zones
20% risk of CNVM at edge of lesion
Loss of retinal layers
VA 20/25 - 20/400 (approx)
Dry AMD: Management
Photodocument
Home amsler
UV protection
Anti-oxidant vitamins with zinc supplements (Results of the Age-Related Eye Disease Study
(AREDS): Archives of Ophthalmology October 2001, JAMA October 2001)
For those taking high-potency antioxidants and zinc combined formula, there was a decrease (vs placebo) in the percent of patients who progressed to advanced AMD at
5 years
Visual acuity loss
Only the high-potency antioxidants (vitamin C, vitamin E, beta carotene) and zinc combined formula statistically significantly reduced the odds of visual acuity loss
Neovascularization
The combined high-potency antioxidants and zinc product statistically significantly reduced the odds of developing choroidal neovascularization
Conclusions: Those with extensive intermediate sized drusen, at least one large drusen, or non-central geographic atrophy in one or both eyes or those with advanced AMD or vision loss due to AMD in one eye and without contraindications such as smoking, should consider taking a supplement of antioxidants plus zinc
F/u q3mos-q6mos
Low vision consult
90% of dry AMD pts are not legally blind
Wet (Exudative) AMD: Choroidal Neovascularization
8-20% of cases of AMD are wet (actually, up to 12% may be unknown, according to
Framingham study)
Presence of exudate, hemorrhages, or suspected gray-green lesion as this implies that choroidal neovascularization and wet AMD has formed. However, hemorrhage or exudation may obscure part or all of CNVM
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Choroidal Neovascularization
Bruch's disruption
Diffuse thickening of Bruch’s with soft drusen which predisposes to breaks in
Bruch’s membrane
Presence of VEGF enhances development
Other diseases can cause Bruch’s disruption
RPE/ Bruch's breaks
Diffuse thickening with soft drusen predisposes Bruch’s membrane to breaks
Soft drusen often precursor, but not always
Chronic Inflammation Theory
Higher number of lymphocytes, macrophages, fibroblasts found in Bruch’s membranes of patients with AMD
Inflammation causes breaks in Bruch’s membrane?
Implication are not yet understood
Choroidal neovascular membrane (CNVM) infiltrates from choriocapillaris
Under the RPE and sensory retina
RPE detachment with turbid fluid or blood may represent CNVM
Round/oval gray-green elevation
Don’t look only for gray-green appearance. Look for fluid and blood.
Associated findings:
Lipid exudate
Blood
Sensory RD
Classic CNVM
Well defined membrane on angiogram
About 10% of cases
Occult CNVM
About 90% of cases
Ill defined membrane on angiogram
CNVM may be subfoveal, juxtafoveal (1-199 microns from center of macula), or extrafoveal (> 200 microns from center of macula
FA and possibly indocyanine green (ICG) imaging: hot spots with late spread of hyperfluorescence.
Must get FA within 72 hrs because membranes can grow 10 microns/day;
Suspected/actual CNVM is an ocular urgency
ICG may be indicated to better visualize outline of membrane
ICG dye absorbs and emits fluorescence in the near IR spectrum
Better able to penetrate hemorrhage, melanin, fluid
Better for occult CNVM detection
Hypoxia and VEGF
RPE tear
Serous RPE detachments
Hemorrhagic RPE/sensory retinal detachments
10% risk of wet AMD in 4.3 yrs if pt. has bilateral macular drusen
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90% of pts. who are legally blind from AMD have wet AMD
VA 20/200-20/800
Clinical Pearl: Sub-retinal hemorrhages are identified by your ability to see distinct retinal vessels overlying the hemorrhaging area. If you can see the retinal vessels, then the hemorrhage must be beneath the retina.
Clinical Pearl: Soft drusen are more inclined to lead to wet AMD
Wet (Exudative) AMD: Disciform Scarring:
Fibrovascular material following CNVM development
Most cases of CNVM progress to this stage
Replaces most of sensory retina, RPE
May continue to grow and invade new areas
Results in death of tissue and severe visual loss
Yellow-brown-black (RPE hyperplasia)
Surgical excision may modestly improve vision
Wet AMD: Management
Laser photocoagulation
Photodynamic therapy (PDT)
Intravitreal steroid injection
Anti-angiogenic factors
UV protection
Anti-oxidant vitamin therapy
Macular drusen - home amsler
Low vision consult
Wet AMD: Laser Treatment
50% of wet AMD cases are potentially laser treatable with subsequent reduction in vision loss (i.e., the CNVM is juxta-or extrafoveal)
Of those pts. (the 50%) that are treatable:
75% of wet AMD pts pass through this "treatable" stage
80% are treatable within 2 weeks
Only 50% are treatable in 4 weeks
Only 20% are treatable in 8 weeks
Krypton laser for juxtafoveal net (less likely to be absorbed by RPE)
Specificity for choroidal layers
Recurrence rate: 47% of tx’ed eyes
Argon Study: argon laser for extrafoveal net (>200 microns from center of FAZ)
Treat with argon blue-green laser
Laser energy absorbed by RPE and choroidal pigment and turned into heat and dissipated into adjacent tissues. CNVM are closed by coagulative necrosis
Xanthophyll pigment absorbs green argon laser and transmits heat to adjacent structures, thus cannot be used juxtafoveally.
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Recurrence rate after treatment- 53%
There is no good treatment for a subretinal/ subfoveal hemorrhage. Some surgeons will inject a gas bubble into the eye and place the patient face down in order to tamponade the hemorrhage and spread the blood out.
There is no great treatment for a subfoveal CNVM. Some surgeons are lasering subfoveal membranes in the thought that the laser damage will be less severe than the natural course of the disease.
Short-term results are significantly reduced vision. However, long-term results support treating sub-foveal CNVM as these patients do better. However, patients can often retain good vision with a subfoveal CNVM for an indeterminate period of time. Laser reduces vision immediately. This treatment should only be done after vision has dropped to
20/200
Wet AMD: Photodynamic Therapy (PDT)
Patient receives IV infusion of a light activated drug that collects in the tissues of the macula.
Low powered laser (664 nm) activates the drug, which forms singlet oxygen. This induces platelet aggregation and thus CNVM thrombosis. This is chemical obliteration of CNVM without damaging overlying retina and RPE. Damages unhealthy tissue but does not disturb healthy adjacent or overlying tissues.
Difficulty: Indicated only for subfoveal membrane whose areas is at least 50% ‘classic’
CNVM. Only about 10% of CNVM are ‘classic’.
Another problem: PDT causes up-regulation of VEGF which increases leakage and propensity to form neovascularization
Verteporfin: Visudyne
High rate of side effects
Highly photosensitizing. Must absolutely avoid the sun for 3 days
High degree of skin necrosis needing skin grafts if dye extravasates during injection
Can not have subretinal fibrosis
Leakage is reduced, but not stopped
70-80% leak again in 1 year; however, doesn’t bleed, scar, or atrophy
Clinical Pearl: Photodynamic therapy is a well-accepted therapy for wet AMD, though the stand-alone results are not great. Likely, it will be used in conjunction with other therapies for best results.
Wet AMD: Intravitreal Steroid Injection:
Stabilizes vascular membranes and reduces vascular permeability.
Endophthalmitis is most significant complication
Clinical Pearl: Intravitreal injections of steroids are being investigated and used for edema secondary to vascular occlusions, diabetes, cystoid macular lesions, and wet age related macular degeneration. This promises to be a significant advancement in the treatment of maculopathies secondary to edema.
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Macugen (pegaptanib sodium)
Oligonucleotide with high affinity for VEGF, preventing its uptake by endothelial receptors
Intravitreal injection q 6 weeks
Approved, but has not fared well and is not commonly used as other chemicals have performed better
Stand-alone therapy
87.5% of eyes had stabilized or improved vision after 3 months
25% of eyes improved three or more lines
Macugen + PDT
60% of eyes improved three or more lines at 3 months
Lucentis (ranibizumab)
Recombinant anti-VEGF antibody fragment that binds to VEGF
Intravitreal injection q 4 weeks
Approved and more successful than Macugen
94% of eyes with stable or improved vision at 98 days
On average, two lines of vision gained
26% of eyes improved three or more lines at 98 days
Studies comparing monthly Lucentis injections vs. quarterly PDT are being done
Avastin
Anti-colon cancer drug; accidentally found when patients with wet AMD patients undergoing chemotherapy reported improved vision
Not approved for this use (intravitreal injection for AMD), but very popular and economical
Clinical Pearl; Despite all of the new developments in wet AMD management, if a patient develops subfoveal CNVM today, he or she is pretty unlucky.
Other Conditions Associated with Choroidal Neovascular Membrane Formation:
Degenerative conditions
Wet AMD (#1 cause)
Degenerative myopia (#3 cause)
Angioid streaks
ONH drusen
Idiopathic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy (ICSC) and RPE detachment
Inflammatory and infectious conditions
Ocular Histoplasmosis syndrome (#4 cause)
Toxoplasmosis
Tuberculosis
Sarcoidosis
Syphilis
Rubella
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Choroidopathies (serpiginous, birdshot, punctate inner)
Beçhet’s syndrome
Vogt-Koyanagi-Harada syndrome (VKH)
Hereditary
Best’s disease
Dominant drusen
Fundus flavimaculatis
Choroideremia
Retinitis pigmentosa (RP)
Tumors
Malignant melanoma
Choroidal hemangioma
Metastatic tumors
Trauma
Excessive PRP
Choroidal rupture
Miscellaneous
Idiopathic CNVM (#2 cause)
Radiation retinopathy
Retinal detachment
Tilted disc syndrome
Choroidal Rupture
Result of direct injury to globe
Hemorrhages present if recent
May involve macula
Vision loss occurs here only if RPE is damaged
Vision and field loss variable
Generally, retina overlying rupture is normal
5 yr possibility of CNVM
Idiopathic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy (ICSC)
Also known as central serous chorioretinopathy (CSC) and central serous retinopathy (CSR)
Serous retinal or pigment epithelial detachments in macular area
Loss of foveal reflex
Transient and potentially recurrent
Recurrence rate is 20-30%
Breakdown of RPE cells allowing seepage to occur into sensory retina
Typically, a focal conduit through RPE into sensory retina
Theorized to occur secondary to vasomotor instability or sympathetic nervous excitation
Predisposing conditions such as drusen are absent
RPE detachment can commonly occur simultaneously
RPE separates from Bruch's; retina separates from RPE
Due to RPE disruption, there may be associated RPE hyperplasia
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Male: female 10:1
20-50 yrs (mid 30's). This should not be diagnosed in a patient over age 55 yrs
Must look for CNVM in older pts.
Type A personality
Caucasian
FA appearance: smokestack with 1 or 2 well demarcated cavities.
Sensory RD is diffuse
RPE detachment is well demarcated
Presents with decreased VA, metamorphopsia, hyperopic shift
Highly associated with steroid use (of all kinds)
Clinical Pearl: It is an error to diagnose ICSC in a patient over the age of 55 years. In these cases, consider the cause to be CNVM until proven otherwise.
Idiopathic Central Serous Chorioretinopathy: Management
Home amsler and observation
Discontinue all steroids
Excellent prognosis
60% recover 20/20
1-6 mos course
Self-limiting
RPE decompensation may complicate matters. "sick RPE syndrome"
Focal dysfunction of RPE resulting in slow, chronic oozing through RPE
Retina and RPE remain flat
Poor prognosis
Decreased VA with RPE changes
Possible CNVM formation
Direct photocoagulation to leaking areas in severe or non-remitting cases
Krypton better than argon: less recurrences
Laser treatment only considered after 3-4 mos of non-resolution (6 mos. Better)
Turbid fluid
Non-clearing
Intolerable sx to pt.
Sick RPE
Recurrence in eyes with visual field defect from previous episode
Previous event in other eye left permanent defect
Leakage must be outside of FAZ
Treatment does not affect rate of recurrence or final acuity; it only hastens the process
Laser may aggravate pre-existing choroidal neovascular membrane or ICSC. This is ‘like putting fertilizer on a weed’.
Clinical Pearl: Despite all of the advancement in treating wet maculopathies with intravitreal steroid injections, ICSC must never be treated with this modality. Severe vision loss has occurred.
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Retinal Pigment Epithelial Detachment:
Occur as idiopathic alterations in Bruch's membrane allows fluid to seep under RPE
Can occur as result of choroidal neovascularization
Usually occurs as some dysfunction of RPE, e.g. drusen
Serous RPE detachment: ophthalmoscopic appearance:
Oval/round, small, well demarcated dome-shaped elevation.
Clear fluid
If no CNVM- observe
Hemorrhagic RPE detachment: ophthalmoscopic appearance
Blood confined to sub-RPE space, dark red, elevated
Blood usually indicates CNVM
Occasionally, blood dissects through RPE and gives hemorrhagic RD and may even break through retina to give vitreous hemorrhage
90% of cases have concurrent sensory retinal detachment (ICSC) as well
On FA, the domed lesion fluoresces early and evenly and maintains well defined borders late into angiogram
Up to 30% of patients over 55 yrs who develop RPE detachments will have CNVM
CNVM can cause RPE detachment
RPE tears occur in 10% of cases
Permanent vision loss can result from RPE atrophy, RPE tear, or CNVM
Clinical Pearl: RPE detachment tends to be small and well localized and fills early on FA, but does not spread.
Clinical Pearl: RPE and CSC typically occur simultaneously.
Idiopathic Juxtafoveal Retinal Telangiectasia (IJRT)
A similar condition to Coat’s disease and may be a variation
A cause of macular edema and reduced acuity
A developmental anomaly with subsequent leakage
Two forms: unilateral and bilateral
Unilateral
Occurs only in men
Asymptomatic until after age 40
1-2 DD area often temporal to fovea
Vision reduced, but not usually below 20/40
Similar to macroaneurysm, but too close to fovea
Bilateral
Occurs in either sex
Usually 40-60 years
Symmetrical
Less than 1 DD area
Vision typically 20/30 or better
Both may present with intraretinal edema and retinal hemorrhages
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Hard exudates and RPE hyperplastic abnormalities
This condition is greatly under-diagnosed
Always consider this condition in patients presenting with idiopathic parafoveal edema or dot/blot hemorrhages especially if there is no history of ischemic vascular disease
Idiopathic Juxtafoveal Retinal Telangiectasia: Management
Conservatism
Photocoagulation with grid argon green or krypton red if there is progressive loss of vision
Intravitreal injection of Avastin/ steroids
PDT
Consider testing for HTN and DM in patients with parafoveal hemorrhaging. If these diseases are not present, then telangiectasia is the likely cause.
There is no strong relationship between this condition and any systemic disease
Clinical Pearl: Always consider idiopathic juxtafoveal retinal telangiectasia in cases of mild paramacular hemorrhaging. Too often, this condition is overlooked and the findings are ascribed to diabetic retinopathy (even if the patient doesn’t have diabetes!)
Cystoid Macular Edema (CME)
Not a disease , but a finding
Special arrangement of nerve fibers in Henle's layer allows for CME
Honeycomb appearance. Initial fluid accumulation is within Muller cells, which gets into extracellular spaces causing cystoid spaces in OPL. Occurs almost always from leaking perifoveal capillaries
Cystic edema: difficult to perceive ophthalmoscopically
Petalloid appearance on FA; cystic appearance on OCT
If cause is inflammatory, there may also be disc edema
Often (erroneously) termed Irvine-Gass syndrome
CME s/p cataract extraction (ICCE complicated by vitreous loss))
60% detectable by FA
10% symptomatic
Peak incidence is 6-10 weeks after surgery
> 75% resolve spontaneously within 6 months
Causes:
Vitreous traction during surgery
Inflammation
Light toxicity from operating microscope causing free radical release leading to prostaglandin synthesis with subsequent vasodilation and vasopermeability of perifoveal capillaries
Also occurs secondary to:
Vaso-occlusive disease (vascular occlusion, DM)
ICSC
Pars planitis
Uveitis (posterior or anterior)
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Arterial disease
Retinitis pigmentosa
Nd:YAG capsulotomy
Ocular surgery
Cataract (Irvine Gass syndrome)
RD surgery
Vitrectomy
Glaucoma surgery
Cryo, laser
Radiation retinopathy
Choroidal tumors
AMD
Epiretinal membrane
PVD
Vitreous loss
Use of epinephrine in aphakes
Anecdotal evidence of Xalatan causing CME
CME is caused by many factors. Diagnosis is by clinical suspicion and confirmed by FA.
CME can be very subtle. Acuity may be 20/20.
Pt. may present with decrease VA and/or metamorphopsia or may be asymptomatic
Cystoid Macular Edema: Management
Post-cataract extraction- prognosis is good:
50% spontaneously recover in 6 mos; 20% may have it in excess of 5 yrs.
Topical steroids QID
Topical NSAIDS (Voltaren) QID
Oral NSAIDS
Diamox
Oral and depot steroids
Vitrectomy and/or grid photocoagulation
Now being commonly treated with intravitreal steroid injections
Long term CME can lead to foveal cyst formation which, after rupturing, results in a macular hole
Clinical Pearl: CME is frequently asymptomatic and best appreciated on a fluorescein angiogram.
Clinical Pearl: While CME after cataract extraction is often called Irvine-Gass syndrome, be aware that this term specifically refers to CME following complicated intracapsular cataract extraction.
Macular Holes
Anything disturbing the macula can cause a hole
CME is a strong precursor due to foveal cyst formation
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Foveal cyst is a strong precursor
There is a weak vitreoretinal adhesion at the macula
Proliferation of Muller cells may be responsible for the traction development
PVD can cause macular irritation and cyst formation
Vitreomacular traction (VMT) syndrome
Patients may have a perifoveal PVD with traction remaining on the center of the fovea
The disturbance to the architecture of the retina can range from macular edema to a localized retinal detachment
This leads to cyst formation
Opening of the cyst creates the hole
Cyst can rupture and result in hole formation
PVD can operculate macula (rare)
Macular holes can be lamellar (20/80 acuity) or full thickness (20/200 acuity)
6-22% bilaterality
New theories contend that tangential forces from contraction of the posterior cortical vitreous cause idiopathic spontaneous macular holes
Stages of Macular Hole Formation
Stage 1: foveal cyst from CME or disruption to vitreoretinal interface. May form lamellar hole. Mild acuity loss and metamorphopsia. Only 50% progress from here.
Lamellar holes are partial thickness and appear slightly reddish. Depressed foveal area w/o FLR. 20/80 acuity. Late hyperfluorescence on FA.
Stage 2: lamellar hole more likely to occur. Retinal tear possible. 70% progress from here.
Stage 3: Full thickness macular hole. Poor prognosis for vision central acuity.
Stage 4: Full thickness macular hole with poster vitreous separation
Full thickness holes: defined edges, round, very red due to transmission from choroid.
Early hyperfluorescence on FA. Maintenance of Bruch's membrane.
Macular Holes: Risk for Fellow Eye
Stage 1: 50% stability
PVD in fellow eye w/o cyst: very low risk
No PVD in fellow eye: 28-44% risk for fellow eye due to remaining vitreoretinal adhesion
RPE defects in fellow eye: 80% risk
Macular Holes: Treatment
Vitrectomy may relieve VMT
Vitrectomy to relieve traction in Stage 1 is very helpful. Vision may improve and F/T hole may be aborted
Vitrectomy in Stage 2 leads to vision stabilization
At this stage. The most effective surgical treatment for full thickness macular holes involves vitrectomy to remove traction at the hole edge and either gas or silicone oil tamponade. Here, the expanding bubble flattens out the edges of the hole and the recontact with the RPE seems to stimulate fibroblastic activity with a filling in of the hole. Not perfect, but vision does restore very well. Techniques are constantly changing. Works best if hole present for less than 1 year.
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Solar Retinopathy
Associated with:
Solar eclipse observation
Religious rituals
Drug (illicit) use
Sunbathing
The false belief that it is therapeutic
Psychosis
Stupidity
Sun gazing- photo-oxidative damage :
Solar retinopathy occurs likely from a combination of photochemical and thermal mechanisms.
Retinal cells die by apoptosis in response to light-induced injury and the process of cell death is perpetuated by diverse, damaging mechanisms.
Two classes of photochemical damage have been recognized.
The first type is characterized by the rhodopsin action spectrum, and is thought to be mediated by visual pigments, with the primary lesions located in the photoreceptors.
The high energy wavelengths and low levels of ultraviolet A (UV-A) radiation are absorbed by the outer retinal layers with subsequent photochemical damage, likely involving oxidative events.
The second type of damage is generally confined to the retinal pigment epithelium
(RPE). The RPE pigmentation absorbs sunlight energy, converting it to heat with a resultant rise in temperature, resulting in a burning of the RPE.
This RPE damage is often permanent.
Positive after images
Metamorphopsia
Acuity 20/30-20/100 (hours later)
May be edematous immediately afterwards
After several days, will have reddish spot with pigment halo, which progresses to red lamellar foveal depression
Cystic changes may develop
May simulate hole or progress to hole
Acuity may improve over 6 mos, but visual deficits will remain Reports regarding spontaneous visual recovery vary greatly.
Improvement in visual acuity occurs mostly during the first 2 weeks to 1 month after the incident; Further improvement in visual acuity is not observed after 18-months
There is no treatment for stupidity
Clinical Pearl: Small, symmetrical foveal cysts should be investigated for a history of sun gazing.
Preretinal Membrane
Also known as cellophane maculopathy, epiretinal membrane, preretinal gliosis, surface wrinkling, proliferative vitreoretinopathy, macular pucker
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Caused by break in ILM with retinal glial cells proliferating on surface
Occurs from VMT
Wrinkled cellophane appearance
Metamorphopsia, macular edema, vision loss, or asymptomatic
Often benign and self-limiting
Macular pucker in 3-5% of cases due to vitreous shrinkage following laser, cryotherapy, RD surgical procedures: proliferative vitreoretinopathy
May be idiopathic
Only 5% have < 20/200 acuity
Treatment: vitrectomy with membrane peeling
Vision < 20/70
Typically has a rapidly advancing course initially, then stabilizes and doesn’t change.
Choroidal Folds:
Do not mistake this for epiretinal membrane
Can occur secondary to hypotony and congenitally short eyes
Horizontal folding of choroid, often across macula
Vision may be somewhat diminished or distorted
This is strongly indicative of a retro-orbital tumor or other mass lesion
Acquired hyperopia
These patients need orbital imaging
Clinical Pearl: Carefully examine every case of suspected epiretinal membrane to ensure that the patient actually does not have choroidal folds from a tumor. Choroidal folds are horizontal whereas epiretinal membrane often radiates from the macula. If in doubt, seek consult or order orbital imaging.
Degenerative Myopia
Also known as pathological myopia
Myopic stretching of photoreceptors, posterior pole and disc area
True alteration of globe structures
Ethnic predilection for Chinese, Japanese, Arabian descent
Common in fetal alcohol syndrome, Downs syndrome, albinism
Refractive error not conclusive
Globe elongation
Posterior staphyloma: leads to legal blindness
Choroidal and choriocapillaris atrophy
Lacquer cracks: breaks in Bruch’s membrane. Conduit for CNVM
Similar to angioid streaks, but do not always connect with the disc or radiate
Fuch's spots: RPE hyperplasia overlying CNVM
First sign of CNVM formation
Pathognomonic for CNVM in degenerative myopia
May cause sub-retinal hemorrhaging from rubbing the eye
CNVM generally is not treated because it generally does not grow significantly and often
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spontaneously involutes. Also, laser scar expands as the eye elongates
Angioid Streaks
Breaks in Bruch's membrane
Occur as a result of connective tissue diseases or disease that cause abnormal deposition of metallic salts in Bruch’s membrane, causing it to become fragile
Elastic fibers stretch, causing a thinning of the RPE allowing the choroid to be visualized
May be peripapillary or radial
Appear frighteningly similar to blood vessels
50% have associated systemic disease
Pseudoxanthoma elasticum (80-90%) - PXE
Inherited AR disease
Loss of skin resiliency with the appearance of papules in intertriginous areas (e.g.,
Axilla, behind knee, on neck)
Combination of angioid streaks and PXE is known as Groinblad-Stanberg syndrome
Vascular changes are most problematic: pts can have arterial damage that ranges from absent peripheral pulse to pain on exertion to severe hemorrhaging when the vessels rupture (bleeding in GI tract, nose, uterus, intracranially)
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome (8-15%)
Sickle cell disease (1-2%)
Others:
Marfan’s syndrome
Senile elastosis
Paget’s disease
Epilepsy
Acromegaly
Pituitary tumors
Risk of dry AMD
14% risk of CNVM- difficult to treat as Bruch's membrane is further compromised by the treatment. Do not do prophylactic treatment.
Associated buried drusen of ONH- may cause additional peripheral vision loss
May be asymptomatic or may present with disciform scarring
Polycarbonate lenses- avoid trauma
Medical w/u to r/o systemic disease
Retinal Arterial Macroaneurysm (RAM):
Isolated dilated area of a major retinal (arterial) branch
Isolated ballooning of the vessel wall
Can happen rarely within the venous system (retinal venous macroaneurysm)
Within the radius of the third branching
Usually unilateral, but may be multifocal
Associated with hypertension, arteriolosclerosis, retinal emboli, cardiovascular disease
Results from focal damage to vessel wall
Edema, hemorrhage, exudation often present
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Hemorrhage at various levels
Occurs in yrs 50-80, mostly females
25% show high rate of mortality at 5yrs
Threat to vision if macula involved
Once bleeding occurs, the macroaneurysm often becomes sclerosed
FA results: fills in the arterial phase with late stage leakage
Retinal Macroaneurysm: Management
Medical evaluation for systemic risk factors
Asymptomatic cases (without hemorrhage or exudation) not threatening the macula- monitor q6mos (use of home monitoring as well)
Localized hemorrhage and exudation not threatening the macula- monitor q1-3mos
Photocoagulation if the macula is threatened or edematous, or if there is not spontaneous selfsealing after 3 months of observable bleeding
Photocoagulation is recommended if there is pulsation to the aneurysm wall
Venous macroaneurysms may develop in areas of BRVO, HRVO, CRVO
Clinical Pearl: Retinal macroaneurysm should be considered in cases of extensive localized retinal hemorrhaging. This condition can mimic BRVO and is often found in association with BRVO.
Clinical Pearl: Retinal macroaneurysm can cause subretinal, intraretinal, pre-retinal, and vitreous hemorrhage. Think of RAM whenever you see a patient that has multi-layer hemorrhages.
Hyperviscosity Syndromes:
Increased blood viscosity
Abnormally high accumulation of blood components
Reduced O
2
carrying capacity of blood
Hypoxia
Dilated (tortuous or non-tortuous) veins
Venous beading
Also see: CWS, edema, hemorrhages
Other findings:
Conjunctival vascular sludging
Crystalline deposits in bulbar conjunctiva and corneal stroma
Pars plana cysts
Choroidal effusion
Bilateral retinopathy of venous dilation and peripheral hemorrhages
Retinal findings may be absent in patients with extremely high viscosity and may be present in patients with other hematological changes such as anemia
May cause retinal vascular occlusions
Tends to resemble bilateral CRVO
Causes:
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Polycythemia (excess RBC's)
Increased platelets
Increased plasma proteins with myeloma
Massive leukocytosis in leukemia
Cryoglobulinemia
Waldenstrom's macroglobinemia is the most common cause of hyperviscosity
Myeloma in which large quantities of IgM (plasma protein) are produced
Weight loss, malaise, hepatosplenomegaly, bleeding tendencies
Management involves addressing underlying disease
Anemia:
Deep and superficial hemorrhages
CWS
Pale fundus
Disc edema possible
Normal retinal vessels
Roth’s spots
Superficial hemorrhage with white, infarcted center
Similar to both diabetic and hypertensive retinopathy, except that there are no exudates as in diabetic retinopathy and there is no attenuation of the vessels as in HTN retinopathy
Treatment is the management of the underlying anemia
Clinical Pearl: Abnormally dilated retinal veins are an indication for you to pursue blood evaluation on your patient.
Systemic Lupus Erythematosus
Microvascular ischemia from vasculitis
Choroidal infarcts may occur
Bullous subretinal fluid may occur
Common changes include: CWS (without HTN), hemorrhages, Roth's spots
Clinical Pearl: A large number of CWS (without other retinopathy) should lead you to consider SLE.
Drug Toxicity: Chloriquine and Hydroxychloriquine
Anti-malarial drugs: used to treat collagen-vascular disease (SLE) and arthritis.
Chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine (Plaquenil): bull's eye maculopathy- Heavy macular pigmentation surrounding by depigmented area surrounded by pigmented area. Loss of acuity, night vision, color perception. Irreversible changes. Maximum safe dosage for chloroquine is 250mg QD. Maximum safe dosage for Plaquenil is 400 mg QD. Also causes reversible corneal stromal opacification. Manage with DFE q6mos and photos and threshold visual fields (central 10-2). It usually takes 2-3 yrs to occur.
Risk increase:
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Duration, dose, low body weight, renal disease, increased age
Drug Toxicity: Tamoxifen
Nolvadex
Treatment of breast cancer
Binds with estrogen receptors
Punctate white macular deposits
Looks like drusen or talc retinopathy
Reversible
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