TERMS AND NAMES USEFUL FOR ROMAN ART AD 15-AD 193
I. Rulers and Honchos
Tiberius: Augustus' successor, ruled AD 14-37. Known for his reclusive retirement
(especially after 29) in elaborate villas at Sperlonga and on Capri.
Claudius: Great-nephew of Augustus, ruled AD 41-54 with Augustus as his model. His
architecture seems to have been primarily utilitarian, such as aqueducts. Deified after
his death.
Nero: Adoptive son of Claudius, ruled AD 54-68. Known for his megalomania and
passion for the arts (and things Greek). After the Great Fire of Rome in 64, he
confiscated the center of Rome and built a rural villa of great opulence known as the
Golden House (Domus Aurea ), which emphasizes interior space by using concrete.
Nero was the last Julio-Claudian emperor.
Vespasian: First emperor of the Flavian dynasty, ruled 69-79. Known for his thrift and
adherence to Augustan precedent, Vespasian presented himself as an old-fashioned
Roman in his portraiture, Built much in Rome in the area occupied by the Golden
House, notably the Colosseum (also the Temple of Claudius and the Baths of Titus).
Also built the Forum of Peace. Deified after his death.
Titus: Vespasian's elder son, ruled 79-81. Best known for the triumphal arch in his
honor at the west end of the Forum Romanum (built by Domitian). Deified after his
death.
Domitian: Vespasian's younger son, ruled 81-96. Called himself "Lord and God"
(Dominus et Deus ), finally murdered. His memory was ritually expunged from all
records (damnatio memoriae ). Built the imperial palace on the Palatine Hill in Rome
and the Forum Transitorium (Forum of Nerva).
Nerva: Aged senator who succeeded Domitian in 96 and who died two years later. His
major achievement was to adopt Trajan (98-117) as his successor.
Trajan: Adopted by Nerva, ruled from 98 to 117. First Spanish-born emperor, great
general who conquered Dacia (modern Rumania) and Mesopotamia. Built his Forum
and Baths in Rome. Also known for his Triumphal Arch at Beneventum.
Hadrian: Adopted by Trajan, ruled 117-138. Known for his love of Greek art and
culture, was an architect who designed his villa at Tivoli and the Temple of Venus and
Roma in Rome. Built Pantheon and the imperial mausoleum which bears his name at
Rome. Also built much at Athens (Library, Arch, finished Temple of Olympeion Zeus).
Hadrianic art is notably classicistic in style.
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Antinoos: Bithynian (district in Asia Minor) male lover of Hadrian who was deified
after his death in 129. Hadrian put statues of him all over empire (between 130 and
138). Images of Antinoos are always ideally classicistic and based on Greek art of the
later 5th century BCE.
Marcus Aurelius: Stoic philosopher and emperor (161-180). After 166 faced with plague
throughout the empire and wars on German frontier. His campaigns were celebrated in a
triumphal arch in Rome (ca. 176) and a column (180-192). His equestrian bronze statue (ca.
164-176) still stands on the Capitoline Hill in Rome.
Commodus: Son of Marcus Aurelius, ruled 180-193 (when murdered and damnatio memoriae
decreed). Believed that he was Hercules reincarnated. A fine bust of him so depicted still
survives in Rome, showing notable "black and white" treatment of the hair.
II. Artists and Architects
Famulus or Fabullus: Nero's court painter, painted the Domus Aurea (64-68).
Apparently important in the development of the Fourth Style.
Rabirius: Architect of the imperial palace built by Domitian on the Palatine Hill (8196).
Severus and Celer: Architect and engineer (respectively) of the Domus Aurea.
Apollodorus of Damascus: Architect of Trajan's Forum in Rome (ca. 104-113); later
critical of Hadrian's design for the Temple of Venus and Roma. Also built a bridge over
the Danube River!
III. Monuments
Gemma Augustea: A large onyx cameo carved with two tiers of relief ornament.
Below are captive Germans and victorious legionaries, above Tiberius dismounts from
a chariot driven by Victory to greet Augustus, who sits enthroned beside Roma amidst
other deities. Dates ca. AD 10-15.
Sperlonga grotto: Site of a coastal villa of Tiberius (ca. 15-37). A grotto adjoining the
villa was remodelled as a dining room and contained remarkable sculptural groups of
the exploits of Odysseus in the Hellenistic Baroque style by Rhodian sculptors.
Vicomagistri Relief: a relief from a statue base which depicts the Vicomagistri
(freedment magistrates associated with the imperial cult) carrying the Lares and genius
of the emperor to a sacrifice. Its style is more crowded and the figures less elegant than
the reliefs associated with imperial patronage. Probably dates to the early 20s.
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"Ara Pietatis": a group of fragmentary reliefs in the tradition of the Ara Pacis have
been associated with the Ara Pietatis (altar of piety), finished in AD 42. Two of the
fragments show sacrifices in front of temples (one in front of the Temple of Mars
Ultor). Although it is unsure if they truly are part of the Ara Pietatis, the reliefs belong
to the first half of the first century AD, and show a greater pictorialism than the
processional reliefs of the Ara Pacis.
Arch of Titus: A single arch at the west end of the Forum with relief panels in its
passageway of Titus' triumph after the recapture of Jerusalem in 71. Built ca. 80-90, its
inner keystone shows Titus borne to heaven by the eagle of Jupiter (i.e. being deified).
The relief panels of the passageway are famous for their "illusionistic" pictorial style.
The panel of the Triumph of Titus shows gods and personifications in the same space as
humans for the first time in imperial public art.
Cancellaria Reliefs: Two relief panels made under Domitian (ca. 85-90) found under
the Cancellaria Palace in Rome. One depicts Vespasian's arrival (adventus ) in Rome in
AD 70, where he is greeted by the youthful Domitian. The other shows Domitian
setting forth from Rome (profectio ) on an army campaign against the Germans (in
83?). Both show deities and personifications in the same space as humans, and were
carved by Classicizing artists. The style is, however, more dynamic than the classicism
of most Julio-Claudian monuments.
House of the Vettii, Pompeii: a small house at Pompeii inhabited after AD 62 by two
freedment brothers; hence the Tablinum is almost nonexistent since they had no family
records. Notable for its opulent Fourth Style paintings.
Tomb of the Haterii: an elaborately sculpted tomb of ca.100, made for a family which
did construction work on Flavian buildings. Notable for its depictions in the "Plebeian"
style of a tomb being built and a funeral; another relief shows the buildings the family
helped build (including the Colosseum).
Column of Trajan: 100 foot high column (125 with its base) erected in the Forum of
Trajan in 113. Has a spiraling relief narrative of the Dacian Wars of 101-106. Narrative
of "continuous" type with one scene merging into next, has much pictorial detail to
enhance the "historicity" of the account. Events depicted are probably "edited" to
enhance Trajan's importance, and include many generic scenes (sacrifices, orations,
army marches, army builds camp) to stress the overall preparedness of the Roman army
and its heroic leader, Trajan. Style generally Roman classical, but the figures show a
tendency to be slightly stumpy and big-headed to enhance their recognition. Its scenes
must have been hard to see from the ground, but it was imitated at least four times.
Arch of Trajan, Beneventum: Dedicated in 117 at Beneventum east of Naples, done
by sculptors from Rome. Relief panels celebrate Trajan's deeds and legislation using
many gods and personifications to allude to events: this is characteristic of the High
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Rhetoric of imperial propaganda sculpture of the 2nd century. In some panels Trajan's
scale is greater than that of other humans, but the arch is done generally in a Classical
style.
"Great Trajanic Frieze": Four fragments of a frieze depicting an allegorical version
of Trajan's campaigns are preserved on the Arch of Constantine in Rome. They
probably come from either the Basilica Ulpia or the Temple of the Deified Trajan built
ca. 120 at the west end of his Forum. The frieze shows the some qualities of the old
Hellenistic-Baroque style and include a "Heroic Rider"--Trajan leading a charge.
Hadrian's Hunting Rondels: Eight round reliefs on the Arch of Constantine come
from a monument of Hadrian which celebrated his leisure activities with Antinoos.
Show scenes of hunting and sacrifice in the countryside, date 130-138. Very pictorial
and classical in style.
Column of Antoninus Pius: Base for an obelisk erected by Marcus Aurelius and his coemperor Lucius Verus in 161 to the memory of their adoptive father. One side has a relief
depiction of the apotheosis of Antoninus and his wife Faustina Sr.: they are borne to heaven by
a winged youth. The style of this panel is very cool and Classical. The other two sides with
reliefs (the 4th side has an inscription) show identical cavalry processions in the "Plebeian"
style.
Arch of Marcus Aurelius: Three relief panels in the Conservatori Museum in Rome come
from a triumphal arch of Marcus Aurelius which celebrated his joint triumph of 176 with
Commodus. Eight further panels on the Arch of Constantine celebrate qualities of Marcus'
army campaigns on the German frontier. Although generally Classicizing in style, the panels
make heavy use of the running drill to create "black and white" contrasts on the figures. They
probably come from a single arch erected ca. 176 to honor Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.
Column of Marcus Aurelius: 100 foot tall column erected to the memory of his father by
Commodus 180-192. Spiralling reliefs imitate the Column of Trajan, celebrate Marcus' military
campaigns. Style non-Classical ("Late Antique") with much use of the drill to create "black and
white" contrasts, stumpy figures and hierarchical poses and composition. Narrative less
continuous, more episodic than on Column of Trajan.
Orestes Sarcophagi: The myth of Orestes, who avenged his father's death by murdering his
murderous mother and was eventually absolved of his crime, was popular on early Roman
sculpted sarcophagi, beginning during the reign of Hadrian. The style of these is generally
rather Classicizing.
Battle Sarcophagi: Common in the late 2nd century in the wake of Marcus Aurelius' army
campaigns, these often show "historical" battles against barbarians. The general is often seen in
the "Heroic Rider" pose first seen in Roman sculpture on the "Great Trajanic Frieze." The
sarcophagi generally are sculpted with extensive use of the drill to create "black and white"
stylistic effects, but the figures remain fairly classicizing. Related sarcophagi show the general
receiving the surrender of the barbarians, often combined with a scene of his marriage (and
then called "biographical" sarcophagi).
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IV. Buildings
Colosseum: The Flavian amphiteater begun by Vespasian ca. 72 on the site of the lake
on the grounds of the park of Nero's Golden House. A traditional vaulted concrete
structure similar in construction to Roman theaters (such as the Theater of Marcellus in
Rome), its exterior is decorated with the Greek orders applied as decoration (Doric,
Ionic, Corinthian and Corinthian on respective stories as the building rises). The interior
floor was pierced to allow animals to emerge at various places to create picturesque and
entertaining effects.
Domus Augustana: The imperial palace on the Palatine Hill built by the architect
Rabirius for Domitian (81-96). Characterized by the sophisticated use of concrete to
create interesting interior spaces, especially in the private wing of the palace. The
palace comprised two parts, the Domus Flavia, or official wing, and the Domus
Augustana, or private wing.
Domus Aurea: The "Golden House", an elaborate rustic villa built in the heart of Rome
by Nero after the Great Fire of Rome of 64. Its architect was Severus, its engineer
Celer. Notable for the complex use of concrete vaulting and domes, as well as its
opulent decoration, including Fourth Style paintings by Famulus. Apparently largely
finished by Nero's death in 68, it was made a public park by Vespasian and largely
destroyed in a fire in 104. A basement wing survives under the Baths of Trajan.
Imperial Fora, Rome: The group of Forums built by the Roman emperors around the
Roman Forum beginning with the Forum Iulium (begun ca. 54 B.C.??) and ending with
the Forum of Trajan (dedicated 113). Generally have colonnades (porticoes) along their
long sides with a podium temple capping the Forum opposite to the entrance on one of
the short sides.
Porta Maggiore, Rome: A monumental gateway (actually an aqueduct bridge) built by
Claudius and finished in 52. Notable for its use of rusticated masonry to give the
impression of great strength.
Villa Iovis, Capri: A remarkable rustic villa built atop a mountain on an island in the
Bay of Naples by the emperor Tiberius (14-37). Built on a great concrete platform.
Trajan's Baths, Rome: Built ca. 104-109 over the substructures of Nero's Domus
Aurea . Known from a 16th century plan, they were the first enormous baths in Rome.
Symmetrical in plan, built of brick faced concrete and characterized by the interplay of
complex interior space, they served as a precedent for later imperial baths.
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Forum of Trajan: Huge Forum built west of the Forum of Augustus by Trajan 106113. The architect was Apollodorus of Damascus. Included the Forum proper, the
Basilica Ulpia (after the name of Trajan's family--Ulpius), two libraries, and Trajan's
column. The Temple of the Deified Trajan was attached to the complex behind the
column by Hadrian (ca. 120). The complex, especially the Basilica, was known for the
opulence of its decoration, including much sculpture. Behind the Forum (to the north)
were Trajan's markets, a large complex of vaulted brick-faced concrete shops, including
a notable Market Hall.
Hadrian's Villa, Tivoli: Enormous suburban villa near Rome built by Hadrian 118134. Had structures with names evocative of pleasent places throughout the empire (i.e.
Canopus, Poikile ). Its structures are notable for their daring use of concrete vaults and
domes to create provocative interior spaces (esp. the Piazza d'Oro).
Pantheon: Round temple built by Hadrian 118-128 to replace temple built by Agrippa.
Has a monumental temple facade to mark the entrance, interior largely preserves the
original facings of multi-colored stone. The huge, niched spherical interior (142' in
diameter, 142' in height) is lit by an oculus or eye-of-heaven in the center of the dome.
The best preserved Roman building of brick-faced concrete, showing the Roman
interest in interior space.
Temple of Venus and Roma: Large 10 X 20 peripteral (ie. Greek in plan) temple built
and partially designed by Hadrian at the east end of the Forum Romanorum 125-135.
Had a cult room of equal size for each goddess, one facing east, the other west. The
temple was set within a colonnaded precinct, and resembles temples in the eastern
empire more than those in Italy.
House of Diana, Ostia: Four-storied apartment house of brick-faced concrete built ca.
150. Preserves the most common type of urban housing in Rome and Italian cities
during the second century.
V. Places and Peoples
Campania: Region in south-central Italy which contains Naples, Pompeii,
Herculaneum, Beneventum and Puteoli (Pozzuoli).
Ostia: Rome's port at the mouth of the Tiber River. Founded as a colony in the late 4th
century B.CE, its greatest period of prosperity was the second century A.D. Notable for
brick-faced concrete architecture.
Dacians: Inhabitants of modern Rumania, conquered by Trajan 101-106, lost to
Germans 256.
Parthians: Rulers of the Persian Empire from ca. 165 BC to AD 222. Frequently in
conflict with the Roman Empire.
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VI. Terms
Third Style: A "closed" style of wall painting which began ca. 25 BC and which lasted
until the mid-1st century AD. Monochrome panels were used to frame "pictures" set on
the walls. On the panels float fanciful architectural motifs, landscapes, and other
decoration. Some of the best examples are in an imperial villa at Boscotrecase, near
Pompeii (ca. 10 BC); another fine wall is in the House of Fronto at Pompeii (ca. 40).
Fourth Style: A style of painting which originated during the reign of Nero (54-68).
Combined aspects of the Second and the Third style. Often, lower wall has
monochrome panels framing pictures on the wall, while the upper wall may be broken
into architectural vistas which do not form a coherent space. Sometimes architectural
vistas
appear framing the pictures on the lower wall. There is also a tendency to have figures
floating on the surface of monochrome panels to create a tapestry-like effect. Found in
Nero’s Golden Hose, and the House of the Vettii at Pompeii, notably.
"Sacral-Idyllic" landscape: A type of landscape painting which originated during the
reign of Augustus (developed by Studius??). Characteristics are sketchy, small figures
in a hazy and ideal rural landscape with many odd shrines. Generally viewed from high
up ("bird's eye perspective").