RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN EFFECTIVE READING AND
HUMAN-COMPUTER INTERACTION
Richard Papík and Barbora Drobíková
Richard Papík
richard.papik@ff.cuni.cz
Charles University in Prague, Institute of Information Studies and Librarianship
Barbora Drobíková
barbora@etf.cuni.cz
Charles University in Prague, Protestant Theological Faculty and Institute of
Information Studies and Librarianship
Curriculum Vitae
Short note on the authors.
Abstract
Human-computer
interaction
discipline
builds
on
several
disciplines
(psychology,
physiology, ars, computer science, information science, and ergonomics). Some
disciplines, and HCI itself, relate to the reading process which is influenced by the
reading theory, text theory, typographics, etc. Reading and information perception of
printed texts and reading and information perception from screen have started to
become more equal with the arrival of graphic user interfaces and new computer
display generations. Modern graphic interfaces support effective perception and
reading using sophisticated software and hardware tools. Hardware tools: new LCD
display generation, special reading displays (system Amazon – Kindle); software tools:
new generation of editing programs allowing to divide texts and graphical information
according to users´ needs. These are also connected with new collaborative systems.
Cognitive user skills, including cognitively disadvantaged users´ skills, are positively
influenced by the new user interfaces.
1
1 Introduction
Our text aims to point out to possible links between issues related to the perception
of information from screens (especially text reading) and issues related to humancomputer interaction. It uses research results from the area of information science
and librarianship. We assume that the perception of information from screens or, in
broader terms, users information behavior, should in the future become the main
focus of information specialists and information services providers.
The reading process is an integral activity which pays attention to the perception of
form and content. It is especially the perception of form that relates to the overall
design of the text (image information). Formal text features greatly affect the quality
of text reading, similarly to the perception of text content via stylistic tools.
Documents are frequently presented in the codex form. Developments in the area of
computer science have influenced the perception of text content and form from
computer screens and in many ways have changed the perception of information
from texts. In a way, text information has re-gained its scroll nature because of text
rolling on screens - a form marginalized by the codex form over two thousand
years ago.
2 HCI and cognitive processes
A cognitive process can be described as an interpretation of information from
external world perceived by our sensual analyzers.
Issues related to cognitive functions are partially examined by information science,
especially where we would feel a borderline between information science and artificial
intelligence and on borders between computer science and traditional psychological
disciplines. Examples include neuron networks, which will play an important role in
research and learning (knowledge) systems in the future. Neuron-network modeling
has become a new interdisciplinary field and its overlapping with human-computer
interaction (HCI) and information science can be intuitively expected. Issues related
to cognitive functions are explored also by researchers in human-computer interaction
area [Faulkner, 1998]. HCI examines physiological and psychological dimensions of
2
the cognitive process. Modern computer and information systems use all human
senses mapping the surrounding world for communication purposes, i.e.:





Sight;
Hearing;
Taste;
Smell;
Touch.
Of course, the number of activities in the area of individual sensual analyzers varies
greatly. Most findings have accumulated in the area of information perception using
eye-sight. Visualization abilities of modern information system have become very
advanced and were examined in detail by many HCI research teams worldwide.
Information visualization has become the objective of many bibliographic, factographic
and full-text databases, hybrid systems, digital libraries and special software support
for information searches [Hawkins, 1999, pp. 88-90]. Research activities reflect the
fact that human eyes (sight) interpret visualized data much faster and much more
effectively than standard text. Information visualization is a sub-discipline of the HCI
and comprises two major research lines:


Human-computer interaction;
Large database searching.
Human-computer interaction focuses not only on the communication of information
gained by eye-sight (even though approximately 90-95% of information from the
surrounding environment is forwarded to the brain for subsequent processing by our
eye-sight). Systems using different senses have also been explored; however, their
application scope is directly linked to the economic funding and background support
available for such research activities.
Other relevant applications include bibliometric and informetric analyses or the
establishment of visualized semantic maps on computer screens [Hawkins, 1999, pp.
88-89]. Human eyes orient more easily in this environment and interpret visualized
data much faster and much more effectively than texts. Also, potential decisionmaking processes are better supported in this manner (using also its links to right
brain hemisphere).
3
2.1 Reading generally
General reading models, applicable in the case of printed text reading, can be
applied also to reading from screen. We will mention here two models of information
perception:
1. The first model is based on the reading model defined by E. Viitaniemi
[Viitaniemi, 1983] adjusted in the following model:
Fig.1: Reading process according to E. Viitaniemi
Users perceive formal characteristics displayed on screen and at the same time
process
them
as
far
as
their
content
is
concerned.
We
can
say
that
reading/perception of information from screen is an integrated activity combining an
understanding of the form and content. The Figure describes individual phases of
the process and needs probably no further comments. Modern graphic interfaces
(GUI) have begun to affect the way information presented influence the right brain
hemisphere. The right brain hemisphere is responsible, inter alia, for the processing
of image information, while the left brain hemisphere is believed to be more oriented
on verbal and notional expressions. We could say that graphic interfaces can
positively affect reading capacities of users; they, however, will in the future change
its traditional structure established in previous centuries, which was linked to printed
or hand-written documents. Computer graphics in the GUI environment may, for
example, help cognitively handicapped users or users with reading or learning
disabilities. Texts presented by modern computer tools help greatly in the area of
4
learning support - using various e-learning or web-based tools linked to collaborative
devices (most simple forms include e.g. hyperlinks).
Tim Berners-Lee, the “Web Inventor”, said:„The power of the web is in its
universality - access by everyone regardless of disability is an essential aspect" (Tim
Berners-Lee W3C Director & inventor of the WWW).
2. Second model – cybernetic reading model
Fig. 2: Cybernetic reading model
The cybernetic reading model [Andrejev, Chromov, 1987], which has been applied by
the authors on the process of printed text reading, can be used also in the
electronic text environment. It points out to processes participating integrally in
reading and emphasizes the feed-back link. The model allows to demonstrate e.g.
the issue of the so-called effective reading (rational reading), which, however, is not
the focus of our document.
2.2.1 Physiologic explorations of the reading process
5
The research in the area of physiologic reading processes has been basically
finished; we have got information on physiologic reading limits, on the sight scope,
fixation periods. These issues have been dealt with mainly by the American school
of experimental psychology in 1910s and 1920s using physiologic research results
focusing on the reading process from the second half of 19th century (e.g. the
French ophthalmologist Javal). These are supported e.g. by practical outcomes
gained in the area of reading: the first documented fast-reading course was led by
a journalism professor of the NY Columbia University, W.B. Pitkin, who has also
written the first publication on rational (effective)/fast reading – The Art of Rapid
Reading published in the U.S. in 1929.
2.2 Reading from screen
Reading from screen using classic typographic tools had its limitations; however,
when first screen terminals (VDT) appeared, they allowed (together with the GUI-type
user interface) dynamic adjustment of formal, and later also contentual, characteristics
of the text to users´ needs (e.g. formal – size of text and content – collaborative
systems).
In this context, very important was a study entitled Reading from paper versus
reading
from
screen
[Dillon,
McKnight,
Richardson,
1988].
Until
today,
many
experiments exploring the fast reading process and text understanding took place.
The experiments have identified so-called text variables which significantly affect the
reading process (font size, line length, columns proportional and non-proportional font
size, etc.). Summary of findings in this area can be found in How physical text
layout affects reading from screen by Mary C. Dyson [Dyson, 2004]. Our own
research focuses on the potential influence of fast-reading courses and fast-reading
techniques on reading from screens. Results gathered indicate that readers with fastreading training read faster also from screens (even though they use effective
reading techniques for printed text reading); text understanding remains basically the
same
(it
neither
increases,
nor
decreases).
This
means
that
mastering
fast-
reading/effective-reading techniques does not really affect the learning process.
A very important experiment in the area of fast reading [Wright - Lickorish, 1983,
pp. 227-235] has been published in the Behaviour and Information Technology
6
journal. The authors have come to the conclusion that reading from screen is by
27% slower than printed text reading. This particular experiment has shown that
many researchers from the HCI area have linked user interface related issues to
reading.
As
many
publications indicate,
the
reading
process
has
become
an
interesting topic for a number of computer science experts. It is not necessary to
compare here similar researches focusing e.g. on various percentual differences
between reading from screen and printed text reading. It is a fact that even though
screens and terminals of computers have improved greatly, reading from screen is
perceived by many users as less comfortable and less advantageous. We may
expect that with the arrival of advanced technical tools supporting visualization, the
number of users feeling comfortable with these output devices will increase.
2.2.1 Screen arrangement and information perception – HCI influence
Users
are
frequently
overwhelmed
by
information
from
screens
or
dialogue
information systems. This could be caused also by the inconvenient design of
information presented on the display, not only by the technical quality of the
outcome device [Jacobson, 1999]. Very important are issues related to formatting and
volume of information presented by software products (originating from dialogue
systems outcomes), which communicate with users and which respect their memory
abilities (e.g. short-term memory parameters) as well as the lucidity and structure of
information. Important are also developments in HCI laboratories, including voice
input/output,
light
[Marchionini, 1991].
pens,
three-dimensional
displays
and
other
visualization
tools
Recommendations are frequently formulated and supported by experiments in HCI
laboratories. Dialogue systems should respect human physiologic and psychological
abilities or, even better, abilities of the defined target groups (e.g. children seeking
information in dialogue encyclopedic systems). Overwhelming volume of information
burdens our minds. An example of information sources overwhelmed by incentives
can be found among hypertexts generally; hypertexts must be approached calmly
and with a concrete search strategy in mind [Foss, 1989]. Hypertexts corresponding
to the natural functioning of human mind associating new ideas (i.e. allowing
transfer to other information knots and hypertext links) may cause more psychological
7
problems if a so-called browsing method is used in comparison to targeted analytical
strategies (using e.g. query language in search analyses strategies).
Fig. 3: Sample of text with hypertext links
As a good example can serve a short paragraph describing HCI in an internet
encyclopedia; here, we can see 21 hypertext references. The links function very well
and point out correctly to the related topics; however, users may easily get lost
when following new and new links.
Although hyperlinks make the text
perception more effective
(new topics are
explained), the user/reader must maintain his original motivation and focus during the
whole time of the text reading. Possible lack of understanding can be immediately
addressed by following a hyperlink reference, and users therefore need not spend
time seeking information in printed handbooks etc. However, less experienced users
may inadvertently close their currently read text. Also, having several windows open
at the same time could make the process hard to follow for some users.
8
2.3 Ergonomics and HCI
The 1950s have seen the birth of a new interdisciplinary area – ergonomics.
Ergonomics does not relate only to the design of machinery etc. but it has affected
also the quickly developing computer science field, where researchers started to talk
about computer ergonomics. These issues are closely linked to the area of user
interface and interface design, it increases or decreases potential communication
barriers
within
systems.
(A
topic
where
psychological
ergonomics
and
visual
ergonomics overlap is for example the issue of how objects should be arranged on
the computer screen [Smith, 1997, pp.1002-1003]. Similar problem can be examined
also in the area of hypertext documents design and the principles of such design
process.)
If we extend ergonomics on the communication process between human beings and
computer, we will get into physical ergonomics. The importance of the anthropometry
discipline cannot be denied [for examples from practice see again Davies, 1992].
A.C. Matias with his team [1998a, pp. 55-56 and also 1998b, pp. 213-226] has
described the so-called carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) in cases of people working at
terminals (painful wrist disorders). Other problems explored by physical ergonomics
include spine disorders caused by long-term sitting in front of computer screens;
however, as these issues do not fall into the scope of this text, we have included
only brief references to special literature. Our text focuses mainly on the visual
perception of information from computer displays, which are used e.g. by information
specialists and final users in their communication with database centers, libraries,
automatic
catalogues
and
other
electronic
information
communication with dialogue system uses the eye-sight.
sources.
Most
frequently,
2.3.1 Visual ergonomics
Computer
ergonomics
is
a
subject
covering
grounds
between
physical
and
psychological ergonomics. One part of computer ergonomics (visual ergonomics) is
interesting for authors/users of dialogue tools for databases input devices (e.g. for
information workers - search analysts) or for the access into interactive multimedia
by various users´ groups (e.g. children, students, seniors, physicians, chemistry
workers, etc.). This area is discussed in expert texts of specific journals in the area
9
of information and computer science, not only in periodics focusing on ergonomics
and work-related hygiene [Davies, 1992, pp. 4-9]. HCI related journals have also
regularly explored these issues.
For the purpose of information visualization on terminals, most important is the
structuring of information into a framework “similar” to the users´ mind (if possible
and if the target group is known – e.g. chemistry researchers, medical scientists,
businessmen,
high-school
students,
technical
university
students,
pre-school
age
children, etc.). Familiarization with mental models of potential users is important and
there are several methods for doing this or, more precisely, for making the result as
much objective as possible. P.J. Daniels [1986, pp. 272-304] has introduced an
evaluation overview of mental and cognitive models and emphasized that all
participants of the communication process must know their counterpart’s model,
otherwise no understanding is possible. It is recommended to use models analyzing
individual users rather than the so-called typical users. Implicit models are suitable in
cases where users are unable to define exactly their information requirements.
Mental models and their cognitive methods are important when setting up bases of
texts and image data and their relation to the search methods. HCI also explores
theses issues and the knowledge gained is being used during the development of
interactive multimedia systems. Information science workers are also active in this
field.
Adverse situations resulting from the overwhelming volume or improperly structured
information can be multiplied by further factors, e.g. by the psychological type of the
concrete user, the level of his/her resistance and experience. Weaker types (e.g.
people with stronger melancholic tendencies) are certainly more at risk than stronger
ones (with prevailing sanguine or phlegmatic tendencies).
Ergonomic principles and principles resulting from practical HCI theories applications
are also linked to economics and business as they can strongly affect commercial
success of search systems, multimedia products database centers´ services, digital
libraries or other electronic information sources sales. All modern dialogue systems –
either accessible via network, CD-ROM or available freely on the web – are affected
by these principles (their interface design, dialogue processes or help function
10
structure). Last, but not least, there are also pedagogic effects, especially in the era
of continuous (and sometimes overestimated) qualification increase and transfers
where many sources use interactive learning process functions and the mancomputer-man models (e.g. elements of distance learning using network tools).
In the field of ergonomics, it is useful to study and apply the ISO 9241 norm (CSN
EN ISO 9241). Unfortunately, many experts in the area of dialogue systems creation
(Czech as well as international) are not aware of even basic standards and
conventions which allow quality as well as quantity evaluation of information products
and the mode of information search [Bastien, Scapin, Leulier, 1999, pp. 299-322].
2.3.2 The importance of the ISO 9241 group norms for maintaining a dialogue with
information systems
Workstation
related
issues
are
addressed
by
relevant
ISO
norms.
Where
an
establishment of information systems dialogue is foreseen, with output to be
perceived mostly via eye-sight (sight analyzers), the applicable international norm is
ISO 9241.
The ISO 9241 norm (its full title is Ergonomic requirements for office work with
visual display terminals (VDTs)) has been prepared by the ISO/TC 159 technical
committee and it has the following structure:
 Part 1: General introduction
 Part 2: Guidance on task requirements
 Part 3: Visual display requirements
 Part 4: Keyboard requirements
 Part 5: Workstation layout and postural requirements
 Part 6: Guidance on the work environment
 Part 7: Requirements for display with reflections
 Part 8: Requirements for displayed colors
 Part 9: Requirements for non-keyboard input devices
 Part 10: Dialogue principles
 Part 11: Guidance on usability
 Part 12: Presentation of information
11
 Part 13: User guidance
 Part 14: Menu dialogues
 Part 15: Command dialogues
 Part 16: Direct manipulation dialogues
 Part 17: Form filling dialogues
Part 12: Presentation of information is one part focusing in large extent on the
issue of information presentation in the context of effective and safe perception, e.g.
screen
arrangement
or
the
arrangement
of
individual
information
windows
(identification area, input/output, management areas or areas for communicating
messages).
Even though the norm includes a number of useful recommendations on issues such
as the location of information on screens or in individual windows, it is obvious that
its date of creation (1998) cannot fully correspond to modern developments some of
which could not have been foreseen at the time of its creation (e.g. extensive links
between internet and users´ interface); however, some of the recommendations listed
are truly timeless and still correspond to the cognitive abilities of modern users.
Such recommendations included in the ISO 9241 norm include:
 Tiling window arrangements (i.e. organizing windows into mutually nonoverlapping frames);
 Arranging windows into mutually overlapping frames (partial or complete
overlapping, e.g. cascades);
 Mixed overlapping of windows.
The ISO 9241-12 has introduced timeless and modern recommendations suggesting
that information provided should have the following characteristics:
 Clarity (the information is provided in a clear and precise manner);
 Distinctiveness (the information presented is distinct);
 Brief nature (users receive only information necessary for implementing their
tasks);
 Congruity (the same information is presented uniformly in the same manner
expected by the users);
 Ability to ascertain (the focus of users on the information requested);
 Readability (the information is easy to read);
12
 Lucidity (the content is clear, non-ambiguous, cognizable and can be
interpreted).
Visual information use knowledge from various areas such as:
 Human physiology (e.g. sensory system);
 Psychology (e.g. mental strain);
 Ergonomics (e.g. application context, addressed for example by ISO 9241-11);
 Typography;
 Graphic design.
In comparison with printed texts, modern electronic display devices using GUI tools
and technologies have opened fantastic possibilities in the area of colors. Displays
can literally be “science” and “art” works. This issue is addressed by the ISO 9241
norm (Part 8, Requirements for displayed colors). This part of the norm builds
mainly on technical aspects and uses graphs, figures and tables. It discusses in
detail measurement methodology leading to recommended conclusions. This part is
amended also by Part 7 (Requirements for display with reflections). The overall
“quality” of display facilities is then explored in detail by Part 3 (Visual display
requirements).
3 Conclusion
Over a short period of time, information technologies have greatly facilitated social
development and contributed positively to its quality. They have helped to enhance
working processes as well as human leisure activities. However, technical and
technologic developments always include also risks. History tells us that many
industrial and technical innovations have besides social benefits brought also adverse
effects, especially if innovations were misapplied or left unregulated [Davies, 1992]. It
is our belief that HCI and research in the area of human-computer field, mental
models and information behavior will support the successful implementation of
information technologies in the area of information services.
13
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