FROM SCIENCE I TO SCIENCE II:
MAJOR CHANGES IN THE SCIENCE LANDSCAPES
Dr. Karl H. Müller
University of Vienna, Austria
University of Ljubljana, Slovenia
Director, Wiener Institute for Social Science Documentation (WISDOM)
The presentation will be focused on the main differences between two stages in the evolution
of science which have been labeled as Science I and Science II. Science I corresponds to the
organization of science from its initial modern phase in the 16th century to the 1940s and
1950s approximately. Science I is the long-term period of majestic clockworks, culminating at
an early stage in the “Principia Mathematica” of Sir Isaac Newton in 1687. In contrast,
Science II operates with blind watchmakers (Richard Dawkins) or, to use another metaphor
from Karl R. Popper, works in a configuration of clouds.
The transition from Science I to Science II should not be seen as replacements or substitutions
of old homogeneous forms with new ones, but as a transition in terms of hegemony. The first
phase from the long 16th century up to the period between 1900 and 1950 is characterized by
the dominance of Science I and contained only a few elements of Science II, whereas the
second phase from the 1950s onwards can be described as the peaceful co-existence between
an increasingly dominant area of Science II and a substantial cluster, which remains
structured and organized in Science I. The subsequent table highlights some of the major
shifts from Science I to Science II which, once again, should be understood as an exchange
between center and periphery. The talk will elaborate on these major transitions with a special
focus on epistemology, self-reflexivity and research designs.
Basic Differences between Science I and Science II
Dimensions
Science I
Science II
Leading Fields
of Science
Classical Physics
Evolutionary Biology and the
Sciences of Complexity
Theoretical
Goals
General, Universal
Laws
Pattern Formation and
Pattern Recognition
Theory
Structures
Axiomatic, Reductionistic
Nested, in Multiple
Levels Simultaneously
ResearchPrograms
Closed
Deductive
Open,
Recombinative
Heuristic Rules
Mechanics
Critical Phenomena, Qualitative
or Structural Changes
Units of Method
Causal Relations
Generative Relations
Forecasting
Capacities
High
Low
Levels of
Complexity
Low
High
Ontology
Dualism
Monism
Epistemology
(“Objectivity”)
Observer-Exclusion
Observer-Inclusion
Re-Entries
(Self-Reference)
Re-Entries Excluded
Re-Entries Possible
Dynamics
Equilibrium
Linear Dynamics,
Equilibrium
Non-linear, far from
Types of Distributions
Normal Distributions,
Mild Distributions
Power-Law Distributions,
Wild Distributions
Observations, MeasureMents (Social Sciences)
Flat Search
Deep Search
Research Designs
Trivial Designs
Non-Trivial Designs
Potential for
Interdisciplinary Research
Low
High
Cognitive Distances between
Natural and
Social Sciences
High
Low
Leading
Metaphors
Clocks
Clouds