How did the Mandate of Heaven develop?
How did geography impact conflicts between kings and nobles under the Zhou dynasty?
How did Confucianism and Daoism create order in ancient China?
Mandate of Heaven, Warring States Period, centralization, Zhou, Confucianism,
Daoism
When the Zhou tribe overthrew the last Shang king, they had to convince the
people, especially the nobles, that they had the right to rule. The Zhou told
people that the gods in heaven had told them that they were to rule. This was
called "The Mandate of Heaven", heaven's orders.
The Chou added that the gods had warned them that they would only rule as
long as they were good rulers. If they became selfish, and thought of
themselves first, before the people, that heaven would appoint another ruling
family.
No one knows if the nobles in ancient China believed this fairy tale, but they
most probably thought that the Mandate of Heaven sounded like a good
idea. The nobles were tired of war between the Shang and the Zhou. Most of
the nobles would have the same life under Shang or Chou rule, and they knew
it. As for the peasants, it did not matter to them which family ruled.
The Mandate of Heaven is based on four principles:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The right to rule is granted by Heaven.
There is only one Heaven therefore there can be only one ruler.
The right to rule is based on the virtue of the ruler.
The right to rule is not limited to one dynasty.
Here are some of the ways these principles converted into action and
justification:
1. It gives the ruler prestige and religious importance.
2. It gives the ruler supreme power.
3. It allows a new ruler to gain power quickly if the people believe
he has the 'Mandate of Heaven'.
4. A ruler's power must be kept in check by virtue.
The Mandate of Heaven justifies rebellion as long as the rebellion is successful.
Simply because it was successful, obviously then, the new ruler had to have
had a Mandate from Heaven.
Robert Oxnam :: The Chinese emperor was understood to be the "Son of Heaven" responsible
for maintaining harmony between the human sphere and heaven. He ruled society with the
"Mandate of Heaven."
Myron Cohen :: The emperor as the Son of Heaven had received the Mandate of Heaven to rule
society. The emperor, therefore, played a key role in linking the human social order to other
domains of the cosmic order. Therefore, the emperor could be held fully responsible for
disturbances in that order.
Wm. Theodore de Bary :: The idea of the Mandate that one claims to have received from
heaven is one that doesn't emphasize so much the confirming of one's authority as the
importance of anyone who exercises or claims to exercise that authority doing so in a responsible
way, responsible for the welfare of the people. So it really is a concept that imposes a moral test,
a qualification, on the ruler, rather than accepting simply the claims that he might assert on the
basis of either heredity or the acquisition of power.
Irene Bloom :: This idea of course remains one of the most important ideas in all of Chinese
political thought, right down to the twentieth century. When the students were demonstrating in
Tiananmen Square in the spring of 1989, one of their arguments was that the Communist party
had lost the Mandate of Heaven. And so you can see this continuity over time from the early Zhou
period from the eleventh century right down into our own time.
The Zhou Dynasty
1122 BCE - 256 BCE
The Chinese civilization expanded during the time of the Zhou dynasty. The massive size
that the dynasty covered was too much for the Zhou leaders to handle due to the poor
means of communication. Because of this, the leaders decided to appoint people to
oversee each of the territories. The territories started off as walled off cities. The leader of
each of the territories were the lords, each receiving the title through inheritance. Next in
the hierarchy were the fighting men, followed by the peasants and the domestic slaves.
Soon, these territories became more independent, eventually breaking away from the
main Zhou dynasty leaders.
The Zhou society was based on agricultural production. During that time, the land of the
lords was divided among the peasants to grow crops. They were divided up into three by
three squares, with the eight outer squares being worked on by the peasants. The center
tract of land was worked on by all eight of the peasants for the lord. The extent of this
type of land distibution was unclear, but the later dynasties believed that this was the
most equitable way of dealing with land distribution and use.
The religious practice of the Zhou empire reflected their hierarchical way of life. The
Zhou kings believed that they were given a mandate from heaven to rule. The kings
prayed and sacrificed to Shang Ti, the Lord on High, now called T'ien (Heaven), and to
their ancestors. The lords of the territories prayed to the local nature gods and to the gods
of agriculture in addition to their ancestors. If any sacrifices or prayers were missed, great
ill was predicted to fall on the territory or kingdom of the neglectful leader.
Eastern Zhou
In 770 BCE, the Zhou kings lost control of the territories they had delegated to their
lords. These territories, along with non-Chinese forces, rebelled and defeated the original
Zhou capital. The Zhou then formed a new capital farther East. From this new capital, the
Zhou forfeited their political and military control over their territories.
The territories now were larger and more powerful than the original Zhou kingdom. Even
though the Zhou were not in control, they still thought they were appointed by the
heavans and continued to be the ceremonial lords of the kingdoms. During this time,
there was great economic growth, even among the constant warfare between the
territories. It was also during this time that China entered its Iron Age.
The Iron Age brought iron-tipped oxdrawn plows and improved irrigation techniques
which increased the agricultural yield which in turn increased the population. With the
increase in population came greater wealth, and people started to become merchants and
traders. With the explosion of the merchant and trader class, the improvement of
communication was inevitable. The improvement came in the form of expanding the
horseback communication system. This increase in the economic situation allowed the
rulers to control more and more territories. Communication was far better than before,
and a ruler could have a larger empire and still be kept up to date on situations that may
arise.
The territories that were located at the edges of the Zhou empire expanded into nonChinese countries. Upon expanding, the kingdoms of the Zhou became more diversified
and these kingdoms selectively chose the aspects of the newly acquired culture to
assimilate into their own. One such aspect was the mounted cavalry. Before, all the
Chinese fighting was by foot soldiers. By the 6th century, seven powerful states arose
from the former Zhou territories. With the Zhou dynasty's decline and the rise of power
of the former territories, the situation in China became unstable. Then, by the late 5th
century, the Zhou dynasty fell into a state of interstate anarchy, this period was known as
the Period of the Warring States.
The Golden Age of Chinese Philosophy
403 BCE - 221 BCE
Due to the instability of China, an intellectual movement swept through China that
shaped China's state and culture. The most influential of the philosophers was
Confucious. Confucius was the representation of the emerging class of administrators
and advisors that were needed to aid rulers deal with the ever-present need of diplomacy
with other states and internal administration. Confucius wanted a return to the Zhou style
of governing. He believed that the rulers of that period had tried to develop a society
based on the example of great personal virtue. By this, Confucius then took to the task of
creating a class based on virtue that would take over the high positions of government
and lead the people by their example.
In addition to Confucianism, another school of philosophy was Daoism. The principles of
Daosim are explained in the Tao-te-Ching or "Classic of the Way and Its Virtue." This
text is said to have been created by Lao-tzu and in the works of Chuang-tzu. The Daoist
philosophy was based on simplicity. The belief is that the government should be hands
off, and let the people deal with the problems of nature and the people should return to
primitive agricultural communities.
Legalism was the third school of philosophy. The philosophers felt that, during their time
of great disorder and chaos, something needed to be done. The legalist philosophers
believed that every aspect of life should be ruled by a set of strict and impersonal laws.
To have this system work, the legalists needed to have a powerful and wealthy state
where the ruler had ultimate authority. The wealth and military strength is what gave the
state and ruler power.
Fall of the Zhou Dynasty and the Rise of the Ch'in State
During the 4th century BCE, the state of Ch'in, one of the former territories of the Zhou
kingdom, emerged as a power. Based on theories of a leading legalist, the Ch'in kingdom
reformed its administration, economy, and military and became stronger as the Zhou
empire weakened and eventually died in 256 BCE. Soon, the Ch'in had conquered the
seven other warring states.
Zhou Dynasty
The Zhou dynasty is divided into two periods: the Western Zhou (ca. 1100–770 B.C.)
with the capital near present-day Xi'an, Shaanxi province, and the Eastern Zhou (770–
256 B.C.) when the capital was moved to Luoyang, Henan province. The Eastern Zhou is
traditionally divided into the Spring and Autumn period (770–ca. 470 B.C.) and the
Warring States period (ca. 470–221 B.C.). After the move of the Zhou court to Luoyang,
China was ruled by many smaller contending states until the rise of the Qin dynasty in
221 B.C.
Early on, the Zhou people occupied an area in present-day Shaanxi province to the west
of the Shang territories, but around 1100 B.C. conquered the Shang to whom they had at
times served as a tributary state. Historical documents demonstrate that the Zhou rulers
saw themselves as the cultural and political successors of the Shang state. The Shang
production of "ritual art" (liqi) in bronze and jade continued unabated. Many Zhou
inscriptions on ritual bronzes indicate the importance of ancestor worship and veneration.
Bronze design motifs were sometimes created with repetitive stamps, pointing to the
nascent development of mass production techniques. The reduction of human sacrifices
found in tombs is one way Zhou culture departed from its predecessor. This tendency
may demonstrate a shift in perceptions of the afterlife, where human assistance for the
deceased was now embodied by straw, wooden, or ceramic replicas. Accompanying
burial articles placed in tombs also began taking the form of miniature models and
simulacra that, along with the funerary architecture, may both have been conceived as
"brilliant artifacts" (mingqi).
The Zhou rulers worked to extend their territory and developed a system of governance
that gave hereditary power to local leaders, including relatives of the royal family, trusted
subordinates, and loyal local chiefs. This decentralization eventually broke down as
power and ambition grew in regional centers. In 770 B.C. the Zhou sovereign was killed
by an alliance of his vassals and enemies. His son was enthroned and the main capital
moved east to Luoyang. This was the beginning of the Eastern Zhou period, but the Zhou
rulers never regained their former supremacy.
Constant warfare dominated the Eastern Zhou period. This led to many technological
advances made in connection with military matters. By the seventh century B.C.,
advancements in iron production allowed for new and stronger weapons and farm tools.
More peaceful and artistic advances were also made. Bronze coinage was introduced and
widely circulated. Lost–wax, inlay, and intricate bronze casting techniques were refined,
as seen on mirrors, bells, lamps, and surviving metalware. During this period,
relationships between designs and motifs of different media, such as jade and bronze or
lacquer and textiles, also raise questions about the transmission of workshop practices
and the cultural interaction within and beyond China's borders.
The later Zhou period is best remembered as a time of intellectual adventurism as new
philosophical schools, such as Confucianism, Daoism, and Legalism, flourished in
abundance. Perhaps the most famous of these schools was founded by Confucius (551–
479 B.C.), whose societal vision called for individuals to understand and accept their
position in the social and familial hierarchy. Confucius' transmitted teachings later
became the crux of a political system that emphasized the proper relationships between
different members of society. Particularly attractive to rulers were the Confucian precepts
calling for loyalty and obedience to one's ruler, father, and family. This created a strict
hierarchy of ritual and social self-control. As Confucianism spread it became the
overarching ethical code throughout much of East Asia, palpable even today.
Another important native school of thought was Daoism, which in the Zhou period was
an eclectic group of popular beliefs in which humans were not seen as the dominating
entity. Instead they were urged to seek a balance with the natural world. The Zhou
dynasty figure
Confucianism
Confucianism is the cornerstone of traditional Chinese culture as well as a
complete ideological system created by Confucius, based on the traditional
culture of the Xia, Shang and Zhou Dynasties. It has dominated a feudal society
that in essence has lasted 2000 years and for that reason its influence over the
history, social structure and the people of China cannot be overlooked.
Life
of
Confucius
Confucius has proved to be the greatest influence over the Chinese character.
Besides being a great educationist, thinker and unsuccessful politician, he was
first of all an intellect with a noble morality. He pursued truth, kindness and
perfection throughout his life and his success and failure were largely due to his
character, which had an everlasting impact on Chinese intellect.
He was born in 551B.C in the State of Lu which is known today as Qufu in
Shandong Province. In Chinese, his name was Kong Qiu. Kong was the family
name while Qiu was his given name. This was because his parents had prayed
for a son at Niqiu Hill and 'Qiu' was an appropriate token of their thanks and joy
at having their prayers answered. Sadly, his father died when he was very young
but despite a hard life, he dedicated himself to study at the age of 15.
Photo by: Wikipedia Creative Commons
Sometime before 1000 BC, a small nomadic clan took permanent residence at point in the
Wei River Valley and there, built a town. This small town was the beginning of the
world’s longest standing dynasty. The clan was named Zhou whose ancestry traces even
farther back in time. They transformed the little town they started with into a centre for
their rapidly growing influence and power. This steady rise to power and control
climaxed with the overthrow of the Shang Dynasty.
The friction with the then rulers of the Shang Dynasty began with Jili, son of Danfu who
led the Zhou Clan to where they made their foothold. Jili led his men in a battle against
the reigning King’s vassal. He fought to the death and was succeeded by his son, who
later became known as King Wen of Zhou. King Wen is one of the three revered leaders
of the Zhou Dynasty. He pushed back the Shang army far enough but it was his son, King
Wu who finally saw the Shang Dynasty to its end.
The Mandate of Heaven
These three men who started the Zhou Dynasty were revered and remembered as the
ideal leaders of China. They legitimized their usurpation of the throne with the doctrine
of the Mandate of Heaven. The doctrine basically says that whoever was the leader of the
empire was placed there by the will of god. It is also a self-validating prophecy as the
only proof of being undeserving of the throne is the fact that you were overthrown.
The doctrine preaches that “Tian” or Heaven, gives the “tianming” or mandate to rule
upon the family that has been found to be morally apt for the duty. This was happily
accepted by the people in light of the fact that the rulers of the Shang dynasty had greatly
deteriorated morally and their citizens suffered depravity.
For better or for worse, this is how China thought of its leaders then. They believed that
there was only one god called Heaven and kings were his sons. And this is why during
the Zhou Dynasty, the empire was called the Celestial Empire: the only empire in the
whole of China’s epic history to last for more than eight hundred years, from 1122 to 221
BC.
New Worship
Confucius in Myths & Legends
of China, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner
The rule of the Zhou Family heralded many changes for the Empire, many of which were
so popular that they still mark China up to today, more than one thousand years later. In
divination and religious practices, human sacrifice in burials and rites were substantially
lessened as new ways of worship were indoctrinated in the people.
The Birth of Confucianism
The Zhou dynasty was also a golden age for Chinese Philosophy. It was in this era that
the famous Confucius (551-479 BCE) was born, which marked the birth of
Confucianism. This is one of the most pervasive thoughts and doctrines the world has
ever seen. It teaches neither of a god nor talk of an afterlife but preaches of a way to live
one’s life with honor in duty.
The Birth of Taoism
Taosim was also born during this age. The philosopher Lao Tsu
founded the religion and taught of a naturalistic “path to life.” The religion was centered
on the three jewels of the Taoist faith: compassion, moderation and humility. The “wu
wei” or non-action was also born of this faith.
The empire also grew leaps and bounds in terms of agriculture. Agriculture and
technology therefor improved enough to make agriculture produce China’s main food
source in lieu of livestock or game. Hunting ceased to be a necessity and became merely
a sport. This advancement came in the form of the use of field grid patterns which
allowed the farmers to make better and more efficient use of the land. It also made
irrigation easier and more systematic.
The Iron Dynasty
Photo by: Wikipedia Creative Commons
The use of iron also became popular during the Zhou dynasty. They used iron for almost
everything including some very helpful tools which further improved their methods. They
devised iron instruments which they used for animal drawn plowing and other things. The
technology pertaining to iron in this era has been said to have preceded and exceeded that
of the European regions. This dynasty learned how to make cast iron a good century
before anyone did in Europe.
Advancements in iron technology also brought about many improvements apart from the
agricultural ones. It greatly increased their army’s strength with the new weapons and
protective gear they were able to create. This was very helpful in expanding the already
vast reach of the empire.
Zhou Writings and Poetry
It was also during the Zhou Dynasty that the recording and documentation of history
became more pronounced. The Books of documents is the first book written on Chinese
history. There were also great historical literary pieces that emerged from this dynasty.
The Classic of Poetry is a vast collection of poems, with some of them said to date from
ass early as 1000BC. There was also the Zhou Li, the Zhou Rituals. It told of the duties of
a man and the honourable way to carry them out.
The earlier part of the Zhou dynasty is called the Western Zhou. This was the empire
father and son Wen and Wu. The center of the empire then was the Yellow River Valley
and succession was based on kinship. While the empire expanded eastward, the center
shifted in that direction as well and the Eastern Zhou was born. The new capital was
moved in an area near what is now Luoyang. This was a time when the leaders were
chosen based on an autocracy. This period also saw the beginning of taxation and forced
labor. The empire had slowly fragmented into smaller kingdoms until in 481 BC, it was
appropriately termed as an empire of Warring states. The once great empire was divided
into three, the Wei, Han and Zhao. This was a time of feudalism and when a uniform
currency was established to facilitate trade with farther regions.
The dynasty would remain divided and in constant internal dissent until the Qin Dynasty
reunited it.
Red and Dark Brown Lacquer on Wood. Wine Cups from the Warring States Period of the Chou Dynasty.
Minneapolis Institute of Arts
NSGill
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------The Chou or Zhou dynasty ruled China from about 1027 to about 221 B.C. It was the longest
dynasty in Chinese history. The Chou Dynasty followed the second Chinese dynasty, the
Shang. Originally pastoralists, the Chou set up a (proto-)feudal social organization based on
families, with administrative bureaucracy, and developed a middle class. From such a
decentralized tribal system, the Zhou became centralized over time. Iron was introduced and
Confucianism was developed. Sun Tzu wrote The Art of War in about 500 B.C.
Chinese Philosophers and Religion:
During the Warring States period of the Chou dynasty, a class of scholars developed, whose
members included the great Chinese philosopher Confucius. The Book of Changes was written
during the Chou Dynasty. The philosopher Lao Tse was appointed librarian for the historical
records of the Chou kings. This period is sometimes referred to as the One Hundred Schools
Period. The Chou banned human sacrifice and saw their success over the Shang as a mandate
from heaven. Ancestor worship developed.
Start of the Chou Dynasty:
Wuwang ("Warrior King") was the son of the leader of the Chou (Zhou) located on the western
border of the Shang's China in what is now Shaanxi province. He formed a coalition with the
leaders of other states to defeat the last, evil ruler of the Shang. They succeeded and Wuwang
became the first king of the Chou dynasty (c.1046-43 B.C.).
Division of the Chou Dynasty:
Conventionally, the Chou dynasty is divided into the Western or Royal Chou (c.1027-771 B.C.)
and the Dong or Eastern Chou (c.770-221 B.C.) periods. The Dong Zhou itself is subdivided
into the Spring and Autumn (Chunqiu) period (c.770-476 B.C.), which was named for a book
supposedly by Confucius and when iron weapons and farm implements replaced bronze, and
the Warring States (Zhanguo) period (c.475-221 B.C.).
At the start of the Western Chou, the empire of the Chou extended from Shaanxi to the
Shandong peninsula and the Beijing area. The first kings of the Chou dynasty gave land to
friends and relatives. Like the two previous dynasties, there was a recognized leader who
passed power to his descendants. The vassals' walled cities, also passed down patriarchally,
developed into kingdoms. By the end of the Western Chou, the central government had lost all
but nominal power, such as was required for rituals.
During the Warring States period, the aristocratic system of warfare changed: peasants
fought; there were new weapons, including crossbows, chariots, and iron armor.
Developments During the Chou Dynasty:
During the Chou dynasty in China, ox-drawn ploughs, iron and iron casting, horseback riding,
coinage, multiplication tables, chopsticks, and the crossbow were introduced. Roads, canals,
and major irrigation projects were developed.
Legalism:
Legalism developed during the Warring States period. Legalism is a school of philosophy that
provided the philosophical background for the first imperial dynasty, the Qin Dynasty.
Legalism accepted that humans are flawed and asserted that political institutions should
recognize this. Therefore the state should be authoritarian, demanding strict obedience to the
leader, and meting out known rewards and punishments.
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