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Module 2: Recollection
Lesson 8: School and Education
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Lesson 8
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Lesson 8
Objectives
In Lesson Eight students will have the opportunity to:
 think critically about the influence of the media.
 use critical thinking to determine bias and target
audience.
 recognize faulty reasoning, emotional appeals, and
propaganda.
 write a persuasive paragraph.
 create an advertisement for a new product.
 write an appropriate title, introduction and conclusion for
a research essay.
 use appropriate documentation for a research essay.
 use sentence economy and arrangement effectively.
 write the first draft of a research essay.
 analyze and edit writing by self and by a peer.
 revise writing and submit second draft of the research
essay.
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Lesson 8
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Lesson 8
Introduction
Lesson Eight will provide you the opportunity to think critically about the media
environment around you. You will examine different types of illogical thinking such
as faulty reasoning, emotional appeals, and propaganda. Learning about illogical
thinking can help you to resist the power of persuasion, particularly in advertising.
In Lesson Eight you will see how one virtual student has prepared a research essay.
Your knowledge of illogical thinking will help you to avoid using it yourself as you
write your own research essay, for which you began to prepare in Lessons Two and
Four.
Fact, Opinion, or Persuasion?
Have you ever had difficulty knowing what to believe? Have you ever been
unable to tell the difference between fact and opinion? Between a rational
argument and persuasion?
A fact is a statement that can be proved to be true.
Reliable information is based on fact. Facts can be verified to be true. Not all
statements are true facts. For example, it is a fact that the maple leaf is used as a
symbol for Canada or that humans are mammals, but it is not true that Pearl Jam
performs country music. Encyclopedias or other reference books can be used to
verify many facts about a multitude of topics. Sometimes, a fact is so commonly
accepted to be true that it does not need to be verified. For example, it is commonly
accepted as true that the sky is blue. A writer can base a rational argument on facts
because they are true and will add credibility to the writer’s position.
An opinion is a statement that cannot be proved.
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Lesson 8
Opinions are not facts. They are someone’s particular views or judgements and
they may or may not have a basis in fact. A psychologist may be asked to give an
opinion on a client’s mental condition. The psychologist would use his training and
knowledge of the client to formulate an opinion based on the facts of the client’s
history. A writer may use the opinion of such a qualified expert as evidence for a
rational argument.
However, not everyone is an expert. A young child who has little information on
which to base a belief, might believe that the Flames are a better hockey team than
the Oilers; however, his opinion is only a belief. He does not have great knowledge
of the game or of the teams’ players, so he cannot formulate an opinion based on
fact. A writer should not use opinion unbased in fact as a source of reliable
information.
Opinions often make use of superlative words such as greatest or best.
Persuasion attempts to convince its audience to think or to act in a new
way.
Persuasive writing attempts to convince readers of the writer’s point of view.
Examples of persuasion are common. It can be found in many forms such as faulty
reasoning, emotional appeals, and propaganda. Advertising makes use of many
different types of persuasion. A person writing a letter of complaint to a restaurant
owner might refer to inadequate service as “shameful,” “inconsiderate,” or “brutish”
in an effort to persuade the owner to improve service or to refund money.
Persuasion often uses words such as should/should not or must.
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Lesson 8
Activity A
(5)
1.
Practice your understanding of fact, opinion, and persuasion.
Complete the following exercise by printing F (Fact), O (Opinion),
or P (Persuasion) on the line to the left of each statement.
a.
____
b.
c.
____
____
a.
____
b.
____
c.
____
3.
a.
b.
c.
____
____
____
Learning flashy skateboard tricks is easy.
Skateboarders call airborne leaps “getting air.”
If you want to be a skilful skateboarder, you must be
able to “get air.”
4.
a.
b.
____
____
c.
____
Only incompetent people get hurt skateboarding.
You are at no risk of being hurt while skateboarding as
long as you are careful.
Skateboarding can be dangerous.
2.
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Skateboards have wheels attached to a
plank on which the skateboarder stands.
Skateboards are cool.
Mom wants to be cool, so she should try
skateboarding.
Skateboarding takes so much skill that it
should be an Olympic sport.
Skateboarding is widely practiced in North
America.
Skateboarders who wear appropriate protective
clothing are at just as much risk of hurting themselves
as those who do not wear protective clothing.
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Lesson 8
5.
a.
____
b.
c.
____
____
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Roxy Rufus has discovered a “rad” new way to ‘board
that you have to try!
Skateboarding is safe everywhere.
Most beginner skateboarders choose to practice on a
flat, level area.
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Lesson 8
The Media
Broadcast media, such as radio and regional television, and print media, such as
books and newspapers, influence many aspects of how large groups of people
behave daily. For example, any time local television and radio stations broadcast
weather warnings large numbers of people cancel all their non-necessary travel
plans. Print media, such as books, can also affect whole populations by changing
the way people think. The publication of B.F.Skinner’s theory that all behavior is
learned eventually changed the way that many schools functioned. Accepting his
theory, the educational system reasoned if all behavior is learned, then it can be
changed. Any student, if appropriately motivated, could learn or replace behaviors.
Other types of media reach only particular groups of people. These media include:
computer networks
cable/pay television
facsimile machines
videocassette tapes
audiotapes
records
CDs
films
filmstrips
photo prints
slides
transparencies
computer discs
computer software
magazines
letters
fliers
posters
billboards
In communications, media refers to methods of communication used to
reach large numbers of people. (Medium is the singular form of media.)
Any particular source of media, whether it be a news article on television or an
advertisement in the local paper, has a purpose. As in writing, the major purposes
of the media are to inform, to persuade, and to entertain.
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Lesson 8
As a consumer of media information, it can sometimes be difficult to determine what
information is reliable. A few methods of ensuring that the information you are using
is reliable follow.
Get information from a variety of sources. Don’t rely solely on
that article from Gun Lovers of the West for statistics on the annual
number of deaths in Canada related to firearms. Nor should you
rely solely on an article from Disarming America for information
regarding the general safety of handguns. Read articles in
newspapers and magazines in addition to watching television. The
political views of any organization can affect what information does
or does not make the news.
Be a critical listener/viewer/reader. Why would Gun Lovers of the
West publish misleading statistics about the annual number of deaths in
Canada related to firearms? Why would Disarming America publish
misleading statistics about the same subject? Ask questions about the
purpose of what you see and hear. Who is supposed to be affected by
any given media item? What effect is the audience supposed to feel? Is
the material fact, persuasion, or opinion? Is it biased?
Discuss items in the media. Tell a few friends why you think Gun
Lovers of the West would publish misleading statistics about the annual
number of deaths in Canada related to firearms. Do your friends also
think that the information may be biased? Why? Share your reactions
and criticisms of particular media items with others. Discussing your
interpretation of the purpose of a media item can help you determine the
reliability of the information it presents.
Reliable information is based on non-biased fact, not opinion or persuasion.
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Lesson 8
Just Buy It!
Do you believe that the media affects you or not? Take the following informal quiz to
determine how much the media influences you.
Always
Sometimes
Never
2
1
0
You listen to or read weather reports.
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
You can name one well-known modern musician or
band.
You can name one currently well-known radio
personality.
You know what Nintendo and Play Station are.
2
1
0
You read sections of at least one newspaper regularly.
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
2
1
0
You know the name of your own or a nearby
community’s mayor.
You can name several sports teams whose games you
do not attend.
You purchase “cool” clothing that carries a famous name
or name brand.
You know the identities of the Prime Minister of Canada
and the premier of your province.
You know what the latest kiddie toy fad is even if you are
too old to own one.
You can name two popular television programs or
magazines.
You can name at least two well-known international
political personalities.
You use the Internet or computer programs regularly.
2
1
0
You can name several different makes of automobiles.
2
1
0
You use a telephone, e-mail, or facsimile regularly.
0-10 You are affected by media somewhat less than average. Be a c ritic al viewer/listener/reader!
11-20 The media affects your life to an average extent. It is important to be critical of what you view/listen/read.
21-30 The media is a big part of your life. View/listen/read critic ally!
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Lesson 8
Bias
Reliable information is a necessity to anyone who wishes to formulate a rational
opinion or argument. For example, imagine you heard that it was raining outside on
the radio. You repeated that it was raining to your friend. Would you feel foolish if the
two of you then walked outside into beautiful cloud-free sunshine? Would your
friend believe your weather forecasts in the future? If you wish to be credible
(believable), you must use reliable information.
Information can be biased in two ways - in content and/or in language. If the content
of a message is biased, it is inaccurate or misleading. For example, would a candy
company be as likely as an independent research facility to supply reliable
information about the dangers of high sugar consumption? An author’s opinion may
use language that combines fact with opinion or persuasion. Read the following
sentence.
Wayne Gretzky is known as “The Great One” to thousands of hockey fans
because his skilful skating and stick-handling won the Stanley Cup several times
for the Oilers.
Both facts and opinion have been included in the above sentence.
 Fact: Gretzky is known as “The Great One.”
 Fact: Gretzky skated and stick-handled skillfully.
 Opinion: Gretzky’s skill won the Stanley Cup several times for the
Oilers. (Gretzky’s skill was not the only reason that the Oilers won the
Stanley Cup.)
It is important to determine what the actual facts are in a resource before
you use information from it.
If words that convey strong connotations are used to present factual material, the
message can become biased emotionally, subtly encouraging readers to accept the
author’s views. (Connotations were discussed in Lesson Four.) Connotations,
either positive or negative, can greatly affect the bias of a message.
Positive Bias: Most hockey fans admired “The Great One” for his strong, skilful, even
graceful skating and stick-handling.
Negative Bias: Some hockey fans were attentive to Wayne Gretzky’s particular style of
skating and stick-handling.
The statement above with a positive bias uses words such as most, admired, “The
Great One,” strong, skilful, and graceful to portray Wayne Gretzky’s skill in a very
positive light. The negative bias of the second statement uses words which have
negative or neutral connotations such as some, were attentive, Wayne Gretzky, and
particular.
Factual research writing should exclude words with strong emotional connotations
so the facts are presented in an unbiased way.
Target Audience
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Lesson 8
The level of language used and the kind of content in a message can be aimed at a
target audience, or a group of people who share certain characteristics. For
example, one target audience a fast-food restaurant may aim advertising toward is
young children. Read the following ad.
Roooaaarrr to Spencer’s Snack Shack!
Chow down on a Shaky Shack Meal in
Spencer’s Hideaway House.
One “Spencer” Transformers Movie
trading card FREE with every meal.
Since the target audience is teens, this ad:
 uses language young teens like.
 offers toys, food, and activities that teens like.
 emphasizes the restaurant’s “fun” image.
 appeals to the imaginativeness of teens.
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Lesson 8
If the same fast-food restaurant wanted to appeal to an audience of young parents, it
might change its advertising to something like the following.
Sneak away to Spencer’s Snack Shack. It’s a
nourishing break in your busy day that won’t
break the bank! Spencer’s – the kids will thank
you for it.
The focus of the ad has changed to appeal to a target audience of parents. This ad:
 used witty language that adults appreciate.
 emphasized speed, convenience, and low cost.
 appealed to the health-conscious and to the unappreciated, busy parent.
 emphasized a “family” image.
By changing the content and level of language of the message, Spencer’s Snack
Shack is able to appeal to two different audiences. The intent of the ad remains the
same – to encourage people to eat at the restaurant.
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Lesson 8
Activity B
(8) Are you a critical thinker? Can you determine target audience and bias in
advertising? Read the following ads. Determine both the target audience and the
underlying bias (if any) of each ad.
You know what’s important in life. Make sure
they come home safe tonight. Toyoda Desert
Mini-Van. Proven the most crash resistant of all
minis in its class by official Toyoda crash test
teams.
Target Audience: ______________________________________
Bias:
________________________________________________
You just don’t know, do you?
Stockbroker?
Lawyer?
Doctor?
You do know that his education is going to cost you.
PLENTY.
Saskatchewan Investment and Savings Company
The only reliable way to ensure their success.
Target Audience: ______________________________________
Bias:
________________________________________________
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Lesson 8
You can perform under pressure.
And succeed.
So can Rexona for Men.
Tough enough to win.
Rexona antiperspirant is available in regular and super-size.
Target Audience: ______________________________________
Bias:
________________________________________________
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Lesson 8
Persuasion
Persuasion often makes use of illogical or faulty reasoning. Clear thinking and
reasoning is the goal of argument, not of persuasion. While there is a clear link in
reasoning between the points in a logical argument, in persuasion often the link
between those points becomes unclear or disappears due to illogical argument.
If purely factual and logical information were to be the only source of information
available to you as the consumer, it would be easy to make rational decisions about
what kinds of items to purchase, where to get service that best meets your needs, or
who to vote for. While media is useful in mass communication, it is also useful in
mass persuasion.
One style of writing that clearly illustrates persuasion is advertising. Advertisers are
within their rights to persuade their audience in a variety of ways, even if some of
their methods are illogical. They are also within their rights to present the most
desirable qualities of any product; however, they cannot morally deceive their
audience about the overall qualities of that product.
Three general groups of illogical thinking commonly evident in persuading listeners,
viewers, or readers to think or to act in a new way are faulty reasoning, emotional
appeals, and propaganda.
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Lesson 8
Faulty Reasoning
Persuasion can often obscure an issue in the attempt to urge a change in behavior
or in belief. Persuasion, deliberately or not, often employs faulty reasoning.
Argumentation, on the other hand, squarely faces the issue or question it addresses
and tries to avoid faulty reasoning.
The general label non-sequitur applies to all faulty reasoning in which the
conclusion does not follow from the evidence presented. “Non sequitur” is Latin for
“it does not follow.” A non-sequitur occurs when the result stated is not due to the
stated cause. For example, a councilor’s opposition of the development of a new
subdivision in his city would be mistaken if it were based on his belief that
subdivisions only make contractors richer (ignoring the question) or that all
subdivisions create traffic difficulties (begging the question or hasty generalization).
A fallacy is an illogical conclusion based on an unproved assumption. An example
of faulty reasoning may also be called a fallacy.
Faulty reasoning, or non-sequiturs, are sometimes used deliberately in many places
such as political campaigns, newscasts, newspapers, books, and advertising.
Circular Reasoning
When people appear to be presenting arguments in favor of a point but are, in
reality, presenting no argument at all, they are using circular reasoning. Basically,
they are saying that something is true because it is true. Consider this possible
political ad.
Hilary Clinton is the best candidate for Planetary
President because she would make the best President.
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Lesson 8
Begging the Question
Begging the question means taking a conclusion for granted. When a person begs
the question, he treats an opinion that has not been proven to be either true or false
as if it has been proven one way or the other. Consider this possible ad for a cellular
telephone which takes for granted that “everyone” agrees.
Everyone agrees that
having a cell phone in the car
is a good idea.
Ignoring the Question
When someone ignores the question he makes a statement that really has no
relevance to the argument. Observe how the following possible ad attempts to avoid
the consumer’s real concerns by implying that every woman who uses a particular
skin cream will find herself in a romantic situation.
Lush Lady
Skin cream moisturizes all skin types
beautifully. He won’t be able to resist touching
you during your romantic night out.
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Lesson 8
False Analogy
An analogy is a comparison that in some way emphasizes the likeness of two unlike
things. Analogies are often used to clarify a point. They do not prove a point. A
false analogy attempts to compare two things that are too dissimilar, so the
comparison does not clarify but confuses. Examine this possible dishwasher repair
ad.
Your dog.
Your Windows Repair Guy.
Loyal help is hard to find.
Attacking the Person (instead of the idea)
In this type of faulty reasoning, the writer attacks the opponent personally instead of
responding directly to the opponent’s argument. Instead of dealing with the
opposing politician’s view directly, the following possible ad attacks the person.
Mayor Blablab supports the development of a hightech automated traffic control system, but how can he
be relied on to do what is right? He is currently
involved in a messy divorce and doesn’t even want his
own children.
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Lesson 8
Guilt by Association
Guilt by association reasons since one thing or person shares some qualities with
another, it must share all the qualities or guilt of the first. Some advertisers will try to
build on the dissatisfaction of the audience. Consider this possible ad for an
automobile.
Last year Hyunsa
recalled Sirocco for
safety flaws. Foreign
cars are dangerous.
Rely on a domestic
winner. Buy a Stodge!
Hasty Generalization
This means jumping to an unsound conclusion. A general rule cannot be
determined from observing only a few instances of a particular event. Besides, there
are often exceptions to a general rule. Qualifying words like some, few, often, nearly,
and close can be used responsibly to more accurately present information than
words like all, always, everybody, nobody, never, none, only, and most. Qualifying
words can be used to misrepresent information since they help to present ideas
which could just as easily be untrue as true. Consider this possible ad for a local bus
system.
Almost
Always
On Time
River City Buses
The buses might also be late fairly often.
Consider how this possible ad uses an overgeneralization against a political
opponent.
Moe Stuff’s political campaign is a pack of lies.
Some or one element of Moe Stuff’s campaign may be untrue. Moe Stuff may not
even be aware of it.
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Lesson 8
Either-Or Fallacy (False Dilemma or False extremes)
This fallacy, or kind of faulty reasoning, presents only two possible options as being
available to choose from. There may be many other possible options. Consider this
possible ad for a clothing store.
Be wallpaper,
Be 1970’s,
OR
Be the centre of attention.
Buy at Zola’s Ladies Wear.
Causal Fallacies
Just because one event happens after another, even immediately after, does not
mean that the first event caused the second. Similarly, the first cause of an event is
not necessarily the only cause of any effect. There can also be more than one effect
for any cause. Consider the following possible ad for a local ski resort.
Went skiing in the
mountains last year?
Broke a leg?
Ski Saskatchewan.
IT’s safe at home.
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Lesson 8
Activity C
(10)
Imagine that you were presenting information about cigarette manufacturers in a
research essay. Could you identify examples of faulty reasoning in your own
writing?
Read the following facts from the on-line version of the Encyclopaedia Britannica,
Year in Review 1998: business-and-industrial-review: TOBACCO.
The economic turmoil in East Asia resulted in increased cigarette prices
in the United States and many European countries, factors that led to a
decline in cigarette consumption in 1998. According to the 1998
edition of World Tobacco File, the decline began in 1997, when global
consumption, at 5,195,800,000 cigarettes, fell by 0.4% as compared
with an increase of 2.1% in 1990-97.
The three largest multinational tobacco manufacturers, Philip Morris Inc., R.J.
Reynolds Tobacco Co., and B.A.T. Industries PLC, each reported reduced profits for
the second quarter of 1998. By comparison, Japan Tobacco, the former state
tobacco monopoly, after years of rising profits reported a 28% decline in
consolidated net profits for its 1997-98 fiscal year, largely due to a 3% decrease in
cigarette sales in its domestic market. The profits of the multinational manufacturers
were adversely affected by the impact of million-dollar settlements made in tobacco
liability cases brought in the United States by Texas, Minnesota, and Mississippi.
1.
Write the name of the type of faulty reasoning evident in each of the following
statements, which have been based the preceding Encyclopaedia Britannica
information.
a. All multinational manufacturers reported significant losses in profits for the second
quarter of 1998.
_____________________________________________
b. Japan Tobacco, another large tobacco company, lost profits due to the impact of
million-dollar settlements made in tobacco liability cases in the United States.
_____________________________________________
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Lesson 8
c. Global consumption of tobacco products has begun a downward trend.
_____________________________________________
d. Cigarette prices increased in the United States and in many European countries in 1998.
The economic turmoil in East Asia resulted in many deaths due to starvation.
_____________________________________________
e. The three largest multinational tobacco manufacturers are like animals in glass cages,
gradually dying from a lack of necessary elements such as oxygen.
_____________________________________________
f. If huge lawsuits continue in the United States against multinational tobacco
manufacturers, either their profits will decrease or Americans will lose a lucrative source
of employment.
_____________________________________________
g. Japan Tobacco suffered reduced profits in 1998 as a result of lower profits reported by
Philip Morris Inc., R.J.Reynolds Tobacco Co., and B.A.T..
_____________________________________________
h. The economic turmoil in East Asia resulted in declined cigarette consumption in 1998.
_____________________________________________
i.
Mr. Yogomaki, Japan Tobacco’s CEO, is more surfer than CEO. Japan Tobacco reported a
28% decline in consolidated net profits for its 1997-1998 fiscal year.
_____________________________________________
j.
The profits of the multinational tobacco manufacturers were adversely affected by the
impact of million-dollar settlements made in tobacco liability cases due to payments
made to settle these liability cases in Texas, Minnesota, and Mississippi.
_____________________________________________
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Lesson 8
Emotional Appeals
We are exposed to a wealth of media on a daily basis. Becoming aware of the types
of emotional appeals used in the media can help us to make reliable sense of the
world around us. Persuasion can be found in political speeches, newscasts,
literature, radio talk shows, and television, to name only a few sources. Though
advertising is not the only type of writing that uses emotional appeals, it is a ready
source of easily identifiable examples of emotional persuasion such as loaded
words, doublespeak, appeals to fears, prejudice, discontent, flattery, stereotype, or
tradition. For example, the ad below appeals to tradition.
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Lesson 8
Activity D
(6)
As a consumer, you have seen many examples of emotional advertising
appeals. Put your knowledge to the test. Match the letter of each advertising
appeal (below) to the number of the ad (on the next pages) that shows that
type of appeal. Two questions have been completed for you.
A.
Loaded Words – Words with strong positive or negative connotations are
used to sway your feelings.
B.
Doublespeak – Vague language and qualifying words are used to avoid
promising anything.
C.
Appeals to Fears – Consumer desire to avoid pain, high cost, loss, etc., is
recalled in order to change consumer behavior.
D.
Prejudice – These ads appeal to or use the prejudice of the audience to
change consumer behavior.
E
Discontent – The discontented consumer is urged to become happier by
changing behavior in some way.
F.
Flattery – Compliments attempt to influence the consumer’s behavior.
G.
Stereotype – These ads either appeal to a stereotypical group (e.g.
housewives, busy fathers) or promote a stereotype as an ideal to which
consumers should aspire (e.g. high fashion, flawless body or skin).
H.
Tradition – Some product or behavior is shown to be compatible with oldfashioned values in order to change consumer behavior.
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Lesson 8
_____ 1. Does the tinny noise coming from your babyish blaster
make you sick? See high-tech Harry! He’s got an ultra modern, ultra
quality modular portable stereo for you. Ideal on the road or at home.
A
Denim.
2. Count on ‘em when the going gets rough. Western Way
_____
3. Disasters will find you. Are you ready? Nee Paradise
Insurance has policies that can help your family to make it through any disaster.
4. You’re good parents. That’s why you keep your baby
happy and dry in Softie Diapers. Softies is the number one choice of
caring parents everywhere.
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Lesson 8
G
5. When was the last time someone offered to sculpt your
figure? Get your own sculpture-perfect figure with Ultra Slim Plan diet
bars.
_____
6. More money for road improvement is high on my
agenda. My provincial government will improve as many roads as
monies in federal transfer payments to the provinces.
_____
7. Royal Craft Furniture. If we made it, one day, someone will inherit it.
_____
8. One act of drunk driving. One mugging. One armed robbery.
That’s why Jane became an cop. She gets to catch them all. Support your
local police.
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Lesson 8
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Lesson 8
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Lesson 8
Activity E
Convince Me!
(10)
Now is your chance to polish your persuasive skills! Use the following steps to help
write a persuasive paragraph aimed at convincing a specific audience of something.
Check off each of the steps as you complete it. Write on lined paper. Label your
work clearly and attach it to this activity.








Choose a particular audience and one of the topics below or one of your
own.
 Persuade someone to move to your town or area.
 Convince someone to try a particular sport.
 Persuade someone that TV is/is not good for the mind.
 Convince someone that junk food is/is not good for people.
 Persuade someone that studying does/does not mean the student will
get high grades.
 Convince someone that it is/is not acceptable to steal small things from
the school or office.
 Persuade someone that ghosts do/do not exist.
 Convince someone that friends are/are not valuable.
Write a topic sentence and a title that clearly indicate your position for or
against your topic.
Brainstorm as many reasons as you can that support your idea. You may use
real facts as well as any of the emotional appeals explained in this lesson.
Select the best three or four reasons. Each of these should relate to your
topic sentence.
Decide on what order you will present your reasons.
Write your paragraph, using transitional expressions wherever necessary.
Write a strong conclusion urging your audience to change their actions or
their beliefs.
Revise, making sure that the ideas in your paragraph are logically related.
Avoid faulty reasoning.
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Lesson 8


Proofread for errors in grammar, punctuation, sentence structure, and
spelling.
Submit your final polished persuasive paragraph on the following page.
Indicate the possible audience for your paragraph and the title at the top of
the page.
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Lesson 8
Your persuasive paragraph will be evaluated according to the following criteria.

The paragraph is targeted clearly at one kind of audience. You have named this
audience.

The title and topic sentence clearly indicate the topic.

At least three convincing reasons supporting your view have been stated.

The logical order of your ideas is evident: transitional expressions have been used.

A strong conclusion urges the reader to do something.

Sentences are varied in structure and purpose.

Grammar, punctuation, sentence structure, and spelling are accurate.
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Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of persuasion that attempts to win over people to a certain
view. Modern media, because it reaches so many people, is a convenient way to
distribute propaganda.
Propaganda is the term used for the ideas and arguments aimed to win
over the public by an organized group such as a government, an
institution, or a business. Propaganda uses emotional appeals to sell a
product, idea, or action rather than to inform people of the facts so they
can make up their own minds.
Not all propaganda is bad. Even though the word “propaganda” has a negative
connotation suggesting a deceitful, sneaky way of convincing people, some
propaganda is good. Most people would agree that a doctor who tries to persuade a
client to exercise regularly is using “good propaganda.” “Good” propaganda is
intended to benefit others. “Bad” propaganda is harmful to its audience in some
way. Not all propaganda is either good or bad. Much of the propaganda that people
see on a daily basis contains elements of both good and bad propaganda.
As a regular consumer of the media, you are probably already aware of many
examples of propaganda such as bandwagon appeals, snob appeals, glittering
generalities, inappropriate testimonials, pseudo-scientific evidence, card-stacking,
and name-calling.
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Lesson 8
Check your understanding of propaganda techniques commonly used in advertising
by matching definitions of propaganda appeals to sample ads. Print the letter of the
appropriate propaganda technique on the line to the left of each numbered example
on the pages that follow.
Propaganda Technique
A.
B.
C.
D.
Bandwagon Appeals encourage you to think or do something so you can
be like everyone else.
e.g. Everyone loves Berstein Bagels!
Snob Appeals encourage you to feel like you are or could become a
member of a select group.
e.g. Tommy Hiflinger – can you afford not to?
Glittering Generalities sway you by using such positive general words that
you feel good just by hearing them.
e.g. Deskpak – finally, justice for your computer.
Inappropriate Testimonials may use a celebrity to endorse a product
when he or she works in an unrelated field. If a real expert endorses the
product, he or she may not accurately represent the opinion in the field.
e.g. Pamela Lee recommends Turbo Steel auto repair tools. OR Mr.
M.N.Keywrench, a qualified mechanic, uses Turbo Steel auto repair tools.
E.
Pseudo-Scientific Evidence can use undefined scientific-sounding terms
or unfinished claims to make a product seem impressive.
e.g. Sweetened with water-soluble crystalline carbohydrates, including
sucrose and lactose. (“Crystalline carbohydrate” means “sugar.”) OR
50% less crystalline carbohydrates. (50% less crystalline carbohydrates
than what?)
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Lesson 8
F.
Card-Stacking makes it appear that there is really only one option
available to the consumer.
e.g. Sleek styling. Fuel-efficient. Rapid acceleration. Low repair cost.
Why wouldn’t you want a BMV?
G.
Name-Calling degrades the opposition by smearing its reputation or by
calling it names.
e.g. Why buy Soonee garbage when you could enjoy Permasonic?
Sample Ads
1. _____
Aspergia. Use all-natural Aspergia for headache relief. The only
pain reliever with 85% more of nature’s goodness in every dose.
2. _____ You are lookin’ some fine, woman! And so can you. Ladies Fitness Fun
Factory.
3. _____ J. Villeneuve uses only authentic Bridger
Butter. He’s on the fast track to wholesome goodness.
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Lesson 8
4. _____
Be a happening boarder. Show your buds how smooth you are. New
Millenium Skateboards.
5. _____
Original Delicious. Not like cheap factoryprocessed jam. If it doesn’t say Truly Pearson’s on the
label, then it’s not really as good.
6. _____ Set a trend. Martha tableware. Only in the best shops near you.
7. _____
Would you make soup for a sick friend? Mow
Mom’s lawn? Cuddle your baby? This year care a little morefor those who can’t afford the basics of life. Give generously to
“Feed the Hungry.” Your contribution makes a difference.
Check your answers below.
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Lesson 8
Activity F
How well have you understood the kinds of propaganda appeals used in advertising? Could
you have written advertising appeals convincing enough to start the Furby craze? What
about the Pokemon craze? With an audience of elementary school-aged children in mind,
create a new superhero whose qualities suit a new kind of product. For example, a hero as
tough as rock might help you to advertise an archeological toy or, a ballerina hero might
help you to advertise new non-slip ballet slippers. Create an advertisement using the hero
you created to sell the product you have in mind.
You may use the space provided on the next page to create your advertisement, or you may
use paper of your own. (Be sure that your advertisement is no bigger than 21 x 28cm.)
Include the following in your ad.




(3)
the name and a coloured drawing of your hero
the name and a coloured drawing of the new product
words to encourage children to buy the product
suitable propaganda appeals to make your product seem exciting and necessary to
your audience of school-aged children
Brainstorm or create an idea web of ideas for your advertisement in the space
below.
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Lesson 8
(7)
Create your ad here.
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Lesson 8
Though persuasion is common in the media, if you want to be credible as a writer or
speaker, you should base your argumentative writing almost entirely on logical
appeals. Avoid emotional appeals and propaganda entirely in research writing.
The remainder of this lesson will focus on writing the research essay. You may find it
helpful to refer to your own preparations to write a research essay as you read the
following material. Your preparations for writing the research essay can be found in
two places. “Your Copy of Activity G” in Lesson Two is the idea web you created
for your research essay. “Activity J: Write a Pyramid Outline for your Research
Essay” in Assignment Four is the outline you created for your research essay.
Remember that your writing in research essays should be factual rather than
persuasive.
Writing a Title
The title is the first place that your reader will note the kind of information you will
present on a given topic. Titles are often “catchy,” meaning that they make use of
clever language to catch the reader’s attention. Read the following list of boring,
uninviting titles. Compare each to the more interesting or “catchy” version of the
same title.
BORING
Three Female Political
Leaders
Air Traffic Control at Dorval
Airport
The Disappearance of
Prairie Grain Elevators
Insider Stock Trading
Interesting
Thatcher, Campbell, and
Hillary Clinton?
Who Controls the Skies?
Prairie Grain Elevators:
Going, Going, Gone!
Lawless Funds
While it is important to write interesting titles, it is wise to avoid gimmicky or corny
titles for serious or formal writing assignments. For example, a formal essay would
not use a title such as “Flying High,” or “Flying by the Seat of Their Pants” to address
the serious topic of air traffic control at Dorval airport.
Many writers create the title of an essay only after re-examining their introduction
and conclusion so they can choose a few brief words that express the main idea of
the paper.
You will have the opportunity to create a title for your own research essay later in
this lesson.
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Lesson 8
Writing an Introduction
The introduction is an important part of any piece of writing
because it captures the reader’s attention and prepares the
reader for what is to come in the body of the essay. A good
introduction for an essay uses the first few sentences to
introduce the essay’s topic. Then it briefly lists the main
supporting ideas that will be discussed in the body of the essay.
Finally, the introduction states the thesis, or controlling idea for
the essay. The structure and content of the introduction should
reflect the structure and content of the piece of writing it
introduces. Though the introduction is the beginning of any
piece of writing, many writers do not create it until after they
have completed the body of their writing.
The thesis statement must be specific and structured. It must be specific enough to
be developed in the body of your essay. If it is too broad, a short essay cannot do
justice to it. A clear thesis also shows the structure that the rest of the essay will
have. In many cases, a thesis statement enumerates or refers to each part of the
essay to come. Notice in the following example that each of the main supporting
ideas to be discussed in the essay has been mentioned.
Pollution in the Great Lakes area has three main forms: air
pollution, ground water pollution, and acid rain.
Since each of the paragraphs in the body of the essay will focus on one of the main
supporting ideas mentioned in the thesis statement, the flow of your essay will be
improved if you place the thesis statement at the end of the introductory paragraph.
Avoid statements such as “In this essay I will show…,” or “This essay will prove…”
Do not write a childish or immature-sounding introduction such as “I will tell
about . . .,” or “I am going to show . . .” Avoid using the personal pronoun “I” in
formal writing. State the main idea of your essay without unnecessary and clichéd
expressions.
An interesting introduction for an essay “hooks” the reader’s attention. There are
several ways to write interesting introductions, or hooks, for essays. Some hooks
you may wish to use are to begin with a striking comparison, a quotation, a rhetorical
question, an example or a statistic, a general introduction, or a combination of these
methods. Each of the following examples combines an interesting hook with a thesis
statement.

Comparison
Marriages that occur when the participants are mature last longer than marriages that occur when
the participants are teenagers. Several disadvantages to marrying as a teenager include high
rates of low educational qualifications, economic disadvantage, and divorce.
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Lesson 8

Quotation and Introductory Statements
‘Who controls the past,’ ran the party slogan, ‘controls the future: who controls the present
controls the past.’ – George Orwell, 1984
The effects of propaganda are far-reaching and troublesome. If used deliberately, any
government might use propaganda to control educational material, the media, and, as a result of
the first two, the entire population it governs.

Rhetorical Question and Statistic
Why do 10% of Canadian teenagers get “in trouble” with the law? Canadian teenagers have
more opportunities and face more challenges than ever before. Teenagers have advanced
academic and social skills, little supervision, and a standard of living which allows for plenty of
free time.

Example
Last week, former eighth grade dropout Rhonda Sparks became a student again. For five hours
a day, Rhonda sat in front of a FreshStart computer, inputting data, learning new concepts, and
succeeding at school. FreshStart is an effective government program that offers people without a
grade twelve education the chance to upgrade their skills by using computers and learning on the
job.

General Introduction
Greater numbers of Canadians than ever before move every year. We move closer to or farther
away from our families. We move because we want to live in better neighborhoods or in bigger
houses. We move to take better jobs, or to suit lifestyle changes. More than ever, Canadians
need social links to their communities so they can feel “at home” in spite of frequent moves due to
status, employment, or lifestyle changes.
You will have the opportunity to create an introduction suitable for your research
essay later in this lesson. Remember that the exact contents of your introduction
and thesis statement may change when you revise your essay
Writing the Body
The body of an essay is a bit like the body of a person. Without the body, the
introduction and conclusion would be connected to nothing!
The body of your essay gives specific details about your topic in an organized
fashion. In Lesson Four you chose a method of organizing your essay and created
an outline. In your outline you wrote at least three topic sentences. Each of these
topic sentences will become a topic sentence for a paragraph in the body of your
essay.
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Lesson 8
Each paragraph will include evidence such as facts, statistics, examples, incidents,
or quotations that directly supports the topic sentence. If you include only details
that apply to your topic, the unity of your writing will be solid. It is important that you
avoid faulty reasoning in the presentation of evidence in research writing.
Link the paragraphs in an essay with transitional expressions, phrases, or
sentences. Details in an essay should flow together easily and convincingly, rather
than being presented in a choppy, disconnected manner.
You will want to integrate information from many sources into the body of your
essay. There are three general ways to do this:
1.
Indirect Quotations
Do not use quotation marks for an indirect quotation (information from another
source that you have re-worded), but indicate the source of the information in
parentheses at the end of the sentence.
Poor road conditions contribute to 53% of tailgating accidents which occur on the highway
(RCMP 1998 Accident Report 74).
2.
Partial or Single Sentence Quotations
Use quotation marks that show exactly which words were written by another
author. Indicate the source of the information at the end of the sentence.
Partial Sentence Quotation: “Tailgating is an easily avoidable cause of vehicle damage and
personal injury” in both city and highway driving (Statistics Canada 1998 Report 62).
3.
Long Quotations
Introduce or refer to a long quotation in a sentence that ends in a colon.
Indent the quotation from the body of your writing and do not use quotation
marks. Indicate the source of the quotation in parentheses after the
quotation. Explain or expand upon the quoted material after it appears.
If Eva thought her suffering would end when she left Auschwitz, she was sadly mistaken.
The prisoners were force-marched with no food rations in the bitter cold of winter and,
eventually, loaded into train cars:
Finally, on the evening of the third day, we reached a railway siding and were loaded
into open coal wagons, a hundred women to each truck. There was no room to
stretch or even to sit down. Two guards and their dogs occupied more than a third of
the truck. We crouched close against each other as best we could, and with rumbling
stomachs and frozen limbs, watched our two guards settle down under their thick
blankets and warm furs. (Brewster, Progeny of Light) Vanished in Darkness 215)
Eva’s insensitive guards would then go on to eat in front of the starving women, throwing their
scraps overboard rather than give any morsel to the prisoners.
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Lesson 8
Choose quotations carefully: they must illustrate the point you are making in your
writing. Document the source of your quotation(s) accurately. Finally, avoid overloading your essay with quotations. Your writing should not become disjointed by
too many interruptions in form.
You will examine one virtual student’s essay and have the opportunity to write your
own essay later in this lesson.
Writing a Conclusion
A conclusion can be created before or after the body of a piece of writing has been
completed. It provides a brief summary in two ways. First, it restates the main idea
or thesis in different language than was previously used. Second, it refers again to
the main supporting ideas listed in the essay. Finally, it either provides a strong
concluding statement or applies the thesis of your essay to a broader context. It
should be constructed so that it leaves a strong impression in the mind of the reader.
Avoid statements like, “In this essay I have shown that…,” or “In conclusion…”
Simply restate the main idea of your essay in a striking way.
You will have the opportunity to create a conclusion suitable for your research essay
later in this lesson. It is important to remember that the exact contents of your
conclusion may change when you revise your essay.
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Lesson 8
Documentation
The information you include in your essay and the format of your essay should follow
a particular style discussed in your English Language Arts Ready Reference.
Scan the information in your English Language Arts Ready
Reference on “Documentation.” Complete the following
comprehension check.
Comprehension Check
Circle the word or phrase that best completes each of the following
statements.
1. The (bibliography / index) is an alphabetical listing of all the
important topics in a book.
2. (Quotations / Documentation) tell(s) your reader from where you took
the quotations or facts used in the body of your writing.
3. Whenever you use ideas, information or words from someone else’s
work, indicate the source in (quotation marks / parentheses).
4. At the (beginning / end) of your essay, attach a list of all the sources
actually used for your paper.
5. Sources of information listed in your bibliography should be in
(alphabetical / chronological) order.
6. In regard to the visual format of an essay, if you type or use a wordprocessor, use (lined / unlined) paper and double space. If you write
by hand, use lined paper and write on (every other / every) line.
7. In word-processed documents (italicize / underline) titles of books,
magazines, newspapers, journals, plays, movies, television
programs, music albums, and names of ships.
8. The title of your essay should be centered on the (top third / lower
third) of the essay’s cover page.
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Lesson 8
The Research Essay: Your First Draft
Many writers find that writing out as many ideas as “fit” their outline as fast as they
can is a helpful way to start writing an essay. Other writers prefer to consider every
sentence they write carefully. Either way, it is important to write your essay from a
plan. In this case, your plan will be the outline you created for your research essay
in Lesson Four. If possible, after you have completed your first draft, set it aside for a
few hours before you revise it. At that time you will be able to revise your writing
with fresh eyes.
Revisions are easily completed by using the cut and paste functions on a word
processor. If you are writing out your essay on paper, write only on every second
line and on only one side of the paper so you have room to write in revisions.
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Lesson 8
Observe the process that Adrian, one of our “Virtual students,” has used in order to
write his research essay. You may wish to write your essay step by step, just as
Adrian has done. Adrian began his essay by choosing a topic, then by creating an
idea web and an outline. His pyramid outline follows.
The next steps Adrian will take are to create a title and to write the first draft of an
introduction for his essay. (The information used in Adrian’s essay is fictitious.)
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Lesson 8
The Research Essay: Self-Editing
Once you have written the first draft, it is important to make any changes to the
content of the essay that might be required. It is also wise to proofread for grammar
and spelling errors. Your peer editor should not have to correct errors you can
correct for yourself. Peer editors will be more willing to help you if they do not have
to do all the editing!
Read through Adrian’s first draft to see what he thinks should be changed. Adrian
commented on his work in the margins of the essay. Later, Jenny circled misused
words, underlined spelling mistakes, and double-underlined sentence errors.
On My Tail
Move thesis
to end of
intro.
1.
Tailgating is easy to avoid. It is a big cause of car damage
and personal injury in city and hiway driving. How often have
Combine
first two
sentences.
you been driving down the hiway at night and been blinded by
the headlites of a car following to closely? How many times have
you panic-braked because you were following too close to the
car in front of you?
2.
Tailgating causes minor accidents and injuries in city trafic.
SGI Accident Statistics for 1998 show that 87% of tailgating that
occurs in Saskatchewan results in minor injuries. 63% of this
Use
transitions.
damage is valued at under $1500 per vehicle (SGI 1998
Accident Statistics 37). So,13% of incidents of tailgating result in
serious injury and 27% result in damage over $1500 to the
vehicles involved. 6% of serious injuries involving all
Saskatchewan motor vehicles, tailgating was involved in the
accident (Statistics Canada 1998 Report 79).
More than
what?
Maybe not
“everybody”
3.
More serious injuries occur when a panic stop occurs. One
common situation in which drivers panic stop occurs when a
pedestrean is involved. Everybody in pedestrian-tailgating
accidents was hurt or had damage to their car (RCMP 1998
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Move this to
the end of
the para.
Get a
quotation.
Lesson 8
Accident Report 67). When two or more vehicles crash because
one was avoiding a pidestrean, the lead driver couldn’t avoid the
pidestrean. 21% of drivers intervued after the accident said they
were trying to avoid a car following two close behind them. 58%
Get
evidence.
Say what
kinds of
injuries.
said they didn’t see the pidestrean or the other car (RCMP 1998
Accident Report 65).
Change
example.
4.
Drivers shouldn’t tailgate. Driver’s can drive less fast and
less mean in the city and on the hiway. So there’s more space
Combine
sentence 2
and 3.
between cars. Drivers should pay attention to the road, and not
talk on cell phones or eat burgers and fries. Night-blind driver’s
could pull over and let the second vehicle pass. If drivers drove
accidents. Reducing tailgating is simple but police can’t enforce
Change
order of first
and last
sentence.
right, so individual drivers have to be responsible.
Faulty logic
slow enough for the rode they were on, they wouldn’t have
Add
sentence
variety.
Change
order of
paragraphs 4
and 5.
Use
transitional
words/
sentences
5.
Tailgating is at it’s most deadly in highway traffic because it
is travelling at high speeds. Tailgating causes night blindness in
the lead driver due to following too closely. Tailgating accidents
on the hiway happen because of night blindness (RCMP 1998
Accident Report 73). Sudden stops and fast speed can cause
Unclear
reference
Sounds like
“all”
accidents.
Change to
“many.”
truly gruesome accidents. Poor visiblity is what causes hiway
tailgating crashes. (Statistics Canada 1998 Report 70) Poor
road conditions slow down stopping.
Be specific.
Get more
evidence
6.
Take out: “In
this essay I
showed that”
Tailgating causes injuries and damage. In this essay I
showed that tailgating is dangerous and should be stopped.
Refer to
thesis in
introduction.
Way less accidents would happen if people didn’t tailgate.
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Lesson 8
Read through Adrian’s brief comments about how he thought his essay “measured
up” in regard to the following.
Criteria
clear thesis statement and topic
sentences
Adrian’s Comments
Make clearer, recombine.
interesting introduction
Good idea. Change order.
only details related to the thesis
Example in 4th paragraph should go.
logical paragraph order
Reverse order of 4th and 5th
paragraphs.
sufficient details and evidence
Add statistics for evidence.
logical reasoning
Paragraph 4: police example should
change.
clear, concise language
Could be better.
appropriate level of language
I don’t know.
sentences varied in length and type
Not bad.
strong conclusion
Could be better.
You have probably noticed that Adrian has trouble commenting on some elements of
his essay. His peer editor, Jenny, can provide him with some valuable information
about his writing.
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Lesson 8
The Research Essay: Peer Editing
Your peer editor may be a friend, a parent, or a teacher. Be sure that you can work well
with your editor. He or she can provide positive feedback and constructive criticism about
the content and mechanics of your essay.
Note the kind of information that Adrian’s peer editor, Jenny, has included on the following
peer editing form.
Peer Editing: Research Essay
BEFORE providing feedback, the writer…
circles the answer which best applies.

What is the purpose of the essay?
to persuade to inform

to entertain
What is the audience?
children
topic experts
teacher
DURING feedback, the editor…
circles the number, 3, 2, 1, or 0, which best applies to the writing you have just read. A 3 means that you
strongly agree with the statement and a 0 means that you strongly disagree with the statement. Supply
additional comments about what improvements might be made and suggest (politely!) constructive ways to
improve the essay.
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Lesson 8
Strongly
Agree
Strongly
Disagree
Comments
Criteria
“Drivers shouldn’t tailgate” sounds
like persuasion, not fact.
3
2 1
0
The purpose of this essay is clear.
3
2 1
0
The thesis statement and the
topic sentences are clear.
3
2 1
0
The introduction is interesting
and attention-catching.
Add something to catch the reader’s
attention.
3
2 1
0
The essay includes only details
that are related to the thesis.
Remove the cell phone and burgers
example in paragraph 4.
3
2 1
0
There is a sufficient number of
details and evidence in the essay.
Say who was hurt in the first
sentence of para. 3.
3
2 1
0
3
2 1
0
References to ideas and
quotations are used
appropriately.
The order of the paragraphs
makes sense.
Add conclusions to paragraphs 2, 3,
and 4.
3
2 1
0
Logical reasoning has been used
throughout the essay.
3
2 1
0
Sentences and paragraphs are
clear, concise, and detailed.
Use specific, concrete words.
3
2 1
0
The level of language used is
appropriate for the audience.
Make language sound formal.
3
2 1
0
Sentences are varied in length
and type.
Add variety.
3
2 1
0
The essay has a strong
conclusion which leaves a lasting
impression.
Tie the conclusion to the
introduction.
3
2 1
0
Spelling is accurate.
I underlined spelling errors and
circled misused words.
3
2 1
0
Grammar is correct.
I double-underlined sentence errors.
List the aspects of the
essay that you most
liked. Explain.
You use a lot of evidence to back up your statements. Add more
evidence where you indicated in paragraph 5.
List the aspects of the
essay that you feel needs
the most improvement.
Explain.
The language needs to sound more formal. The title, especially,
should sound more formal.
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Lesson 8
The Research Essay: Your Second Draft
If you use a word processor to write your essay, you may wish to save the first draft
as a separate file from another file in which you make changes or delete material for
your second draft. Later, if you need information from the first draft, you can return
to it. If you hand write your essay, keep careful track of all your information.
Number the pages and clearly indicate any changes you make so you won’t “miss”
them when you write out your second draft.
You will find a dictionary and a thesaurus helpful for this stage of essay writing.
Refer frequently to the English Language Arts Ready Reference. You may also wish
to refer to a language handbook of your own.
Note how Adrian has revised his research essay to provide a final draft for his
teacher. He made the changes that he had indicated, but he also made the changes
his editor suggested. The most noticeable change to Adrian’s essay is the level of
language. He includes more transitional expressions to improve the flow of his
writing and recombines several sentences. He also adds information in two places
and clearly indicates what parts of his essay are actually material quoted from other
sources. Finally, he has added a cover page and a bibliography page.
You can find a sample cover page and sample bibliography entries in your English
Language Arts Ready Reference.
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Lesson 8
Tailgating:
Frequent and Avoidable
Adrian Virtual
January 14, 20XX
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Lesson 8
How common is it to be driving down the highway at night only to be blinded by the
headlights of a car following too closely? How many drivers panic-brake because they are
following too closely to the car in front of them? Tailgating, which could easily be reduced in
incidence, is a significant cause of vehicle damage and personal injury in both city and
highway driving.
In city traffic, tailgating most frequently results in minor accidents and injuries. SGI Accident
Statistics for 1998 show that 87% of incidents of tailgating that occur in Saskatchewan result
in only minor injuries. 63% of this damage is valued at under $1500 per vehicle (SGI 1998
Accident Statistics 37). While these figures sound reassuring, what they imply is that 13% of
incidents of tailgating result in serious injury and that 27% result in damage over $1500 to the
vehicles involved. Moreover, for 6% of serious injuries involving all Saskatchewan motor
vehicles, tailgating was involved in the accident (Statistics Canada 1998 Report 79). Minor
accidents and injuries are the most common result of tailgating accidents in city traffic.
Serious injuries occur to vehicle passengers in tailgating accidents in which a pedestrian is
involved. In 1998 instances in which two or more vehicles collided as a result of a sudden
stop made to avoid a pedestrian, the lead driver was unable to avoid the pedestrian 71% of
the time. 21% of drivers interviewed post-accident claimed also to have been trying to avoid a
car following too closely behind them. 58% claimed that they had noticed neither the
pedestrian nor the vehicle tailgating. (RCMP 1998 Accident Report 65). “In pedestriantailgating accidents, damages were incurred on two or more vehicles and to passengers of
several vehicles who suffered injuries such as minor contusions, cracked ribs, and whiplash”
(RCMP 1998 Accident Report 67). Furthermore, the pedestrian was seriously injured, even
killed in many instances involving tailgating and pedestrians.
Tailgating is at its most deadly in highway traffic because it creates dangerous conditions at
high speeds. First, tailgating causes night blindness in the lead driver when the tailgating
vehicle is following too closely. Many tailgating accidents on the highway have been
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Lesson 8
attributed to night blindness (RCMP 1998 Accident Report 73). Second, any sudden stops,
coupled with high speed, can cause deadly accidents. “Most sudden highway stops leading
to multi-vehicle accidents are caused by poor visibility” (Statistics Canada 1998 Report 70).
Finally, poor road conditions slow the stopping speed of any vehicle and contribute to 53% of
tailgating accidents which occur on the highway (RCMP 1998 Accident Report 74).
Tailgating, linked to night blindness, poor visibility, or poor road conditions is very hazardous.
Methods of reducing tailgating in city or highway driving are simple but difficult to enforce.
Police cannot enforce preventative measures easily, aside from ticketing speeders, so
responsibility for reducing tailgating accidents falls on concerned individual drivers. Drivers
can reduce their speed and aggressiveness in city and highway traffic, thereby allowing more
space between vehicles. Drivers could also increase their attentiveness to road dangers,
whether it be a pedestrian, or another vehicle. Drivers being blinded by a vehicle following
them might pull over and allow the second vehicle to pass. Finally, if drivers were to reduce
speed so that they drove appropriately for road conditions, they might avoid many tailgating
type accidents. Drivers concerned about avoiding tailgating accidents must become aware of
the danger of following too closely to other vehicles.
Tailgating can cause both serious personal injuries and costly vehicle damage. As a result of
the difficulty of reducing tailgating through police measures, governments have done little to
reduce tailgating. Individual drivers bear the responsibility of avoiding accidents caused by
tailgating. Fewer accidents would occur if the frequency of tailgating could be reduced.
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Bibliography
Saskatchewan. Saskatchewan Government Insurance. Saskatchewan Government
Insurance 1998 Accident Statistics. Regina: Queen’s Printer, 1999.
Canada. Statistics Canada. Statistics Canada 1998 Report. Ottawa: Canada
Communication Group, 1999.
Canada. Royal Canadian Mounted Police. Royal Canadian Mounted Police
1998 Accident Report. Toronto: Herald Printers, 1999.
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