Physical Anthropology / Waters
THE CULTURAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACE
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Race is said to be a “cultural construction, not a biological reality (Marks,
1995)”, meaning that “race” is often assumed to have a biological basis, though it is
defined culturally or socially (e.g. someone with one “black” great-grandparent is defined
as “black”, even though he or she might have seven “white” great grandparents.
Biologically, it would be more logical to call this person “white”).
Today “ethnicity” is preferred by anthropologists – allows individuals to choose
their own category based on shared customs and traditions in a group of people (rather
than categories created by government officials, scholars, etc., that place people in
categories based on physical traits)
“Race” has generally been defined by physical characteristics, while “ethnicity” is
defined in cultural terms
How many races are there? Four? Ten? Twenty-one? Throughout human history
scientists, naturalists, governments, academicians, etc. have claimed that there are a set
number of races. Yet, data from around the world indicates that race is not defined the
same way by everyone. Different societies recognize various numbers of racial
categories, and use different criteria to classify people.
In the late 1700’s European naturalists came up with a system that included
four categories: Negroid, Mongoloid, Caucasoid and Australoid. Each category was
defined by a “suite” of physical features, and to a degree also considered one’s
geographic location (or that of one’s ancestors). This system was widely used until as
recently as a few decades ago (some people still believe it is valid).
Supposedly all people, in every part of the world, could be defined by one of
these categories. They did not take into account the many exceptions that exist in the
human species (i.e. those people who could not be “pigeon-holed” into just one
category). These naturalists also underestimated the complexity of human variation.
Anthropologists find several problems with traditional racial classification
systems (i.e. those that focus on physical, rather than cultural, traits):
Lumping people together ignores variability within each category - ignores individual
differences, does not consider people of interracial unions, and does not take into account
that one person may belong to more than one category
Use of the “race concept” can lead to racism (the belief that some people are superior to
others) - has often falsely led people to believe that different human groups are
biologically different
Racial typologies do not indicate the possible adaptive significance of the variability –
ignores the relationship that exists between some of our physical traits and climate and/or
environment
Physical Anthropology / Waters
THE ADAPTIVE SIGNIFICANCE OF HUMAN VARIATION
EXAMPLE: Correlation Between Climate and Body Type
Body size and proportions are important factors (though not the only factors) in regulating
body temperature. In fact, there seems to be a general relationship between climate and
body size/shape in birds and mammals. In general, within a species, body size (weight)
increases as distance from the equator increases. In humans, this relationship holds up fairly
well, but there are numerous exceptions.
Two rules that pertain to the relationship between body size, body proportions, and climates:
1) BERGMANN’S RULE (concerns the relationship of body mass or volume to
surface area): Among mammals, body size tends to be greater in populations that live in
colder climates. This is because as mass increases, the relative amount of surface area
decreases proportionately. Because heat is lost at the surface, it follows that increased mass
allows for greater heat retention and reduced heat loss.
2) ALLEN’S RULE (concerns shape of body, especially appendages): In colder
climates, shorter appendages, with increased mass-to-surface ratios, are adaptive because
they are more effective at preventing heat loss. Conversely, longer appendages, with
increased surface area relative to mass, are more adaptive in warmer climates because they
promote heat loss.
Considerable data gathered from several human populations around the world generally
conform to these rules. According to these principles, the most suitable body shape in hot
climates is “linear” with long arms and legs. In a cold climate, a more suitable body type is
“stocky” with shorter limbs.
In colder climates, body mass tends, on average, to be greater and characterized by a larger
trunk relative to arms and legs (Roberts, 1973). People living in the Arctic tend to be short
and “stocky”, while many sub-Saharan Africans are tall and “linear”.
Keep in mind that there is much human variability regarding body proportions, and not all
populations conform so obviously to these rules today.
(Jurmain, et. al., 2000)