Words, sentences and text in MFLs: commentary on the Key Stage 3 Framework1
Rosamond Mitchell
University of Southampton
1.
The introduction of the Key Stage 3 MFLs Framework
2001-2: Introduction of Key Stage 3 National Strategy (English, Mathematics)
2002-3: Science, ICT, Foundation Subjects (incl MFL) added to the Strategy
2002-3: Separate MFLs Framework Pilot trialled in 16 local educational authorities
(140 schools)
[Autumn 2002: Publication of Languages Strategy for England]
[Spring 2003: Publication of 14-19 White Paper]
2003-4: MFLs Framework ‘rolled out’ to all schools
2.
Why change was needed: some problems of NCMFLs
2.1
Curriculum design problems (Mitchell 2003):




2.2
Uncertainty about achievable standards;
An underspecified model of progression;
Over-compartmentalised treatment of skills, and neglect of underlying system development;
An overemphasis on accuracy and neglect of risk taking and creativity.
Pedagogic problems

a “missing methodology” (Norman 1998)

Learners lack opportunities :
a) to acquire understanding of the grammatical structures of the language
b) to expand their vocabulary beyond the basics
c) to marshal and re-use existing language knowledge in new and wider ranging
situations
d) to take the initiative, ask questions, offer comments and justify opinions
e) more generally, to develop independence in tackling and completing learning tasks
(adapted from Dobson 2002 pp 1-2).
2.3
Poor learner motivation, especially of boys (Lee et al 1998, Chambers 1998, etc)
2.4
Disappointing learning outcomes (DfES 2001, 2002b)
1
A version of this talk was presented at the BAAL Annual Meeting, University of Leeds, September 2003
1
3.
Main innovative features of the Framework (and some related problems)
Features
A ‘projectised’, centralised and timelimited mode of development, run by a
small team from the DfES Standards and
Effectiveness Unit
Problems
Vulnerable to clashes between different
centralised initiatives and projects, in
particular:
 Introduction of MFL to Key Stage 2
 Ending of compulsory MFL in Key Stage 4
Highly explicit and detailed specification
of linguistic teaching objectives, year on
year
Radical departure from skills-based model of
National Curriculum for MFLs, with its
broadly drawn Levels of Attainment – teachers
may need considerable support to cope with
this change
Commitment to one particular model of
‘effective teaching’, and detailed advice on
its adoption and implementation.
Reduction of professional freedom to choose
teaching styles.
4.
MFLs Framework Strands and number of objectives, by year
Strand
Words
Sentences
Texts: Reading and Writing
Listening and Speaking
Cultural Knowledge and Contact
5.
Year 7
8
9
7
6
5
Year 8
8
8
7
6
5
Year 9
8
8
7
6
5
Linguistic detail within the Framework
The MFLs Framework borrows its general model from the National Literacy Strategy, with the
division of linguistic content into the three categories of ‘Word’, ‘Sentence’, and ‘Text’. (See
Annex 1 for a sample extract.)
The Framework attaches great importance to developing learners’ metalinguistic understanding of
the language system they are learning, and expects them to use some grammar terminology when
talking about learning objectives and learning achievements (e.g. noun, verb, gender, determiner,
connective). There is certainly research evidence from the ‘good language learner’ literature, that
successful learners do possess considerable insight into the language system they are learning, and
that they can use this information to monitor and improve their own performance at least in some
situations (such as written composition).
However, the presentation of metalinguistic information in the Framework itself seems
idiosyncratic and unsystematic in some key respects. The terminology used for teachers’ benefit is
generally traditional, though some non-traditional terms such as determiner, connective are used (as
2
in the NLS); however, which terms learners themselves are expected to know and use is not clearly
spelled out, and the degree of grammar analysis they are expected to undertake is also not always
clear. For example, a category of so-called ‘high-frequency words’ which are to receive special
attention confuses function words such as prepositions and pronouns with content words such as
high-frequency verbs (be, come, go). Terms like noun, verb, tense and gender are evidently
intended to be taught, but it is not clear whether pupils are ever intended to learn and use terms
such as preposition, pronoun, or auxiliary verb. The division of morphosyntax across the Word and
Sentence strands leads to potentially confusing treatment of topics such as gender and number
concord, and verb inflection. For example, objectives introducing lexical verbs and their inflections
(including use of auxiliary verbs) are classified under the Word strand, whereas modal verbs are
classified under the Sentence strand.
6.
A fuller evaluation: teaching and learning considerations
6.1
Will the Framework enhance learner motivation?
Framework assumptions re motivation:
a) Success breeds success
b) Sharing linguistic objectives will motivate
c) “Strong and focussed” teaching will capture and sustain learner interest.
Research evidence supports (a) and (c) (e.g. Burstall et al 1974), but there is little evidence to
support (b).
6.2
Will the Framework raise learner attainment?
No evidence is presented on this issue from the 2002-3 Pilot, so a priori analysis is needed re:
6.2.1 Metalinguistic understanding
The Framework attaches great importance to developing learners’ metalinguistic understanding of
the language system they are learning, and expects them to use some grammar terminology when
talking about learning objectives and learning achievements (e.g. noun, verb, gender, determiner,
connective).
Some research evidence supports this, but the metalinguistic categories on offer in the Framework
are not always clear or consistent.
6.2.2 Learning strategies
The commitment within the Framework to developing learner independence is clear, and
Framework objectives include the development of skill in using dictionaries, glossaries, and
grammar reference materials; the ability to check written work for accuracy; and strategies for
comparing and contrasting target language patterns with those of L1 English.
Research on learning strategies suggests that skills like these at least correlate positively with
greater FL achievement. However, research also suggests that learners need time, space and
systematic practice to develop sustained control of such strategies and to use them effectively.
3
6.2.3 Interlanguage development
At the heart of the Framework is a strong commitment to learner development of a creative
interlanguage system – to the learning of grammar in other words. However there is only limited
support in the ‘focus on form’ research literature for the particular deductive instructional model
which is proposed for grammar. (For recent reviews see e.g. Norris and Ortega 2000, Ellis 2002,
Doughty 2003).
Secondly, the linguistic progression presented in the Framework is not obviously informed by
empirical research on the course of second language acquisition/ interlanguage development. For
example, there is plenty of research evidence that creative control of L2 inflectional morphology
develops gradually, later rather than earlier, e.g. following the capacity to rough out L2 sentences
around verbs (see e.g. Myles et al 1998). This suggests a rather different prioritisation of grammar
objectives from that presented in the Framework.
Thirdly, the sheer density of the objectives presented in the Framework poses real problems.
Research shows clearly that recycling and redundancy are essential, to consolidate control of new
forms and patterns, to automatise new knowledge and to develop fluency in retrieving and using it.
Rote learning and experiential activities provide essential opportunities for implicit learning,
automatisation and fluency development – but will there be time for them?
6.2.4 Skills development
The strand titled Listening and Speaking has attracted concerned comment from e.g. Gallagher
(2003):
The central importance of interaction is not stressed by the Framework and this contrasts
with the role allotted to grammar. Therefore, the Framework could undermine the place of
talk and the teaching of speaking in the MFL classroom.
The strand titled Text: Reading and Writing shows disappointingly little engagement with any
coherent theory of L2 literacy.
7.
Conclusion
In attempting to remedy one set of weaknesses, centring on a lack of attention to grammar
development, the Framework rushes off in another direction, that of a deductive and formalist
philosophy, which assumes a) that success in analysing and learning language forms is intrinsically
motivating for previously disaffected learners, provided learning objectives are spelled out clearly
enough; and b) that grammar which is taught can be related pretty directly to grammar which is
learned. Neither of these basic assumptions seems clearly supported, by research evidence
regarding MFLs motivation or classroom interlanguage development. Teachers will need
considerable help, if the grammar skeleton offered by the Framework is to be integrated
successfully into effective lesson sequences and deliver the boost to motivation and rise in
standards which are so clearly needed in MFL.
4
References
Burstall, C. et al (1974) Primary French in the Balance. NFER.
Carroll, S. (2000) Input as Evidence. John Benjamins.
Chambers, G. (1999) Motivating Language Learners. Multilingual Matters.
Department for Education and Employment/ Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (1999) Modern Foreign
Languages: The National Curriculum for England. The Stationery Office.
Department for Education and Skills (2001) GCSE/GNVQ &GCE/AS/VCE/Advanced GNVQ Results for Young People
in England 2000-1, http://www.dfes.gov.uk/statistics/DB/SFR/.
Department for Education and Skills (2002a) Languages for All: Languages for Life: A strategy for England. DfES
Publications.
Department for Education and Skills (2002b) National Curriculum Assessments of 14 Year Olds in England, 2002
(Provisional), http://www.dfes.gov.uk/statistics/DB/SFR/.
Department for Education and Skills (2003a) Key Stage 3 National Strategy: Framework for teaching modern foreign
languages, years 7, 8 and 9. DfES Publications.
Department for Education and Skills (2003b) 14-19: Opportunity and Excellence. http://www.dfes.gov.uk/1419/index.shtml
Dobson A. (2002) ‘Progression in speaking and writing’. Talk at OFSTED Subject Conference, March 2002.
Dornyei, Z. (2001) Motivational strategies in the language classroom, Cambridge University Press.
Doughty, C. J. (2003) Instructed SLA: constraints, compensation, and enhancement. In Doughty, C. J. and Long, M. H.
(eds) The Handbook of Second Language Acquisition. Blackwell Publishing.
Gallagher, A (2003) Implications for the teaching of speaking of the Key Stage 3 Framework for Modern Foreign
Languages. Paper presented at BAAL 2003.
Lee, J. et al. (1998) The Invisible Child. CILT.
Ellis, R. (2002) Does form-focused instruction affect the acquisition of implicit knowledge? A review of the research.
Studies in Second Language Acquisition 24, 223-36.
Mitchell, R. (2002) Rationales for foreign language education in the 21 st century. Paper presented at British Association
for Applied Linguistics Annual Meeting, University of Cardiff, September 2002.
Mitchell, R. (2003) Rethinking the concept of progression in the National Curriculum for Modern Foreign Languages:
a research perspective. Language Learning Journal.
Myles, F., Hooper, J. and Mitchell, R. (1998) Rote or rule? Exploring the role of formulaic language in classroom
foreign language learning. Language Learning 48 (3), pp 323-63.
Norman, N. (1998) Prescription and autonomy in modern language curricula and materials in Great Britain and
Germany, Language Learning Journal 17, pp 48-56.
Norris, J. and Ortega, L. (2000) Effectiveness of L2 instruction: a research synthesis and quantitative meta-analysis.
Language Learning 50, 417-528.
5
Year 7 teaching objectives
Words
Sentences
Texts: reading and
writing
Listening and speaking
Cultural knowledge and
contact
Pupils should be taught:
7W1 How to build and re- apply
a stock of words relating to
everyday contexts and
settings
7W2 How to learn, use and
appreciate the importance of
some basic high- frequency
words found in many
contexts
7W3 How to accumulate and
apply a stock of words for
use in language learning and
classroom talk
Pupils should be taught:
7S1 How to recognise and
apply typical word order in short
phrases and sentences
Pupils should be taught:
7L1 How to engage with the
sound patterns and other
characteristics of the spoken
language
7L2 How to improve their
capacity to follow speech of
different kinds and in
different contexts
Pupils should:
7C1 Learn some basic
geographical facts about the
country and where its
language is spoken
7C2 Learn about some aspects
of everyday culture and how
these compare with their
own
7L3 To identify gist and some
detail in continuous spoken
passages about specific
contexts
7C3 Use authentic materials
and experience direct or indirect
contact with native speakers
and writers
7W4 That gender and plural
patterns in nouns may differ
from English and how other
words can be affected
7W5 Present tense forms of
high-frequency verbs, examples
of past and other tense forms
for set phrases
7W6 The alphabet, common
letter strings and syllables,
sound patterns, accents and
other characters
7W7 How to find and memorise
the spelling, sound, meaning
and main attributes of words
7S4 How to formulate a basic
question
Pupils should be taught:
7T1 How to read and
understand simple texts using
cues in language, layout and
context to aid understanding
7T2 How to read aloud a simple
written text, attempting
authentic pronunciation and
some expression with regard
to content
7T3 How to assess simple texts
for gist, purpose, intended
audience and degree of
difficulty as a preliminary to
reading
7T4 How to use a dictionary
and other resources
appropriately when working
on text
7T5 How to assemble a short
text using familiar sentence
structure and known
vocabulary
7T6 How to use simple texts as
models or prompts for their
own writing
7L4 How to respond to face- toface instructions, questions
and explanations
7C4 Meet simple stories, songs
or jokes, or texts based on
them, in the target language
7L5 How to contribute to
spontaneous talk in the
target language
7C5 Learn the social and
linguistic conventions of
common situations such as
greetings
7W8 How to find or work out
and give the meaning of
unfamiliar words
7S2 How to work out the gist of
a sentence by picking out the
main words and seeing how
the sentence is constructed
compared with English
7S3 How to adapt a simple
sentence to change its
meaning or communicate
personal information
7S5 How to formulate a basic
negative statement
7S6 How to formulate
compound sentences by linking
two main clauses with a simple
connective
7S7 To look for time expressions and verb tense in simple
sentences referring to present,
past or close future events
7S8 Punctuation and
orthographic features specific to
phrases and sentences in the
target language
7S9 How to understand and
produce simple sentences
containing familiar language
for routine classroom or
social communication
7T7 How to evaluate and
improve the quality of their
written work
6
7L6 How to evaluate and
improve the quality and
fluency of what they say
Year 8 teaching objectives
Words
Sentences
Texts: reading and writing
Listening and speaking
Cultural knowledge and
Contact
In addition to working further
on objectives from Year 7 pupils
should be taught:
In addition to working further
on objectives from Year 7 pupils
should be taught:
In addition to working further
on objectives from Year 7 pupils
should be taught:
In addition to working further
on objectives from Year 7 pupils
should be taught:
Pupils should:
8W1 How to extend their
vocabulary and include some
abstract items
8W2 Connectives to support
sentence building and linking
and how to use them
8S1 How the main elements of
simple and complex sentences are
usually sequenced
8S2 How compound and complex
sentences are built up using
connectives, phrases and
clauses
8S3 The basic nature of modal
verbs and how to use them in
simple sentences
8S4 To understand and use a
variety of question types,
including some reflecting an
attitude or expectation
8S5 To understand and use a
variety of negative forms and
words
8T1 That words and phrases can
have different meanings in
different contexts
8T2 To recognise simple features
which add authenticity,
expression or emphasis to a
written text
8T3 To begin to associate aspects
of language with different text types
8L1 To begin to listen for subtleties
of speech and imitate them
8C1 Learn some basic historical
facts about the country
8L2 Skills they need to use when
listening to media
8C2 Learn about some famous
people in popular culture and
history
8L3 How to relay both the gist and
relevant detail in a spoken
message or item
8L4 How to add interest to what
they say by using extended
sentences
8C3 Use direct contact or media to
find out about daily life and young
people’s interests and attitudes
8C4 Read, hear and share simple
poems, jokes, stories and songs in
the target language
8L5 How to take part in short
unscripted dialogues and
exchanges
8C5 Understand and use some
simple colloquialisms in
context
8S6 How to develop a sentence
by adding or replacing elements,
making necessary
changes
8S7 To understand simple
sentences using highfrequency verbs referring to
present, past and future
events
8S8 How to use knowledge of
high- frequency words and
punctuation to understand
sentences
8T6 How to use a given text as a
source of information,
language and a stimulus for
their own writing
8T7 To check routinely on points of
word ending and word
order
8W3 To understand and use words
found in comments or advice about
their work
8W4 Some regular patterns of
word change linked to gender
and plural forms
8W5 To use verb patterns and
forms to understand and refer
to present, past and close
future events
8W6 Some common exceptions to
the usual patterns of sounds
and spellings
8W7 How to use detail and
exemplification in dictionaries
and other reference materials
8W8 That words do not always
carry their literal meaning
8T4 To make regular use of
glossaries and dictionaries,
finding the appropriate
section readily
8T5 How to extend, link and
develop sentences to form
continuous text
7
8L6 How to recognise and add
expression in speech