Wetland Management
By
Dr. Elfatih Eltagi Mahgoub and Dr. Khalid M. Riak
Introduction:
The Republic of Sudan, is the largest country in Africa and is located between
latitudes 030 31” and 220 00” N with an area of 2,205,815 km2 . Due to the wide
latitudinal range, different parts of the country experience very different climates and
thus, various wetland ecosyetms are found. Rainfall increases gradually as one move
from north to south of the country. That is, from negligible in the desert in the north to
a maximum of 1,000-1,200 mm annually in the southern border and up to 1,500 mm
in the Imatong mountains. The red sea coastal plain receives rainfall in winter while
the rest of the country experiences rainfall from March to November.
The topography of the country is characterized by a vast interior plains with an
average altitude of 500-1,000 m. On the western side of the Sudan lies the Jebel
Marra massif which reaches 3,071 m. above sea level. Mount Kinyeti, in the Imatong
mountains is at 3.187 m, which makes it the highest point in the Sudan. The Nuba
mountains, which reach 1,300 m, lie in Kordofan in central Sudan, while in the southwest there is an area of upland which marks the watershed between the Nile and the
Congo river systems.
The Nile river system is the main topopgraphical feature of the country. The White
Nile (Bahr-el-jebel) enters the Sudan near the town of Nimule on the Ugandan border.
North of Bor, the river, due to the almost flat topography, slows and spreads to
seasonally occupy an enormous area of papyrus-dominated swampland, known as
As Sudd, which extends northwards for about 350 km. Near the northern limit of
As Sudd, close to the town of Malakal, the White Nile is joined by two large
tributaries, the Sobat from the east and the Bahr-el-Ghazal from the west. From that
point the river flows north to Khartoum, which marks the confluence of the White
Nile with the Blue Nile, flowing northwestward from the Ethiopian highlands.
Another large tributary the Atbra, joins the system at the town of Atbra whence the
Nile flows through the Sahara to reach the Egyptian border at Wadi Halfa.
The information about wetlands in the county are very rare and therefore the aim of
this paper is to review the presnt status of wetlands in the country and propose some
recommendations pretaining to their mamagement and conseravtion and sustainable
utilization for the benefit of the Sudanese people.
Wetlands Ecosystem in Sudan:
Wetlands are defined as areas of marsh, fen, peat land or water, whether natural or
artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish
or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not exceed
six meters (Ramsar Convention 1971). Thus, under this definition different habitat
types are considered as wetlands and these include seasonal rivers, khores, natural and
man-made lakes, coastal lagoons, mangroves, swamps, coral reefs, mayas (seasonal
inundated mudflat in river channels), flood plains, haffirs and reservoirs.
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Wetlands play a vital hydrological and ecological role in the Sudan. They trap and
slow seasonal floods, dampening the magnitude of floods downstream and spreading
out peak flows over several weeks or months. The delay and extension of flood peaks
can facilitate downstream fishing and irrigation, especially in areas with an extended
dry season.
Wetlands provide habitat for numerous species of animals and plants, many of them
unique to these ecosystems.
Those wetlands which are near the edge of the Sahara provide vital staging grounds
for migratory birds preparing to cross the desert. Wetlands also trap and hold silt
carried by rivers, creating fertile alluvial soils that may be used to grow many crops
and vegetables.
However, agricultural development schemes, taking advantage of the presence of both
fertile soil and water, pose a threat to many wetlands.
Freshwater marshes, such as the huge As Sudd in Sudan, are dominated by
herbaceous species such as papyrus, supports a rich indigenous flora and fauna, and
attracts huge numbers of migratory wildlife during the dry season. Like many others,
this vital and sensitive wetland ecosystem is threatened by the growth of ranching and
tourism, and by proposals to divert water for irrigation and other uses.
Wetlands cover 20% of the total area of the country. Based on the Ramsar definition
and according to Morghraby ( 2001) there are about 13 wetlands types distinigusted in
the country which include the following:o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
Large Swamps (As Sudd)
Seasonal Streams ( e.g. Gash, Barraka, Dinder & Rahad)
Nile & its tributaries
Mountain Streams (e.g. Khor Arba’at, River Gilo & Ingassana Hills)
Lakes
Man-made lake system
Dams
Hot springs
Haffirs
Mayas
Coral reef
Mangrove Swamps (red sea coast)
LARGER SWAMPS:
As Sudd (Bahr-el-jebel system):
As Sudd swamp of southern Sudan is among the largest and most important wetlands
in Africa. Three protected areas exist within As Sudd, these are Shambe National
Park, Fanyikang and Zeraf Game Reserves. They all fall within the Bahr-el-jebel
system of As Sudd, the part of the swamps that will be most affected by the Jonglei
canal.
As Sudd swamp is the seasonally inundated flood-plain of the upper White Nile. It is
divid into four distinct sections, of which the Bahr-el-Jebel is the centeral system and
thought to be the most important for wildlife. The other sections are the Bahr-elGhazal system to the west, the Sobat-Baro-Pibor river system to the east and the
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smaller Machar Marshes to the north-east. The Bahr-el-jebel system consists of two
main rivers, the Bahr-el-jebel, the main course of the White Nile, to the west and the
smaller Bahr-ez-Zeraf to the east. The area is extremely flat with an average slope of
only 10 cm per km.
As Sudd swamp consists of a variety of wetlands, grasslands and woodlands. The
wetland comprises flowing waters, lakes and permanent swamps. There are three
swamp types: Vossia cuspidat swamps (which cover 250 km2), Cyperus papyrus
swamps (3,900 km2) and Typha domingensis swamps (13,600 km2).
The seasonally inundated grassland is known as “toich” where the period of annual
inundation is long enough to inhibit tree growth but not long enough to maintain
permanent swamp conditions. The seasonally inundated grassland is divided into
seasonally river-fiooded grassland (16,200 km2) and seasonally rain-flooded grassland
(20,000 km2).
There are areas of single-species woodland mainly of Acacia seyal (5,400 km2) or
Balanites aegytiaca (5,300 km2). Mixed woodland is characterized by Ziziphus
mauritiana, Combretum fragrans, Acacia seyal and Balanites aegyptiaca. Average
annual precipitation in the area is c.900 mm and falls from late April to November.
As Sudd swamps holds a large population of shoebill stork Balaeniceps rex. Aerial
surveys in 1979-1982 counted a peak of 6,407. It is also an important site for whiteeyed pochard Aythya nyroca, and on passage, for lesser kesterl Falco naumanni.
Mammals of global conservation concern include Loxodonta africana, Panthera leo,
Lycaon pictus, Acinonyx jubatus, Damaliscus lunatus, Syncerus caffer, Hippotragus
equinus, Giraffa camelopardalis, Redunca redunca, Gazella thomsonii, and
Alcelaphus buselaphus.
Excessive amounts of water are lost in As Sudd by evapotranspiration. To increase the
flow of water downstream, principally to provide more water to Egypt, a diversion
channel, Jonglei, was proposed. Jonglei canal extends for 360 km in an almost direct
line from Bor to Malakal. The construction of the canal started in 1978 but it was
brought to a halt in 1983 by the civil war in southern Sudan.
As Sudd is inhabited by the Neur, Dinka and Shilluk tribes. These tribes are
agropastoralists, they raise cattle, sheep and goats which are estimated at one million.
The local inhabitant also depend on As Sudd swamps for agriculture. They grow food
crops such as sorghum, maize, yam and cash crops such as ground nuts, sesame and
tobacco. Crop yields are low due to the heavy impermeable low nutrient nature of the
soil. Small fishing communities are widely scattered within As Sudd. During the dry
season the populations of the large wild animals and the livestock concentrate on the
comparatively small areas of a relatively high ground.
SEASONAL STREAMS AND NILE TRIBUTARIES:
These types of wetlands are numerous in the country and are characterised by their
fast flowing, silt laden waters. They preform various functions including nutrients
transport to large water bodies, important breeding grounds for both fishes, reptiles
and water sources for wildlife and domestic livestock. The flora of these wetlands are
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influenced by the intensity of rainfall (Morghraby, 2001). The largest and most known
seasonal streams in the country include Gash, Baraka, Rahad and Dinder
Dinder National Park:
The Dinder National Park (DNP) is located in southeastern Sudan near the Ethiopian
border. It consists of low lying flood plains with a few rocky hills on the southern
corner. The Rahad and Dinder rivers flow north-westwards forming pools and ox-bow
lakes known as mayas. Mayas are important wetlands in the park as they constitute
the main source of food and water for wildlife during the dry season which extends
from November to June.
Dinder National Park ( 650,000 ha ) was established in 1935 and extended to include
a buffer zone ( 277,300 ha ) in 1980. This extension resulted in the inclusion of twelve
villages to the park. The park was designated as a biosphere reserve in 1979. The
Rahad Game Reserve (350,000 ha) adjoining the park, was abolished by a presidential
decree in 1992 and the land was allocated for agricultural, forestry and grazing
activities at the ratios of 50%, 40% and10% respectively ( kenyi. 2001 ) .
Wildfires, set by herdsmen, honey gatherers and poachers affects up to 60% of the
park. Areas around the park are degraded as a result of mechanized farming and
removal of the tree cover. Hunting pressure is high, giraffes disappeared from the
park in 1985 and tiang suffered from considerable reduction in its numbers.
Livestock grazing within the park not only causes competition with wildlife for
food and water, but also causes outbreaks of rinderpest particularly among buffloes
and tiang.
Radom National Park:
Radom National Park is located in the southwestern corner of Southern Darfur on the
border with Central African Republic. It consists of an area of brocken hilly country
lying between two main rivers, the Adda and the Umbelasha, which form the park’s
northern and southern boundaries respectively. These hills are part of the range which
forms the watershed that separates the Nile and Congo river systems. The vegetation
is principally savanna woodland dominated by Terminalia brownii, Combretum spp.,
Anogeissus leiocarpus and Isoberlinia doka. Wet meadows (dahls) form in low-lying
basins and hold water into the dry season, providing water and fodder. Average
annual precipitation ranges from 630 mm in the north to 900 mm in the south. Radom
National Park is contiguous with the reserve complex of the Parc Nationale d’Andre’
Felix in the Central African Republic.
There is meagre information about wildlife in the park. Mammals of global
conservation concern include: Loxodonta africana, Panthera leo, Lycaon pictus,
Acinonyx jubatus, Giraffa camelopardalis, Kobus ellipsiprymnus and K. kob.
Radom was declared as a biosphere reserve in 1979. There are many villages inside
the park. The increasing human populations within and in the periphery of the park
leads to an increase of human activity such as cultivation, tree felling and grazing.
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MOUNTAIN STREAMS:
These wetland types are mainly found in the Eastern, Southern and Southeastern
Sudan. The examples are Khor Arba’at, River Gilo and Ingasana hills repectively. All
these wetlands are rich in term of biodiversity. Imatong, Khor Arbat and Boma are
briefly discussed and given as examples of protected mountain wetlands.
Imatong mountains:
The Imatong central forest reserve is located south-east of Juba on the Ugandan
border. The Imatong mountains are deeply faulted with many perennial rivers within
their upland regions. They are covered by a range of vegetation types including
Albizi- Terminalia woodland and mixed Khaya lowland semi-evergreen forest up to
1,000 m, and by Podocarpus and Croton-Macaranga-Albizia montane forest at 1,0002,900 m. At higher altitude the forest is replaced by Hagenia woodland, Erica thicket
and areas of bamboo. The Imatong mountains, due to their wide altitudinal range and
location at the meeting point of several biomes, support high spescies diversity.
Khor Arba’at:
Khor Arba’at is located 15 Km inland, immediately east of the Red Sea Hills, and
about 25 Km north–west of Port Sudan. It is the main source of drinking water to the
city. A pumping station has been constructed on what has become an artificial island,
surrounded by the only permanent water in the Red Sea Hills. The surrounding desert
which, apart from a few scattered bushes along the riverbed, is largely barren.
Khor Arba’at is important for a wide diversity of palearctic migrant such as
Acrocephalus palustris, Crex crex, Acrocephalus griseldis and Emberiza cineracea. A
large number of birds have been reported killed by the overhead powerlines which
supply the station’s electric water pump.
Boma:
It includes Boma National Park and the adjacent Boma hills. The area is located in the
south-east of Sudan close to the Ethiopian border, south-east of the town of Pibor
Post. Two-thirds of the park is flat flood-plain, punctuated by a number of isolated
hills, rising to undulating terrain in the east to reach the Boma plateau at about 1,100
m. In the south-east the Boma hills rise above the plateau and drained eastwards into
the Oboth and Akobo rivers and thence eventually into the Guom swamps. The
western part of the park drains into the Kangen river. The western plains support open
grassland of Hyparrhenia, Pennisetum, Sporobolus and Echinochloa spp., while the
eastern parts are covered with woodland dominated by Combretum and Ficus
species. Areas of dense thickets dominated by Ziziphus spp., Acacia seyal,
A. zanzibarica, A. drepanalobium and A. fistula occur in patches around the isolated
hills, while there are small areas of evergreen forests on the western slopes of the
Boma hills.
Boma National Park is located near to the Gambella National Park in Ethiopia. The
area is known to support high diversity of wildlife. Up to one million white-eared kob
Kobus kob leucotis migrate through the park annually. However, poaching for meat is
heavy and constitutes a major threat. Traditional hunting of white-eared kob has
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always occurred at Pibor every year when they cross the river in migration. As long as
only traditional weapons are used this should not endanger the numbers of the kob.
Other mammals of global conservationa concern that occur, or utilized the park,
include Loxodonta africana, Acinonyx jubatus Damaliscus lunatus, Syncerus caffer,
Hippotragus equinus, Giraffa camelopardalis, Redunca redunca, Gazella thomsonii,
G. granti, Oryx beisa and Alcelaphus buselaphus.
MAN-MADE LAKE SYSTEM:
Lake Nubia:
It is the southern extension of Lake Nasser which was formed as a result of the
construction of Aswan High Dam in 1970. The lake extends to 480 km of which 180
km are in the Sudanese borders and named as Lake Nubia. Lake Nubia is adjacent to
the Important Bird Area (IBA) of Lake Nassser. The flora is dominated by Tamarix
nilotica on a largely barren rocky desert shore. There is little information on
waterbirds using Lake Nubia but the African skimmer Rhynchops flavirostris has
been reported to occur in large numbers and was suspected of breeding. Lake Nubia
has been proposed as a protected area.
Gezira:
The Gezira is a large area of flood-plain between the Blue and White Niles to the
south of Khartoum. The area is intensively farmed and criss-crossed with network of
irrigation channels. The major canal is 20 m wide and transports water from Sennar
Dam on the Blue Nile to the minor canals. The Gezeira scheme has more than
10,000 km of canals which can be considered as stagnant water pools. The Gezira is
important site for wintering and passage water birds. It has been reported that at least
20,000 water birds occur during most northern winters. Counts of 1,000 Anas
qerquedula, 3,000 Philomachus pugnax and 1,000 Glareola pratincola were made at
a single locality during the winters of 1959-1962 and other counts include up to 2,000
Ciconia ciconia.
The Gezira is intensely cultivated. Many ecological problems arose as a result of this
landuse practice. There is intensive use of chemicals as herbicides, insecticides and
fertilizers. This results in a high degree of air, soil and water pollution.
Malaria and bilharziasis are widespread in the Gezira. Attempts were made to
introduce gambusia and grass carp as biological control methods for mosquito larvae
and aquatic weeds respectively in the minor canals of the Gezira agricultural scheme.
NATURAL LAKES SYSTEM:
Lake Um Bader:Um Bader Lake lies in sparsely vegetated country on the southern fringes of
the Sahara desert, between the towns of El Obeid and Al Fasher. The lake lies in a
basin of rocky hills and high dunes of reddish sands. The lake basin is sparsely
vegetated with Acacia arabica, A. albida, A. seyal, A. tortilis and Balanites aegyptica,
while A. mellifera, Leptadenia pyrotechnica and grasses Aristida spp. predominate in
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the surrounding hills and dunes. Following rains, when it is c.6 km long by 2 Km
wide, the lake overflows form the northern end of the basin into Wadi El Milk and
during drier periods the lake shrinks and becomes divided in two. Average annual
rainfall is c.200 mm. Large herds of domestic camels as well as sheep, goats and
cattle water at the lake and overgrazing may, therefore, pose a threat to the lake.
Lake Kundi:
It is located south of the town of Nyala, at the mouth of Wadi Ibra, the effluents of
which darin the southern slopes of the Jebl Marra. Although the lake is permanent it
contracts to c.100-200 ha in the dry season when the maximum depth is reduced form
3 to 2 m. The vegetation of the lake includes water-lilies and submerged aquatics
including Ceratophyllum demersum and Najas pectinata.
Lake Kundi is an important site for waterfowl; a total count of 20,795 was made in
1993, comprising 22 species of water bird including Sarkdiornis melanotos and
Plectropterus gambensis. Haliaeetus voifer also occurs. The lake has been proposed
as a bird sanctuary and hunting constitutes the main threat.
Lake Abiad:
Lake Abiad is a large permanent water body surrounded by open wooded savanna,
located south of the town of Kadugli and south-west of the Nuba Mountains. It is an
important site for birds which include Balearica pavonina Vanellus leucurus
Philomachus pugnax. More than 20000 waterbirds have been observed at this site
which has been proposed as a Bird Sanctuary (Peterson 2000).
NATIONAL PARKS IN SOUTHERN SUDAN:
Southern National Park:
It is situtated in the ironstone plateau in the south-west of the country. The park is
bounded to the west by the Seu river and to the east by the Maridi river, while the
Ibba river bisects it north-south. It consists of gently undulating country with low
ranges of hills separated by three parallel northward flowing rivers and mostly
covered by savanna woodland. It is an area of low human population, poor soils and a
high incidence of tsetse fly. The following mammals of global conservation concern
occur there: Loxodonta africana, Panthera leo, Lycaon pictus, Acinonyx jubatus,
Damaliscus lunatus, Syncerus caffer, Hippotragus equinus, Giraffa camelopardalis,
Redunca redunca, Gazella thomsonii, G. granti, Oryx beisa and
Alcelaphus buselaphus.
.
Nimule:
Nimule National Park is located in the extreme south of the country on the border
with Uganda. The White Nile forms its eastern border and the Kayu river flows
through the park from the Ugandan border to the White Nile. The topography is hilly
and most of the park is covered with savanna woodland of Acacia spp., Balanites
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aegyptiaca and Combretum aculeatum. Riverine woodland found along permanent
and seasonal watercourses is composed of Acacia sieberiana. Nimule is adjacent to
two IBAs in Uganda; Mount Kei Forest Reserve and Mount Otzi Forest Reserve.
Nimule National Park used to have a large population of elephants which have now
been severely reduced by poaching. Other spp. of global conservation concern include
Kobus kob, Tragelaphus ellipsiprymnus, T. speki, and Redunca redunca.
The park was established as a Game Reserve in 1935 and gazetted as a National Park
in 1954. It has suffered from poaching which has resulted in the local extermination
of Ceratotherium simun.
MARINE WETLANDS:
The red sea coast:
It extends for about 750 km and includes various small uninhaited islands with low or
no vegetation. These islands constitute breeding sites for gulls, terns, crab plovers,
boobies, osperys, sooty falcons and spoonbills. There are also fringing coral reefs,
sandy beaches, bays and mangroves.
Mukawwar island and Dongonab bay:
Mukawwar, Mayetib and the Taila islets form a small archipelago lying offshore of
the fishing town of Mohammed Qol on the red sea coast north of Port Sudan. A little
further north lies Dongonab bay, a body of water partially enclosed by a long, narrow
strip. There is a small area of mangrove within the bay which is covered by sparsely
vegetated coastal dunes. The bay constitutes a good site for the collection of the spat
of the mother of pearl shell. The local inhabitnts use the bay for fishing and for the
collection of trochus, bivalves and other mollusks. The islands are important for
breeding turtles. Mammals of global conservation concern, Equus africanus and
Dugong dugon have been reported in the area which has been proposed for protection.
Suakin archipelago:
The Suakin archipelago is the largest group of islets on the Red Sea coast, extending
southwest south-eastward from the former port of Suakin almost to the Ethiopian
border. There are about 30 islets in the archipelago, which are uninhabited and devoid
of fresh water supplies. Most of these islands are less than 1 km long, but two, Talla
Talla Saghir and Talla Talla Kebir, are 5 km in length, some of the larger, rocky islets,
formed from raised coral reefs, reach a height of up to 10 m. All the islets, are largely
barrren, with low vegetation growing only on the sandy fringes. Low, halophytic
bushes grow on fossil reefs on some of the smaller islets which are usually fringed by
coral reefs. The islets support breeding colonies of Sterna bergii, S. benggalensis,
S. repressa,S. anaethetus, Anous stolidus, Sula leucogaster, Larus hemprichii, Droma
ardeola, and four species of turtles. The sea cow has been reported in the archipelago.
The site has been proposed as a National Park. The fishermen collect birds, turtles,
turtle eggs, shells and corals. Commercial quantities of methane gas has been found
but remain unexpolited. The area is important for fisheries and has a great potential
for tourism.
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Wetland Biodiversity Conservation:
The Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources HCENR (2001)
evaluated the status of biodiversity in the Sudan and asserted that wetland
conservation is most crucial for sustainable management of biodiversity. The arid and
the semi-arid ecosystems cover about 60% of the country and large stretches of its
range and agricultural land can not be utilized due to the lack of water sources.
Drought is recurrent and disrupts the livelihood of millions of people. While wetlands
are generally important they are especially important for such a dry country as Sudan.
Although Nile wetlands are critically important,, the Sudan contains an extraordinary
range of other wetlands spread across the country.
The White and Blue Nile basins in Sudan between Malakal and Khartoum as well as
parts of southern and western Sudan are included in the Sudanese Reginal Centre of
Endemism (RCE), 35 percent of their species are endemic although diversity is much
lower. This RCE stretches right across to the coast of West Africa and includes
many semi-desert species that are common to both western and eastern Africa. The
remainder of the Nile basin is in the Sahel and Sahara zones where both endemism
and diversiry are low and most plant and animal life is associated with the river
channel NBI (2003).
The diversity of aquatic and semi-aquatic fauna and flora is highest in the Ugandan
section of the Lake Victoria basin and to some extent in As Sudd and other parts of
southern Sudan. NBI (2003) reported that Lake Victoria and its surrounding wetlands
contain more than 350 fish species, while Hashim et al (2003) reported that 117
freshwater fish species are found in the Sudan.
Many of the lakes, dams and wetlands of the southern Sudan are inhabited by the
major species of water-dependent animals such as the hippopotamus Hippopotamus
amphibius, sitatunga Tragelaphus spekei and crocodyles Crocodylus niloticus.
Important wild herbivores utilize the seasonally inundated grasslands and permanent
wetland edges including waterbuck Kobus defassa, the white-eared kob K. kob
leucotis, Uganda kob K. kob and the Nile lechwe K. megaceros.
The Nile river system is a major flyway for migratory birds transiting between Europe
and Asia to the north and Lake Victoria and the rift valley lakes to the south. At least
125 species use the Nile as a flyway between tropical Africa and Eurasia. As Africa’s
largest wetland, As Sudd is of immense importance to these migrants particularly the
water birds. The crowned cranes (grey and black), wattled cranes and shoebills are
four of the more outstanding species.
Due to the great seasonal variations associated with aquatic biota, specially the
seasonal flowering and fruiting of plants, the species of birds present and their
numbers change accordingly. In addition to major changes due to migration there are
also local seasonal movements. The saddle bill stork which occurs singly or in pairs
will tend to aggregate at the end of the dry season as its food supply becomes more
and more concentrated.
The Nile Basin Initiative:
The Nile River is characteized by its transboundary nature. Ten riparian countries
share the river: Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Egypt, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Kenya, Rwanda, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. The riparian countries came to the
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realization that a cooperative approach to stimulate sustainable development and to
mitigate poverty is more effective than individual efforts made by each nation in
isolation. In 1998, all riparians (except Eritrea) debated establishment of a mechanism
to facilitate the common pursuit of sustainable development and management of Nile
waters. This process culminated in 1999 by the establishment of the Nile Basin
Initiative with a shared vision and a common policy guidelines. The shared vision is:
To achieve sustainable socioeconomic development through the equitable
utilization of, and benefit from, the common Nile basin water resources. To achieve
the shared vision, the riparians developed a Strategic Action Program, which focuses
on two complementary ideas - a Shared Vision and action on the ground. A common
vision provides a framework for activities on the ground, and in turn these activities,
realize the vision.
The Nile Basin Initiative provides a transitional institutional mechanism, an agreed
vision and a basin-wide framework, and a process to facilitate substantial investment
in the Nile Basin to realize reginoal socio-economic development. It also represents
deep commitment by the riparians to foster cooperation and sustainable development
of the Nile River for the benefit of all (NBI 2001).
The NBI produced the Agenda for Environmental Action which identifies and set
priorities for the issues to be adddressed at the basin, sub-basin, national and local
levels. It also renders valuable opportunities in capacity building, transboundary and
regional cooperation. The environmental issues for Sudan comprises land
degradation, water resources management, disaster preparedness, habitat and wetland
biodiversity, policy and capacity strengthening. Eight protected areas with
tranboundary sgnificance are identified in Sudan by NBI (2001) and these are As
Sudd Wetland, Machar Wetland, Dinder/Rahad Wetland, Shambe National Park,
Dinder National Park, Kidepo Game Reserve, Nimule National Park and Shambe
National Park.
Environment and natural resources management programs have traditionally been
funded by national governments often with support from international and bilateral
organizations. Implementation of the Agenda for Environmental action can be
facilitated by the cooperating partners, provision of partnering of potential
international, regional and bilateral funding organizations and by the private sector.
The cooperating partners in the NBI are the UNDP, World Bank, Canadian
International Development Agency (CIDA) and other paricipants in the International
Consortium for Cooperation on the Nile (ICCON). The Areas in which the private
sector in the Sudan can play an important role include:
- Expansion and management of water and wastewater services.
- Solid waste collection and disposal services.
- Industrial pollution control measures.
- Development of tourism facilities.
- Development of sustainable fisheries practices.
The Nile Basin Initiative started a micro grants program in Sudan.
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Constrains to Wetlands:
In such a country as Sudan where a hot dry climate prevails in most of its parts,
wetlands are faced with many threats and challenges. Many wetlands are drained and
transformed to an alternative landuse and many others have suffered serious
ecological degradation that affects its functioning. Factors contributing to the decline
of wetland resources are briefly stated and they include insufficient funds, inadequate
legislation, ineffective management and law enforcement, lack of a proper landuse
policy and the impact of development.
Human activities that lead to soil ersion have a profound effect on wetlands.
Overgrazing, shifting cultivation on marginal lands, and felling of trees lead to loss of
vegetation cover locally and regionally which results in water ersion. The water laden
silt which is transported to the wetlands gradually reduces the storage capacity of
reservoirs, lakes and mayas.
The environment act of 2000 states that Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
should be conducted for all development interventions. However, when addressing
the agriculture and energy sectors issues related to wetlands management are dealt
with as secondary. Muglad oil basin lies upstresm in the catchment area of Bahr-elGazal. Upon the start of oil production in1999 a large quantity of “contaminated
water” is produced. This amount of water is expected to increse substantially with the
increase in petrol production and causes a serious environmental threat. In the past,
the water is released in shallow excavations and left to the sun and the wind to take
care of it. The water evaporates and leaves all the pollutants in the pit which is either
dumped or abandoned. Experiments are now underway for phytoremediation where
plants are used to decontaminate water by decomposition of hydrocarbons.
o Urban sprawl encroaches on wetlands, highways obstruct natural water
courses, dams and bridges are constructed with little regard for environmental
impact and mitigation measures. The most important constrains to wetlands
includes the following:
o Lack of effective legislation and law enforcement.
o Lack of cooperation between stakeholders in the sustainable use of wetlands.
o Pollution from agricultural and industrial effluent.
o Limited institutional and individual capacities for monitoring, assessment and
management of wetland resources.
Ramsar Convention:
The Sudan ratified Ramsar in 2005 and is now participating as a full member in all of
Ramsar activities. The Higher Council for Environment and Natural Resources
established a national Steering Committee (HCENR) for wetlands composed of the
following members: HCENR, Ministry of irrigation, Ministry of International
Cooperation, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, National UNSECO Committee, Forest
National Corporatin, Wildlife Research Centre, Wildlife Conservation General
Adminstration, Faculty of Science University of Khartoum, Institute of
Environmental Studies, University of Khartoum and the Sudanese Environment
Conservation Society.
The national steering Committee organized workshops on wetlands related issues and
four Ramsar sites were propsed. The committee also managed to produce Ramsar
information sheets for Dinder National Park, Khartoum Sunt Forest, the Mangroves
and the Coral Reefs of the Red Sea.
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Conclusion and Recommendations:
Wetlands permeate all ecosystems in the Sudan and involve a broad range of
stakeholders. They affect many aspects of human activities including agriculture,
forestry, range, wildlife, transportation, industry and health. The root cause of the
conflict that irrupts in different parts of the country is attributed to competition over
resources of which wetland is an important resource base.
Sustainable management of wetland resources requires formulation of an action plan
that includes description and classification of primary wetlands. It also provides an
accurate assessment of the true values and uses of these lands and propose
management objectives that are socially acceptable and addressing the needs of the
local community.
The system of government of Sudan is currently undergoing reconstruction towards
decentralization which will have a profound impact on the course of its development.
The state governments under the fedral system awill have complete jurisdicton over
their natural resources. To achieve a national wetland action plan it is essential that
each state establishes a state wetland committee that prepares its state wetland action
plan. These state wetland action plans will be later compiled to constitute the national
wetland action plan.
At the fedral level a national wetland committee will be established which comprises
the HCENR, representaives of the states, the fedral ministries, NGOs, CBOs,
universities and research institutions. The national wetland committee in coordination
with the state wetland committees will be instrumental in executing the Sudan
National Water policy principles and realizes the vision of the NBI which calls for
cooperation between the neighbouring countries for sustaiable management of their
watershed and judicial use and protection of international waters.
The participation and involvement of the NGOs and the CBOs and the strengthening
of their capacities is indispensable for the management plan. The Sudanese Wildlife
Society, supported by Wetlands International conducted a survey for Avian Influenza
in wild birds.
There is a disparity and wide gap in the institutional and individual’s capacities and
awareness of wetland issues between the fedral government on one side and the
government of southern Sudan and the state governments on the other. It is greatly
needed to put more emphasis on capacity building of the latter and bridge the
information gap between the centre and the periphery.
Reconnissance surveys of wetland resources in southern Sudan is important to assess
the impact of the war and to provide the necessary information for the management
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