The gendered nature of policing
among uniformed operational police
officers in England and Wales
by
David Blok and Jennifer Brown
Department of Psychology
School of Human Sciences
University of Surrey
November 2005
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Chief Constables of the Constabularies who agreed that their officers
could be approached to take part in this research. We are also grateful to those officers who
responded and completed the questionnaire.
The research was conducted on behalf of the British Association for Women in Policing. Our
thanks go to the President of the BAWP, Julie Spence, to Suzette Davenport then serving in
the West Mercia Constabulary for initial guidance, and Sue Lampard of the Force
Improvement Section in Surrey Constabulary for the valuable experience in internal
communications and for guiding ideas at the outset and throughout.
The gendered nature of policing among uniformed
operational police officers in England and Wales
Summary
In recent years, notable reforms have occurred
task, men and women officers’ assessment of
in the structure and ethos of the Police Service.
their skills and the public’s preferences for
Significant efforts have been made to address
gender
diversity and integration in the workplace.
deployments. The study is based on the
Being traditionally viewed as a ‘male’-
responses of 101 operational uniformed police
oriented occupation, an important challenge to
constables and 150 members of the public.
of
officer
to
attend
different
the Police Service has been the dismantling of
the gender divide in the recruitment and
Responses from the public
subsequent deployment of police officers. Past
Overall,
research had reported differential deployments
preference for male officers to deal with
of men and women officers. Physical strength,
physically demanding incidents such as fights
typically deemed a male attribute, was
involving men or women or disorder at
informally considered a primary policing skill.
football matches. Their reasons for this were
Work on police competencies recognised the
that these deployments required strength and
wider range of abilities required when dealing
assertiveness. Furthermore, the public thought
with policing tasks, including frontline duties.
that female officers would not be taken
The well-conducted constable needs a variety
seriously by potential troublemakers involved
of social, emotional and cognitive skills such
in physical confrontations. In contrast, women
as the ability to negotiate and to demonstrate
officers were preferred when it came to such
empathy.
incidents as dealing with victims of sexual
offences
the
or
public
domestic
expressed
violence.
a
clear
Reasons
Through legislation and organisational change,
mentioned for this preference included the
considerable efforts have been exerted to
view that women have superior emotional
integrate female officers into the Police
skills compared to men and that these were
Service and ensure that they both have equal
important when dealing with victims. Either
opportunities to engage in the functions of
gender was thought suitable when dealing with
policing at every level as well as influencing
searches for an elderly missing person or a
the style of policing by their presence. The
road traffic collision, as it was believed that
University of Surrey undertook some research
training equipped both equally well for these
on behalf of British Association of Women in
situations.
Policing (BAWP) that examined the public
and police officers’ perceptions of the skills
Female respondents from the community
thought desirable to undertake various policing
sample were more likely than men to wish a
i
women officer deal with a wife injured in a
comparable ways, there are perhaps some
domestic violence situation, whereas men were
subtle variances reflective of how women
more likely than women to prefer a male
work within the occupational culture. It may
officer to deal with thefts from vehicles.
be that women seek to play down stereotypes
Previous contact with the police appeared to
such as being emotionally empathetic and, in
affect how members of the public viewed the
order to be seen to be effective, emphasise
capabilities of men and women officers. Those
their professionalism by having a task and
who had previous contact with the police were
performance focus that is comparable to their
more likely to have a preference for a female
male colleagues.
officer to deal with burglaries than were those
without any prior contact. On the other hand,
Police officers were asked to nominate
there was a decrease in the preference for a
abilities that they considered of most use when
woman officer amongst the public having had
dealing with a series of different deployments.
previous police contact in cases of an elderly
Skill at problem-solving or decision-making
missing
was deemed most applicable to the majority of
person
or
when
dealing
with
troublesome youth.
the deployments. The exceptions were dealing
with indecent assault and delivering a death
Responses from police constables
message, which were viewed as necessitating
Interestingly, few gender differences were
more emotional skills such as listening ability
evident in the views of police officers
and empathy. Male and female officers
themselves. In an examination of the policing
however did not differ in the broad area of
style they adopt, both male and female
competencies that they choose as being
constables equally demonstrated their focus on
appropriate for the deployments. Nevertheless,
the needs of the organisation above the
despite the earlier findings about policing
individual and the importance of keeping
style,
emotion under control in public. However
policemen in that they rated themselves as
some differences were observed. For example,
having more skill than men in deployments for
women were more likely to emphasise the
domestic violence, missing adults, indecent
importance of giving the same level of service
assaults and delivering death messages. This
to all members of the public compared with
finding may show that female officers view
their male counterparts. Conversely, they were
themselves as more suited than men to
less likely than men to attempt a task they had
emotionally
difficulty without seeking help. Women were
deployments where female victims are more
less likely to improvise rather they preferred to
likely to be involved.
policewomen
did
challenging
diverge
incidents
from
or
to
follow procedures. Women were less likely to
act as a mediator when colleagues disagree
Police officers were also asked to identify the
than their male counterparts.
These gender
deployments to which they gave the highest
differences suggest that whilst overall men and
priority. Both male and female officers rated
women
burglaries
officers
approach
policing
in
ii
the
highest.
Women
placed
domestic violence and searching for a missing
Conclusions
person higher in their subsequent rank
This study has highlighted that changes have
ordering than men. On the other hand, men
occurred in how the Police Service deploys
placed road traffic collision, sexual offence
men and women in that constables of either
and youth’s attempting car theft higher in their
gender are likely to be deployed to the
priority ordering than women.
majority of incidents. Similarly, both male and
female officers have more in common in terms
When officers were asked how often they had
of their styles of policing and share similar
been deployed for the various sample incidents
beliefs
in the previous six months, antisocial youth
differences are still evident however. Findings
were cited as the most frequent deployment,
indicate that women constables are more likely
followed by domestic violence, road traffic
to follow protocol in their approach to policing
collisions, and dealing with youth’s trying the
than are men. Women officers are also more
handles of car doors. The constables were least
likely to be deployed to cases of sexual
likely deployed to deal with a sexual offence
assault, and indeed they rate their skills for
or deliver a death message. Few differences
dealing with such incidents, along with
were evident between male and female
domestic
officers, the exception being sexual offences,
delivering death messages, higher than do
where women were more likely to be deployed
males. Members of the public show a greater
than men. This represents a change from
tendency to value differently the input and
earlier research findings which indicted a
abilities of male and female officers, and this
gender split in deployments along stereotypic
was found to be influenced by past contact
lines.
with the police. These preferences tend to
about
their
violence,
capabilities.
missing
adults,
Some
and
follow gender stereotypes and lag beyond the
Finally, the relationship between the priority
reality of policing practice.
an officer assigned to a task and the likelihood
that he or she would be deployed on that task
was
examined.
Interestingly
however,
although antisocial youth represented the most
frequent reason for deployment, officers
personally considered these incidents as
having a low priority relative to the other calls
on their time. In contrast, call-outs to
burglaries occurred much less frequently and
were seen as deserving a far higher priority by
both male and female officers.
iii
Contents
Page
1.
Overview
1
1.2
Police culture
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.3
6
7
8
Decline in public satisfaction
Reform agenda
Reassurance agenda
Police recruitment
9
9
10
12
Theoretical considerations
1.5.1
1.5.2
1.5.3
2.
The reality of policing
Public attitudes
Gendered styles
Police reform
1.4.1
1.4.2
1.4.3
1.4.4
1.5
2
3
3
5
Policing style
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.4
Male dominated culture
Diversity
Resistance to women’s integration
Equal opportunities for women
Notions of the body
Emotional labour
Research aims
12
13
13
Method
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
Participants
Questionnaire Measures
Procedure
14
14
16
3.
Results
16
4.
Discussion
28
5.
References
36
6.
Appendices
41
iv
1.
Overview
Research has shown the occupation of policing
policy issue. Nonetheless the overall trend has
has traditionally been, and still is, considered
been a shift towards interpersonal and
to be a masculine domain. Informally, the
communication skills and away from physical
prerequisite skill considered essential for
skills pre-eminent in more traditional models
effective policing is the use of physical force
of policing. Research commentators have been
and presence to enforce the law. Men’s work
dubious about the degree to which this has
in policing tended to be the law enforcement
resulted in real changes in the styles of
part of the job, i.e. effecting ‘difficult’ arrests,
policing (Brown, 2003).
employment in high status specialist posts,
enacting threat or use of physical force.
In light of the decline in public satisfaction
Women’s province was denigrated as
with the police (Politeia, 2005), Government
‘rubbish’ work, of low status, such as
pressure and reform required the Police
community liaison, dealing with women and
Service to re-consider its style and priorities
children victims and suspects and
and create a model of policing that is
office/station house administration type duties
consultative, reflective of the public’s
(Walklate, 1996). This is a somewhat
requirements and responds to the public sector
traditional view of police practice, originating
focus of users of services as consumers. The
from times where the use of force was
model that evolved takes on initiatives having
considered necessary and physical resource
the appearance of a more feminised style
was thought critical in enforcing the law.
which actively engages in dialogue with
More recent developments such as police
communities, proactively promotes public
reform, equal opportunities policies, ideas
reassurance to limit the fear of crime and
from new public sector management and the
works toward victim centred methods of
introduction of the extended police family
policing.
have contributed to a changing climate with a
greater community focus requiring
The present exploratory study examines the
communication and interpersonal skills.
views of both members of the public and
Research indicates that women police officers
police officers themselves about the skills
use a less threatening method to approach
thought necessary for the performance of
policing problems and deliver less combative
various policing interventions. Members of
responses to community engagement (Wilson
the public were surveyed to ascertain whether
and Gross, 1994). Although, interestingly,
they had a preference for the sex of officer
with the terrorist threat and the recent murder
deployed to specific tasks, and, if so, what
of Constable Sharon Beshenivsky, the physical
attributes they perceive as desirable in the
dangers officers face has re-emerged as a
officer. The views of police officers are
1
examined to understand the attributes that
as tough-mindedness, assertiveness,
serving men and women operational
decisiveness (Brown ,1998; Waddington,1999)
constables believe are most important to
Waddington describes this as a celebration of
specific deployments. Officers were also
the ‘cult of masculinity’. Researchers such as
asked to self-assess the relative levels of the
Morash-Greene (1986), Martin (1990), Brown
desired attributes they thought themselves to
(1998) and Waddington (1999) generally agree
possess. This was intended to establish
that the activity of frontline policing is
whether gender typical traits reside in men and
constructed (whether locally, culturally or
women officers or whether attributes are
institutionally) in such a way as to allow men
undifferentiated by gender.
to assert their masculinity. They also agree that
policing styles are “mediated” through male-
The study aims to answer the following
dominated values, which associates force,
research questions:
strength and control as essential prerequisites
1. Do the public have a preference for one or
the other sex of officer to deal with
different policing tasks?
to effective law enforcement.
Fielding (1989) suggests that the police
2. If so, why?
occupational culture (in the UK) is actually
3. What attributes do the public look for in
an officer?
comprised of many subcultures, and
4. Do the public equate a range of attributes to a
specific gender?
between forces but within forces. Whilst
5. What attributes do men and women
officers assign to a variety of
deployments?
are sub-cultural differences, he, together with
differences in cultures are not only found
Waddington (1999) acknowledges that there
other observers of police occupational culture
(e.g. Brown and Campbell, 1994), argues for
6. How much of the nominated attribute do
men and women officers claim to possess?
some universals. Following their international
survey work, Brown and Heidensohn (2000)
7. Are there gender specific deployments?
find a “universality of discriminatory
8. Are there gender differences in policing
style?
behaviours that characterise policing
1.2
jurisdictions”. In whichever jurisdiction they
studied, women officers were found to be the
Police culture
targets of sex discrimination and sexual
1.2.1 Male dominated culture
harassment, a finding supported from the work
Male constructed characterisations of
of Gregory and Lees (1999).
policewomen have been defined in somewhat
negative terms, e.g. lacking in physical
Waddington (1999) proposes that the
presence and toughness (Heidensohn, 1996).
dominant construction of policing is crime
Men’s constructs of front-line policing tends to
fighting, demanding, conflictual and through a
be conflictual and coercive, supporting beliefs
police mission to uphold the law, (male)
that police officers need to have traits
officers justify an occupational identity that
traditionally associated with masculinity, such
2
exercises aggressive force. Dick and Cassell
their minority status (Moss Kanter, 1977).
(2004) propose that whilst there may be some
They experience perceptual distortions which
dissent as to what it is that police officers
are an exaggeration of gender stereotypes
should do, male constructions of policing
because there are relatively few exemplars of
enables working practices to act as barriers to
the minority and they also suffer from token
women and women’s styles of working.
status, i.e. being sometimes the only
representative of the minority in a particular
1.2.2 Diversity
role. Brown and Campbell (1994) suggest “a
The dominant majority of working police
woman in such an environment faces not only
officers are white males who work within a
the occupational stresses of policing, but also
strong hierarchical structure. Herbert (2001)
the additional problems resulting from the
looked at what he termed ‘expressions of
organisational treatment of her, as well as the
masculinity’ in police culture. He found
behaviour and attitudes of her fellow officers.”
evidence of manifestations of such expressions
within the United States of America police to
In analysing new recruits’ transition into
be ‘wide and varied’. Some examples are: the
police occupational culture, rather than
glamorisation of violence and denigration of
embracing the inherent diversity, Fielding
women (Young, 1991). The norm of working
(1988) suggests, “trainers seek to reduce
police officers is to place a high value on
diversity among recruits… by orienting into a
dominance and exerting physical control
new status… by stripping away the
(Smith and Gray, 1985) and general agreement
old…desocialisation precedes socialisation.”
of an emphasis on toughness and physical
In the socialisation process recruits are…
prowess (Martin and Jurik, 1996).
“exposed to debates which are already
invested with (working class) values within the
Susan Martin (1979) argues that women:
working culture”. Martin and Jurik (1996)
“threaten to disrupt the prevalent norms and
group solidarity of policemen. Physical
difference between the sexes becomes a
central focus of concern. Underlying the
arguments about women’s physical
characteristics, however, is the men’s fear that
women will fail to uphold the norms of
policing, thus making their work more difficult
and dangerous, and less rewarding. Yet they
also fear that if women do fulfil the norms, the
meaning of masculinity and femininity
become blurred. If a woman can perform in
the role of “policeman” the defining social
characteristics of an officer and a man are no
longer exclusively his: women threaten the
men’s sense of their own masculine identity”
argue that in training, the emphasis on physical
skills disadvantages women whereas qualities
such as negotiation and mediation skills
typically attributed to women are less likely to
be valued.
1.2.3 Resistance to women’s integration
Her Majesty’s Inspectorate of Constabulary
(HMIC) for Scotland (1993b) indicated that
“the failure to achieve complete success [in the
integration of women officers] is not for want
of trying on behalf of the management but is
Research suggests that minorities within
solely due to the physical unsuitability of
working environments suffer as a result of
women to cope with the drunken, violent
3
hooligans, particularly in rough areas on night
HMIC found evidence of sexist and racist
duties.” This reflects the historic view that
banter, albeit more covert and subtle than
policing was an inherently unsuitable job for
previously. Many examples of harassment and
women (Brown, 2000). The police
discrimination were reported, behaviours
establishment (the Association for Chief
unchallenged by peers or supervisors. The
Police Officers (ACPO), Superintendents’
report indicated that women and ethnic
Association, and the Police Federation of
minority staff felt raising an issue would invite
England and Wales) had resisted the
denigration and most had developed coping
incorporation of the police within the 1975
mechanisms in order to continue with work
Sex Discrimination legislation. Smith and
which they valued highly because the matter
Gray’s 1985 study had found widespread
was unlikely to be dealt with appropriately.
evidence of sexual discrimination in the
There were comments about a perceived lack
Metropolitan Police. As an organisation the
of top-level commitment to equal
force operated an unofficial quota to keep
opportunities and its effect on middle
women at under 10% of the workforce as
management and rising levels of bullying.
“women were unsuitable for handling
Some people felt they had been passed over
incidents where violence is possible, such as
for training or promotion opportunities for
public order deployments”; the wording in this
reasons unrelated to their talents or experience.
quote is reminiscent of the HMI for Scotland
This was true for staff of every background
some 10 years earlier.
and gender. There was a general feeling that
the Service lacked a cultural or managerial
By 1995 HMIC indicated that “from a
ethos on how to treat staff, and that
standing start, especially in policies,
management training in the development of
procedures, monitoring systems and public
people and in conflict resolution was often
statements of commitment”… much has been
inadequate. Managers were sometimes felt to
achieved in the arena of equal opportunities.
have little awareness or understanding of
The 1995 thematic report continued that “there
harassment and discrimination issues, and little
are good, sometimes excellent,
ability to deal with them. There was a
initiatives”…yet, “alongside praiseworthy
worrying lack of faith in the grievance system
examples of good practice, there is also
and in the confidentiality of some welfare
scepticism, tokenism and indifference. There
departments.
are forces where a 'cause celebre' has been the
only reason why anything has been done.
More recently, Sir Bill Morris’ report into
There are many individuals who see equal
working practices within London’s
opportunities as crucial to the development of
Metropolitan Police revealed “there is no
a modern, efficient and diverse workforce for
common understanding of diversity within the
the next century, but entrenched attitudes
organisation and that it is not embedded in the
continue to frustrate or dilute their best
culture of the MPS. We fear it remains at
efforts.”
worst a source of fear and anxiety and at best a
4
process of ticking boxes. We fear that some of
departments and training, is evident in the
the efforts the MPS has made to promote the
Royal Ulster Constabulary (HMIC, 1995)
message of diversity across the organisation
where there was also an over-representation of
have been counter productive and the
women in child abuse work. A survey of the
organisation may now be seeing the
Republic of Ireland Police shows a belief
beginnings of a backlash.
amongst female officers of the existence of
“an informal restrictive quota” in respect to
We have received evidence that managers lack
promotion of female officers. Flynn (2000)
confidence in managing other issues of
and Craig (1999) cite evidence of practices
difference whether gender, disability, sexual
that ‘hindered or precluded female progress in
orientation, or faith. The evidence also shows
specialist departments’.
that insufficient priority had been given to
differences other than race. Urgent work must
Fielding (1999) argues that the police are
be undertaken to build the confidence of
essentially a dysfunctional organisation.
managers in managing all aspects of
Certainly, disabling women in the workforce is
difference”.
not conducive to encouraging officers to
achieve their potential. Ideas of human capital
1.2.4 Equal opportunities for women
look at worker adaptability and training as
Research literature comparing the sexes has
contributing to organisational efficiency and
looked at a number of areas in police work
effectiveness as the nature of work continues
such as physical competency (Balkin, 1988),
to change at an ever-faster pace. The
arrest rates (Brown and Neville, 1996), patrol
American Psychological Society (1993)
calls and domestic disputes (Sherman, 1975).
identifies technological communication,
These studies concluded that there was little
greater diversity in the workforce and the
difference between the sexes in their
growing importance of workplace health and
performance of policing tasks. Despite this,
safety as key issues. Patterns of worker
women officers have still not gained the full
organisation and interaction are changing, as
acceptance of their male colleagues (Silvestri,
in self-directed teams. This leads to changes in
2000), nor do they participate in or have equal
skill requirements. Maddock (1999) proposed
access to all career opportunities (Coffey,
“gone are the days when women could
Savage and Brown, 1992) such as promotion
succeed by learning to play men’s games.
or specialist work. In a survey of two British
Instead the time has come for men on the
forces, women were found to be absent in
move to adopt a more feminised approach to
traffic departments, criminal investigation, dog
management games. Her blueprint is for some
handling, scenes of crime and other specialist
key shifts as the following table illustrates:
departments (Bryant, Dunkerley and Kelland,
1985). Brown (1998) still found this to be the
case over ten years later. The diminished
access to specialist posts, such as CID, traffic
5
Male focus
Female Focus
Categorisation
Outputs
Snap decision making
Traditional roles with colleagues
Given information
Impression and status
Assume and direct
Colleagues and next job
Detached/professional
Facilitates/encourages
Process
Discuss
Collaborate
Seek information
Find allies
Question and ask
Be understood
Pursues social objectives
A significant amount of Brown’s work
1.3
(reviewed in Brown and Heidensohn, 2000)
1.3.1 The reality of policing
highlights the trajectory of resistance by the
The law enforcement aspect of policing and
male establishment to women becoming equal
the fighting of crime, which are visible and
partners to their male colleagues in the police
publicly valued, are considered ‘real’ police
organisation. She notes a persistent reduced
work. Crime fighting is reported as the most
remit of duties for women which inhibit them
satisfying part of the work for many officers
from performing the full range of policing
(Martin and Jurik, 1996). It is this common
tasks, directing female officers to deal with
conception of policing, the association with
gender ‘appropriate’ work for women such as
danger, crime, action–orientated and
supporting victims of sexual offences, an
uncertainty that packages the task as “men’s”
extension of their maternal and caring roles,
work. The reality of frontline policing is rather
dealing with female and child victims and
more mundane (Shapland and Vagg 1988). A
offenders. The rationale policemen provided
similar picture is painted, by US researchers,
for limiting women police to ‘suitable’ areas,
of the general remit of the task of frontline
found by one study, was a mixture of
police officers: “Most police calls involve
protectionism and paternalism (Cameron,
requests for service or order maintenance
1992). Paternalism is described as an effective
tasks…policing involves people at their worst
mechanism for doing masculinity and
– when they have been victimised, are injured
preserving male dominance under the guise of
or helpless, or are guilty and seeking escape.
chivalry (Martin and Jurik, 1996). Male
To be effective, officers must restore order in
protection of women is carried out and
volatile situations and use personal skills,
encourages women to avoid difficult tasks.
rather than bravado, to gain compliance.”
The net effect of paternalism is to deny women
(Martin and Jurik, 1996).
Policing Style
the opportunity to demonstrate their abilities
thus limiting their work related experiences
One commonly held assumption portrayed by
and potentially creating resentment among
the predominantly male culture is the reliance
peers for avoidance of “dirty” and difficult
on physical strength and force to conduct the
jobs (Reskin, 1988; Swerdlow, 1989).
wide range of policing tasks. Officers are said
6
to use their work as a resource for doing
using a more facilitative style, relying on
masculinity, as officers associate “real police
verbal and communication skills compared to
work with crime fighting” (Martin and Jurik,
their male counterparts who use a more
1996). Bell (1982) writes that the obsessive
authoritative style (Lunenburg, 1989; Lonsway
focus on examining female physical potential
et al., 2002)
is misplaced. It is inappropriate to focus on
physical competency when whole ranges of
Radford (1989) suggests that it is vital to
skills are necessary to conduct patrol tasks.
consider the history of the introduction of
women in policing, in order to understand the
Westmarland (2001) suggests one way to
perceptions of women in policing held by
consider the roles people play in society, is to
people today. There was a gradual and
adopt a multiple roles approach. Take, for
reluctant extension of a strictly limited and
example, the case of the single parent family.
low status ‘female’ set of duties, to a more
As the head of the family the roles the single
integrated policing role for women. A corpus
parent plays at work, at home, in society are
of research indicates that the majority of
multiple, optional and of a changing nature. In
citizens do, and are willing to, accept female
a study of women in the Criminal Justice
officers working in areas other than
system in the USA, Martin and Jurik (1996)
‘traditionally female’ police work (Berger,
touched on the subject of multiple roles. They
2003). Members of the public are growing in
argue that women have to strike the correct
their acceptance of women in police and no
balance between traditional feminine
longer consider female officers as less
stereotypes and traditional masculine roles.
effective or weaker than their male
Women “naturally” multi-task when managing
counterparts (Kerber, Andes & Mittler, 1977,
work and home demands. Modern policing
Leger, 1997).
which eschews the notion of the “omni
competent “police officer, nonetheless requires
The aim of a study in New Zealand (Singer
a multi skilled officer switching from being
and Singer, 1984) was to measure male and
community based to public order trained.
female citizens’ perceptions of male and
female police officers. Ninety students and a
1.3.2 Public attitudes
sample from the general population of
In a survey of the attitudes of citizens in the
Wellington were asked to fill in a form which
USA regarding the competence of male and
had 14 pairs of polar opposite adjectives
female patrol officers, men and women
describing police officers. The adjectives were
officers were seen as equally competent in
taken from the most commonly occurring
several areas of policing (Kerber, Andes and
descriptions of police officers as described by
Mittler, 1979; Leger, 1997 and Balkin, 1988).
police recruits. Examples of the adjectives
It is generally found that males and females
used are “tense – relaxed, threatening –
adopt different styles of working whilst
protective, trusting – suspicious”. The study
conducting police work. Women are cited as
found no significant main effects. Both male
7
and female police officers were seen in a
Walklate (1996) suggests ‘what women as
positive light, being perceived as courteous,
‘victims’ of crime are asking for is a quality of
friendly, helpful and considerate. Male and
support which is commonly, and
female participants did not differ overall in
stereotypically, associated with women,
their perceptions of law enforcement officers.
though the delivery of which is not necessarily
Female participants perceived female police
(or solely) guaranteed by them.’
officers as significantly “faster, stronger and
more effective” compared to the male
Martin and Jurik (1996) cite research that
participants’ perceptions. Female officers were
indicates women’s working styles vary. In
rated by both male and female participants as
some cases women succumb to the pressures
having protective, kind and fair attributes.
of male dominated work cultures and produce
Male officers were perceived to be strong and
behaviours which emphasise a passive,
suspicious. This study was conducted at a time
supportive and emotional femininity. In other
when there was a substantial increase in
cases women emulate and even try to out
female officers joining the forces of the New
perform men by engaging in masculine
Zealand police. The study does not make
behaviours of task and performance prowess.
explicit the level of female officers deployed
Thus professionalism i.e. doing jobs
in public duties, or, indeed, if the deployments
competently becomes a coping adaptation to
for female officers were different from those
the culture (Heidensohn, 1992).
of their male colleagues.
1.3.3 Gendered styles
Radford’s UK survey of women’ s views on
Effective policing requires an officer to call
policing revealed 44% of the sample to believe
upon a range of attributes and interpersonal
that female officers would be more
resources, to be utilised in a flexible manner in
understanding regarding violence against
order to carry out the police role with public
women. However 32% believed woman
cooperation, to diminish social distance and
officers would not be more understanding.
maintain control and order. This will take a
Many participants preferred to speak to
mix of service oriented and law enforcement
women in regard to domestic violence
type policing.
(Radford, 1987). However Walklate (1996)
suggests that, whilst these findings support the
In surveys, women generally score better than
notion that there is a gendered preference for
men on attributes such as friendliness,
officers, Radford’s results may not be totally
consideration for others, effective listening
representative of the general population of
skills (e.g. Brown, Maidment and Bull, 1992).
women. Heidensohn’s (1992) female police
Women were found to be more courteous,
interviewees pointed out that they could
sensitive, and are perceived as less aggressive
identify policemen who were equally capable
than men. Policewomen were thought to de-
of delivering the same kind of quality of
escalate the potential for violence. The
support in dealing with female cases.
strategies women are perceived to use involve
8
human awareness and social skills, which are
rigidly on their formal authority, and enact
seen as defusing. Brown, Maidment and Bull
only the crime fighting aspects of their role.’
(1992) found male police officers self- rated
themselves as having ‘physical strength and
1.4
the ability to use force when appropriate’ and
1.4.1 Decline in public satisfaction
sergeants believed that men were more likely
Confidence in the police has suffered a decline
to be assertive and have physical presence.
since the mid 1980s (Police Foundation and
Police reform
Policy Studies Institute, 1994; Johnson, 1991
Beck (2002) found 21% of male officers
Politeia, 2005). ACPO’s Strategic Policy
considered themselves less capable at
Document (1990) acknowledged a threefold
community liaison and supporting victims of
list of the service’s shortcomings: setting its
crime as well as other more traditional female
own priorities and standards of service
areas of working, e.g. adult victims of sexual
delivery and effectiveness, no verification that
offences and interviewing female suspects
‘customer’ expectations were being met and
where 29% of men self-evaluated themselves
not providing a consistent standard of fairness,
as less capable. Fifty two per cent of men
courtesy and sensitivity in service delivery
rated themselves as less capable when
(Waters, 1996). Events such as public disorder
questioning child victims of sexual offences.
incidents in Brixton in 1981, Liverpool and
The female style, in the majority of cases, was
Manchester and later in the mid 1980s in
reported as being more service-oriented. This
Tottenham and Handsworth, police
style of working was associated with low
malpractice, Alison Halford’s sex
status work.
discrimination case, Roger Graf’s film
depicting Thames Valley police mishandling
In one US study of men and women joining
of a female rape complainant, miscarriages of
the Minneapolis Police Department, 40 % of
justice such as the ‘Guildford Four’,
men were rated in the highest categories
‘Macguire Seven’ and the ‘Birmingham Six’
compared with 5% of women on a measure of
all contributed to the public’s unease.
aggressiveness in controlling conflict through
physical skills and voice command (Byrne and
1.4.2 Reform agenda
Oakes, 1986). Other research suggests that
Home Office policy makers and police leaders
men are superior in some areas of policing, for
responded by a re-iteration of community
example Kay (1994) considers men as more
focussed policing to “rekindle the old
suited to deal with male youths, due to
philosophies of public cooperation, and
projecting authority better. Smith and Gray
partnership” (Waters, 1996) to bring the
(1985) point out that exerting physical and
community back as a central focus. The aim
verbal control is not generally the most
was to improve communication and interaction
effective method of keeping control. Martin
between public and the police. Police
and Jurik (1996) have depicted some
organisations launched their own programmes
ineffective policemen who tend to ‘rely too
of change to embrace community focussed
9
policing; Kent Constabulary, for example,

detached to connected;
launched ‘The Way Ahead’ (1986) which was

objective to social value based;
designed to include the needs and views of the

event led to process awareness.
public (Humphries, 1991). The Metropolitan
These changes were to be achieved through
Police’s ‘Plus’ programme (1989) was
flatter management structures, less rigid job
designed to initiate culture change in a move
specifications, a focus on task not status,
from a force to a service style of policing.
collaboration and informal communication
Thames Valley Police employed their ‘Make
between staff and an emphasis on clients, users
Contact’ strategy in 1986 to emphasize a
and the community.
quality approach to policing.
Such an approach is reminiscent of feminist
From the mid 1980s there was increasing
practice and draws upon ideas of human
pressure for the police to be incorporated
capital in which people are seen as the most
within the Thatcher government’s reforms of
important resource in the workforce and the
the public sector. These rested on the doctrine
development of new ways of working
that differences between public and private
maximizing this huge potential in more
management could be eliminated and was
creative ways. This was not a total
exemplified through a shift from procedural
feminisation but did represent a shift from the
rules towards getting results (Leishman, Cope
command and control model to a perspective
and Starie, 1996). This meant the introduction
that put process rather than task at the centre
of business methods such as competition,
of management.
becoming customer centred and demonstrating
value for money. Sue Maddock (1999:131)
1.4.3.
argues that this presented a paradigm shift
The reforming of the police to a more service
away from the traditions of a public sector that
orientation that is more citizen focused,
tended to be huge hierarchical organisations
responsive to the needs of communities and
encouraging buck passing and operating in
individuals, was the direction of the Quality of
cultures of inertia with staff rarely coming into
Service initiative. The QOS sub-committee
contact with the consequences of their work.
published a management guide detailing five
New public management encouraged a drive
key operational service areas in 1991. One key
towards action as a counter to inertia, and
area in the QOS strategic framework for
becoming customer focused, to be value
improvement focuses on public reassurance.
driven, creating looser working structures,
This was made explicit by drafting plans to
employing innovative staff and reducing layers
invoke a police service, which responds to
of decision making. Maddock (1999:162)
“improve public reassurance and confidence in
suggests that this represented a feminising
the police and improve satisfaction amongst
project in the public sector involving a
those who come in contact with the police”
movement from
(National Policing Plan, 2005). Obligations

under this section of the plan include
formal to organic;
10
Reassurance agenda
promoting the image of the police as a public
The NRPP has various elements:
service, presenting a proactive community

instilling public confidence and
presence and reflecting public concern (such
collaboration between police and public to
as fear of crime and the role police play) in the
prioritise and find solutions to problems to
setting of policing priorities. An interactional
create a greater sense of security, as the
aspect in reassuring the public was also to
community alone is best placed to define
improve external involvement with other
its own concerns and remedies.

agencies.
controlling anti-social behaviour and its
consequences in order to maintain public
The public perception of crime is a central
confidence.

component of the reassurance agenda. A gauge
taking an intelligence led, targeted
of the extent of the public perception of crime
approach, focussing the most effective
is available from the British Crime Survey,
action against the relatively few incidents
which the Home Office considers “an
that are most damaging to the
important alternative to police records”. The
community’s security

contents featured in the BCS which annually
taking joint action with statutory crime
measures the amount of crime in England and
and disorder partners and other agencies to
Wales that has and has not been reported to the
produce peaceful neighbourhoods.
police, was examined by the Home Affairs

tackling incivility, disorder and dereliction
Committee who proposed that although the
incidence of crime was reducing, the fear of
The Home Affairs Committee report (Home
crime had not (Home Affairs Committee,
Affairs Committee, 2005) discussed in its
2005). The focal point of using community-
fourth report the progress of the reassurance
focussed policing was to target visible crime
agenda. It noted the importance of
and disorder.
mainstreaming community engagement so that
it becomes a part of core business for all
The National Reassurance Policing
forces; this notion is one of valuing human
Programme (NRPP) looks at whether a
capital as the most important and most useful
reassurance policing model based on signal
resource to police work. In joint working the
crimes can impact on the public perception of
police service, public and community agencies
risk and insecurity. The reassurance
can change the dynamic of their former
programme was a joint initiative between
relationship to a more feminised style, one
ACPO and the Home Office; set up to test the
which places value on the relationship, in a
theory that ‘if certain signal crimes and
move to work in partnership, to identify the
disorders are tackled, they will have a positive
priorities of the community to creatively deal
and disproportionate impact on public
with crime and anti-social behaviour.
perceptions of safety and levels of crime and
disorder’.
11
1.4.4
Police recruitment
organisation in England was recruited) to
The recruitment of new officers into the Police
perform their occupational function no longer
Service has undergone significant changes
has relevance. There may however remain a
since 1999 when the Home Office Affairs
symbolic relevance for masculinity and its
Committee supported a proposal by National
associated characteristics. The demand for
Police Training for common minimum
hard physical labour, may no longer be
standards of recruitment practice. Following
present, the pursuit instead is focussed on the
the national competency framework seven
desired aesthetic body for non-occupational
areas have been identified as behavioural
function, e.g. for purposes other than physical
requirements for all constables. These are:
labour at work, such as attracting a partner or

community and customer focus i.e.
to fit a publicly desired profile as portrayed by
understanding and active commitment to
the media. Hobbs (1995) suggests violence is
diverse communities
an “enduring emphatic masculine resource”
effective communication i.e. listening and
and policing, particularly for young men may
questioning skills
be regarded as one of the few remaining non-
personal responsibility i.e. displaying
military occupations with a requirement for
motivation and commitment
physical bodily power and the possibility of
problem solving i.e. analysing information
mortal danger. Westmarland (2001) proposes
and makes effective decisions
that the environment of policing has

resilience i.e. making difficult decisions
historically valued, accepted and required

respect for diversity i.e. understanding
physical, violent labour. Several studies
other people’s views and taking them into
highlight the sustaining value of ‘machismo’
account, treating people with respect no
within the police service. Shilling (1993)
matter what their background
considers the role of the physical body within




the police as “physical capital…possessing
team working i.e. helping to build
power, status and distinctive symbolic forms,
relationships in the team
which are associated with effecting difficult,
Such a set of competencies is expected to be
violent ‘good quality’ arrests”. The culture, as
fulfilled by both men and women constables.
Turner suggests, perceives the power of the
body as still necessary because policing is
1.5
reliant on the physicality of arrest tasks such as
Theoretical considerations
1.5.1 Notions of the body
running, climbing and fighting (Turner, 1992).
In his discussion of theoretical approaches to
In his thesis Turner (1992) discusses the body
the body, Turner (1992) suggests that changes
as a consuming self and representational being
and observes ‘the culture that recognises the
in Western industrialised societies, have led to
body (as) a project’ that is disciplined by
the reformulations of labour and consumption.
consumerist desire. Young (1991) addresses
He argues that the once functional essentiality
of ‘machismo’ in young working class men
the discourse, she suggests the “relatively
(the population from which the first police
untrained man nevertheless engages in sport
12
generally with more free motion and open
aggressive cross examination and keeping
reach than does his female counterpart”. Her
control of the witness. This combative aspect
point is that although men are more physically
of emotional labour carries over from the
able, and engage more on the whole with
lawyer’s work arena into their working styles
sport, they are by no means superior athletes to
and interactions with colleagues. Pierce
women. Turner’s associated assumption is that
suggests that this is masculine ways of doing
women lack confidence and trust in their
emotions. Women’s roles, she argues, is often
physical abilities, whereby women “approach
to do the preparatory and repair work. Thus
physical…engagement… with timidity,
women reassure witnesses, support victims,
uncertainty and hesitancy”. Young suggests
and support and maintain the emotional
that this is due to the self-consciousness
stability of male colleagues. This more
experienced by women: to openly engage her
feminine version of emotional labour remains
body in physical activity with external
largely invisible and taken for granted.
directedness would be to invite objectification.
Pierce’s data suggest that lawyers find women
The implication here is that in some cases the
are nicer, friendlier and easier to get along
female officer may seek a more discreet, non-
with than their male counterparts. It is argued
confrontational method rather than to publicly
that this conceptualisation of emotional labour
display her physical presence for it to be
may be found in the Police Service, where
overtly observable and objectified by others.
there is a gendered differentiation of
acceptable emotions displayed by men and
1.5.2 Emotional labour
women.
In most workplaces, there is a need to balance
the demands of personal and family life with
1.5.3 Research aims
the demands of the employer. Hochschild
The aims of the present study seek to establish
(1983) referred to this activity as ‘emotional
whether there is a gendered dimension to
labour’, which has been defined as “the effort,
policing in terms of officers’ styles and public
planning and control needed to express
preferences. What do the public prefer in a
organisationally desired emotions during
police service and what qualities are desirable
interpersonal transactions” (Morris &
in officers when undertaking specific duties?
Feldman, 1996, p. 987). The need for
More specially, the study seeks to establish,
emotional labour has especially been found in
when dealing with different policing tasks,
physically dangerous professions such as
whether the public has a preference for a male
policing where there is fear of harm or death.
or female officer, and what attributes they
Jennifer Pierce (1995) describes the concept of
prefer the officer to have. A further aim is to
emotional labour within law firms. She argues
establish from police officers themselves, by
that one form of emotional labour within the
means of self ratings the attributes the officers
courtroom is intimidation and this contributes
assign to a variety of deployments and how
to the notion of macho adversarialism resulting
much of the attribute male and female officers
in what she terms the Rambo litigator i.e.
claim to possess. By these means, it is hoped
13
to ascertain whether the police and public
indicating previous police contact shows 39%
differ in their notion of what attributes need be
were victims of crime, 35% were witnesses to
present in an attending officer to adequately
a crime, 13% were offenders and 6% were
undertake a specific deployment.
suspects.
2.
2.1.2 Questionnaire Measures
Method
2.1.1 Participants
Two questionnaires were devised (see
a)
Appendices 4 and 5) in collaboration with a
610 operational uniformed police
constables were approached representing a
senior police officer and were used in the
sample from four provincial UK police forces.
survey; one questionnaire was administered to
At the time of writing 101 completed
the public and the second administered to the
questionnaires were received, 99 of which
Police Constables.
were usable for the present study, giving a
response rate of 16.6%. The recruitment
a)
The students’ questionnaire was
strategy constituted a purposive sample of
divided into three sections: the first section
equal numbers of men and women in order
listed 23 attributes such as ‘ambitious’, ’sense
adequately to represent the views of male and
of humour’, ’sensitive’. Respondents were
female officers (given that there is
asked to denote, by means of encircling one of
approximately only one female to every four
five responses on a Likert scale, the degree to
male officers). The respondents comprised 47
which the listed attributes are ‘mostly found in
males and 52 females, the mean age of the
males’, ‘more often in males, ‘found in both
sample was 32.7 years, and the mean length of
males and females’, ‘found more often in
service was 7.9 years. There were no
females’ or ‘mostly found in females’.
statistically significant differences between the
age and length of service of men and women
The purpose of the second section was to
officers
establish respondents’ preference for one or
other gender of police officer when attending
b)
150 members of the public were
11 different deployments; the deployments
approached to take part in the study. They
listed were:
represented a multicultural and socio-

Elderly missing person,
economically varied opportunist sample from

Managing a road traffic collision,
locations in Greater London, the City of

Arrest of a young person who had stolen
London and the University of Surrey in
from a motor vehicle,
Guildford. One hundred and fifteen

Burglary in your home,
participants completed the questionnaires, 100

Informing a family of a relatives
of which were usable for the analysis, giving a
unexpected death,
response rate of 66%. The respondents

comprised 50 males and 50 females; the mean
Interviewing a women victim after a
sexual offence,
age of the sample was 28.8 years. Data
14


Investigating an accusation by a child that
6 people’,
s/he had been abused by a relative,

Wife injured in domestic violence,

Male and female pub fight,

Disorder at football match,

Dealing with troublesome youths.
‘attending to deal with a fight involving 3-

‘attending a report of a youth acting
suspiciously around motor vehicles’,

‘attending a group of youths following
complaints of harassment/anti-social
behaviour’,

Respondents were asked to rate a gender
‘interviewing a victim of an indecent
assault’,
preference by encircling a choice of male,
female or either and then requested to list the

‘attending a road traffic accident’ and
reason for their preference.

‘delivering an unexpected death message
to a family’
The third section asked ‘What are the strengths
and weaknesses of men and women police
Officers were asked to write the most
officers?’ Finally the questionnaire asked the
important skill or quality they thought
respondents to list any previous contact they
appropriate to undertake each deployment.
had had with the police as, ‘a witness’, ‘a
They were also asked to indicate how much of
victim’, ‘an offender’ ‘a suspect’ or ‘other’.
this skill/quality they themselves possessed by
Respondents were also asked to complete
means of a five-point scale with 1= none, 2=
some basic demographic information.
little, 3= some, 4= quite a lot and 5= a great
deal.
b)
The questionnaire designed for the
police sample consisted three sections: the first
The last section listed the same deployments
section listed a series of leadership statements
(as in section 2) and asked the officers to rank
reflecting situation, transactional and
how important each scenario was as a police
transformational styles. Officers were required
priority. The available responses were: 1=
to indicate (by means of a five-point Likert
highest priority to 9= least priority. The next
scale) if they ‘disagree’, ‘disagree somewhat’,
column asked the officers how many times in
‘neither agree or disagree’, ‘agree somewhat’
the previous 6 months they had been called to
or ‘agree’ that the statement applied to
that deployment either: never, rarely,
themselves as officers.
sometimes, often or very often. A space was
made available at the end of the questionnaire
The second section listed nine deployments:
for officers to make their own comments about

‘attending a burglary dwelling in
the public’s expectation of the service or the
progress’,
way they feel it is or should be delivered.
‘attending a domestic violence incident
Finally they were asked to state their age,
when both parties are still present’,
length of service, and gender.


‘attending a report about a first time
missing adult’,
15
2.1.3 Procedure
about these deployments requiring strength
The questionnaires were anonymous and
and assertiveness. It was thought that women
voluntary; this was emphasized in the covering
are not taken seriously when physical presence
letter, which accompanied each questionnaire.
and physical skills are required. Women
The police officers’ questionnaires were
officers were preferred when it came to
distributed via the police internal postal
dealing with child abuse accusations, female
system, and returned by means of a ‘freepost’
victims of sexual offence and domestic
system to the university. Each of the forces
violence incidents. This was because women
participating in the survey had accompanying
are thought to have superior emotional skills
letters from the respective chief constables
such as empathy, compassion and listening
endorsing the study. Students were surveyed
skills. Either gender was thought appropriate
in London at their offices of work and on a
when dealing with searches for an elderly
university campus by approaching individuals
missing person, or a road traffic collision since
in a variety of locations such as computer
training was thought to equip both equally
rooms and cafes. The study had some time
well in undertaking these tasks.
constraints so limited time was available in
which to process returned questionnaires.
Dealing with troublesome youth or persons
stealing from a motor vehicle was more
3.
equivocal with less clear-cut preferences. Here
Results
The first set of results relates to the community
the preference was for either, or when a gender
sample and reports the declared preferences
was preferred it tended to be men. Delivering a
for officers by their sex to deal with different
death message was also equivocal but here
policing tasks.
preference was for either gender or women
officers.
Overall the public expressed a clear preference
for policemen to deal with fights involving
males and females and disorder at football
matches. This was largely because of beliefs
16
Table 1 Percentage preference for sex of officer by all members of the public
Deployment
Males
Either
Women
Reason
Male Fight
76
14
5
Disorder at football match
67
18
5
50
20
23
Troublesome Youth
47
33
7
Elderly Missing person
9
58
13
Physical strength/ presence, force required, assertiveness, fair play,
women lack strength, aggressive, not afraid to use force, can
physically stop, women not taken seriously, male have
understanding of men, authoritative, dominant, get respect, calm it
down, quicker, provide safety, more effective
Physical strength/ presence, know the people/environment more,
responsive, passion for sport, intimidating, control large crowds,
physical presence, aggressive, men listen to men, authoritative, get
respect
Physical strength/ presence, force required, can physically stop ,
assertiveness, women pay more attention, dominant, authoritative,
calm it down quicker
Authoritative, Intimidating, physical strength, scarier, physical
presence, youths look up to them, youths more likely to respond,
youths respect, strength to prevent
Same ability, procedural work, both effective, both can gather info.,
training will equip, as long as professional
Road traffic collision
23
55
3
As long as responsible, same capability, both effective, training will
equip, as long as experienced
Person stealing from motor vehicle
34
46
3
36
42
5
2
4
87
5
22
63
Wife injured in Domestic violence
12
13
60
Easy to talk to , sensitive, compassionate, empathic, better
understanding of situation, more confident, same gender, men may
remind victim of abuser,
Sensibility, confident with child, mother figure, sensitive, easy to talk
to, less threatening, gentle, listening skills, comforting,
communication skills, females are socially accepted by child,
empathic, understanding, instinctual, are mothers so understand,
sensible reaction, child will be more comfortable
Comprehend sensitively, understanding, less threat, supportive, fear
men as like abuser, easy to talk to, calm the situation
Death message
8
45
35
Both empathic, training will equip, speed, depends on skills,
sensitive
Female Fight
Burglary
Women victim of Sexual offence
Child abuse accusation
Both effective, as long as responsible, training will equip
Same ability, procedural work, competence important, both can
gather info., equal merit, professional, trust
Table 2 Public preferences for officers by gender of respondent
Deployment
Burglary
Child abuse accusation
Male Fight
Female Fight
Wife injured in Domestic violence*
Disorder at football match
Elderly Missing person*
Troublesome Youth
Death message*
Road traffic collision*
Women victim of Sexual offence
Stealing from motor vehicle*
Sex of respondent
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
male
female
Males
34
38
8
2
70
82
42
58
18
6
68
66
14
4
52
42
10
6
32
14
2
2
46
22
17
Either
44
40
20
24
14
14
18
22
14
12
18
18
48
68
26
40
34
56
42
68
6
2
34
58
Women
6
4
60
66
8
2
28
18
48
72
4
6
14
12
8
6
44
26
4
2
86
88
4
2
Further analyses were conducted to see if
square 10.4 p<. 005) to think an officer of
gender of the respondent from the community
either gender could deal with a missing person
sample was associated with preference for
report (Chi square 8.7 p<. 01) or a road traffic
gender of officer. The asterisks mark those that
collision (Chi square 13.6 p<. 001) or
were statistically significantly different. Thus
delivering a death message (Chi square 11 p<.
women respondents were more likely than
004). Men preferred a male to deal with theft
men to wish a woman officer deal with a wife
from a vehicle (Chi square 15.3 p<. 0001).
injured in a domestic violence situation (Chi
Table 3 Contact with police and preference for officer by deployment
Deployment
Burglary*
Child abuse accusation
Male Fight
Female Fight
Wife injured in Domestic violence
Disorder at football match
Elderly Missing person*
Troublesome Youth*
Death message
Road traffic collision
Women victim of Sexual offence*
Person stolen from motor vehicle
Contact with Police
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
yes
no
Male % (n)
29.6 (16)
43.5 (20)
1.9 (1)
8.7 (4)
74.1 (40)
78.3 (36)
51.9 (28)
47.8 (22)
9. 3 (5)
15.2 (7)
64.8 (35)
69.6 (32)
7.4 (4)
10.9 (5)
40.7 (22)
54.3 (25)
5.6 (3)
10.9 (5)
18.5 (10)
28.3 (13)
0
4.3 (2)
31.5 (17)
37.0 (17)
Either % (n)
3.7 (2)
37 (17)
22.2 (12)
21.7 (10)
14.8 ( 8)
13 (6)
22.2 (12)
17.4 (8)
18.5 (10)
6.5 (3)
22.2 (12)
13 (6)
68.5 (37)
45.7 (21)
42.6 (23)
21.7 (10)
51.9 (28)
37 (17)
63 (34)
45.7 (21)
7.4 (4)
0
50.0 (27)
41.3 (19)
Female % (n)
46.3 (25)
6.5 (3)
64.8 (35)
60.9 (28)
5.6 (3)
4.3 (2)
18.5 ( 10)
28.3 (13)
59.3 (32)
60.9 (28)
3.7 (2)
6.5 (3)
5.6 (3)
21.7 (10)
3.7 (2)
10.9 (5)
29.6 (16)
41.3 (19)
1.9 (1)
4.3 (2)
85.2 (46)
89.1 (41)
1.9 (1)
4.3 (2)
When comparing the preferences of gender of
square 5.8 p<. 05). In the case of burglary
officer to deal with a matter, then there were
there was an increased preference for a woman
some differences if the member of the public
officer if the person had had a prior contact
had had prior dealings with the police:
with the police. In the cases of a search for an
burglary (Chi square 29.5 p<. 0001), elderly
elderly missing person and dealing with
missing person (Chi square 7.5 p<. 02),
troublesome youth, there was a decrease in the
troublesome youth (Chi square 6.0 p<. 04),
preference for a woman officer.
and dealing with victim of sexual offence (Chi
18
Figure 1 Preference for gender of officer to deal with burglary by previous contact with the police
100
80
60
Policemen
Either
40
Policewomen
20
0
prior contact
No previous contact
Figure 2 Preference for gender of officer to deal with an elderly missing person by previous contact with
the police
100
80
60
Policemen
Either
40
Policewomen
20
0
prior contact
No previous contact
Figure 3 Preference for gender of officer to deal with troublesome youth by previous contact with the
police
100
80
Policemen
60
Either
40
Policewomen
20
0
prior contact
No previous contact
19
Figure 4 Preference for gender of officer to deal sex offence by previous contact with the police
100
80
60
Policemen
Either
40
Policewomen
20
0
prior contact
No previous contact
Policing style
This section reports the results from the police
the findings relating to the policing style
officer questionnaire. This section indicates
questions.
Table 4 Mean response to policing style questions
Mean score derived from response options: - 1 = disagree, 2 = disagree somewhat, 3 = neither agree or disagree, 4 =
agree somewhat, 5 = agree
Policing style
Mean Score
1.
I give the same service to all members of public whoever they are………
4.52*
2.
It’s important to show the public you are human……………………………
4.47
3.
I draw on my own experiences so I can relate personally to the public …
4.42
4.
If don’t know how to do something i find out for myself ……………………
4.39
5. Take account of view of others, even if I disagree with them………………
4.36
6. It’s important to keep your emotion under control when dealing with public
4.36
7.
I tend to be someone who colleagues come to for advice…………………
4.14
8. I mentor less experienced colleagues………………………………………..
4.12
9. I am influential on shift using expertise………………………………………
4.01
10. Socialising after work improves professional relationships………………...
3.68
11. I only take the lead when I know a lot about the situation………………….
3.45
12. My goal is to get job done, even if team don’t agree………………………..
3.44
13. I act as a mediator when colleagues disagree ……………………………..
3.41*
14. I am focussed on achieving results that contribute to the forces PI’s…….
3.40
15. I try to read the situation and improvise rather than follow procedures ….
3.28*
14. If I don’t understand something I have a go before I ask…………………..
2.82*
15. Needs of the organisation are more important than an individual officers needs
2.16
Significance levels
* >. 05, **> .01
20
On the whole there were fewer discernable
task first if they did not understand something’
differences between men and women officers.
( women’s mean 3.05; mens mean 2.57, t= 1.9,
However differences did occur on four items:
p<.05). Women were less likely to ‘improvise
women were more likely to endorse giving
rather than follow procedures’ (female mean
‘same service to all members of the public’
3.03, male mean, 3. 55, t=2.6 p<. 01) or ‘act as
(mean 4.71), significantly more than men
a mediator when colleagues disagree’
(mean 4.31,t = 60.0. p<.05) and they were less
(women’s mean 3.21, men’s mean 3.63, t=
likely to agree that they ‘would have a go at a
2.09 p<. 05) compared to men.
Figure 5 Percentage differences in agreements between men and women officers
100
men
women
80
60
40
20
0
e
ic
v
er
am
s
e
s
v
ha
e
a
go
st
fir
m
r
to
ia
d
e
i
ov
r
p
im
se
Men and women officers were equally likely
team didn’t agree and were focussed on
to agree that it is important to show the public
achieving results that contribute to the forces
you are human, draw on their own experiences
performance indicators. Officers, both men
in order to relate personally to the public, find
and women, tended to disagree that the needs
out for themselves if they didn’t know how to
of the organization are more important than
do something, and take account of the view of
individuals.
others, even if they disagree with those views.
They felt it was important to keep their
By undertaking a multivariate analysis of these
emotions under control when dealing with
items (Smallest Space Analysis) three regions
public, tended to be someone who colleagues
are discernible suggesting that these
come to for advice, and felt they were
statements are indicative of three foci of
influential on shift using their expertise.
policing style: emotional labour; task
Officers were less sure about whether
orientation; and performance delivery. The
socialising after work improved professional
items that statistically significantly
relationships, that they only took the lead
differentiated men and women officers can be
when they knew a lot about the situation, felt
found in each of these regions. This may be
that their goal was to get job done, even if the
interpreted to mean that whilst overall men
21
and women officers approach policing in these
the same quality of service to all and within
three distinct ways, there is a more subtle
the performance delivery are more likely than
emphasis that may be reflective of how
men to have a go themselves before asking for
women work within the occupational culture.
help. This may be a reflection of their
Somewhat counter intuitively within the
adaptation to the police culture and in order to
emotional labour focus, women seem less
counter gender stereotyping may be less
likely to act as mentors to colleagues or to
willing to be seen to mentor colleagues and in
improvise. Within the task focus women are
a male environment less likely to be seen as
more likely to state that they believe in giving
needing help themselves.
Figure 6 Smallest Space Analysis of Policing style
takaccount
Emotional labour
improvise
socialise
Task
controlemot
influentialexpertise
mentor
advisor
findout
drawexp
sameservice
mediator
jobdone
results
human
lead when skilled
orgfirst
haveago
Performance
22
Skills and deployment
Table 5 Police nominated skill category for deployment
Deployment
Cognitive
Burglary
Domestic violence
Missing adult
fight
Youth trying doors of
motor vehicles
Youth anti-social
behaviour
Road traffic collision
Indecent assault
34
22
37
34
51
Deliver death message
Number of officers nominating broad skill category
Communicati
Emotional
Forensic
Health &
on
Safety
7
8
4
10
8
3
8
7
8
15
8
0
8
4
4
20
8
4
8
8
Physical skill
14
8
8
8
8
38
8
1
8
2
8
33
6
8
8
0
45
8
8
31
0
8
8
7
8
51
8
0
8
Officers were asked to write the most
ability to chase on foot. There were no
important skill/competency they considered
statistically significant differences between
appropriate when dealing with a series of
men and women officers in the broad area of
deployments. Individual responses were
skills that they chose as being appropriate for
collated (see Appendix 1) and content
the deployment.
analysed. The content codings were verified
by an independent coder, a senior police
Officers were asked to indicate, on a scale of
officer. The responses were categorized into
one to five, the amount of their nominated skill
six broad skill areas as shown above in table 5.
that they personally possessed in dealing with
The dominant skill areas were classified as
the deployment. Further analyses were
cognitive skills (including problem solving,
conducted to show if men and women differed
decision making) and emotional skills (such as
in their skill profiles. Table z indicates that
listening ability, empathy). Interestingly there
women rated themselves as having the greater
were also forensic skills, which had to do with
level of skills compared to men in four
crime scene management, health and safety
instances.
issues as well as some physical skills such as
Table 6 Mean gender differences in amount of self-rated dominant nominated skill
Mean score derived from response options: - 1 = none, 2 = little, 3 = some, 4 = quite a lot, 5 = a great deal
Skill and deployment
Cognitive for Domestic violence
Cognitive for Missing adult
Emotional for Indecent assault
Emotional for Deliver death message
Men (n)
4.0 (10)
3.69 (16)
3.19 (21)
4.0 (22)
Women (n)
4.17 (12)
4.2 (21)
4.45 (24)
4.48 (29)
Independent t - test
t= -2. 537 p< 0.1
t= 2. 32, p<. 02
t= -3.83 p< .000
t= -2.419 p< .019
In the case of domestic violence and attending
was nominated as most appropriate, women
a report about a missing person, cognitive skill
rated themselves higher than men. When
23
emotional skill was nominated for
themselves as having greater levels of this than
interviewing a victim of indecent assault, or
men.
delivering a death message, women rated
Policing priorities
Table 7 Officers ranking of deployments in order of priority
Rank 1= most important priority Rank 9= least important priority
Average rank for all
officers
Men
Women
Burglary
2.6
2.6
2.7
Domestic Violence
3.1
3.5
2.7
Road Traffic Collision
3.8
3.5
4.0
Fight
4.0
3.9
4.0
Sexual Offence
5.7
5.6
5.8
Missing Adult
6.0
6.4
5.6
Youth Attempting Car
Theft
6.1
5.9
6.2
Deliver a Death
Message
6.1
6.3
5.9
Antisocial Youth
6.8
6.7
7.0
Deployment
Officers overall, indicated burglary to be the
rankings, there was a difference within men
deployment that they gave the highest priority
and women’s ordering that implied different
to. Thereafter they thought domestic violence
prioritisation (Spearman’s Rho 0.8 p<. 0027).
and road traffic collisions to be the next in
Thus women placed domestic violence and
importance. They gave least priority to anti
searching for a missing person higher in their
social youth and delivering a death message
ordering than men. Men place road traffic
collision, sexual offence and youth trying car
Whilst there were no statistical differences
door handles higher in their rank ordering than
between men and women in the average
women.
24
Figure 7 Rank ordering of deployment priorities by men and women officers
Male
8
Deliver
death
Youth
attem pting m es s age
7
Sexual
offence
Rank Order
6
Youth
antis ocial
Mis s ing
behaviour
adult
car theft
5
4
3
Road traffic Dom es tic
collis ion
violence
Fight
Burglary
2
1
0
Female
8
7
Mis s ing
adult
Rank Order
6
5
Road traffic
collis ion
4
3
Burglary
Fight
Dom es tic
violence
2
1
0
25
Deliver
death
Sexual
offence m es s age
Youth
antis ocial
Youth behaviour
attem pting
car theft
Frequency of deployment
Table 8 Frequency of deployment in the preceding six months 1= never to 5 =very often
Reason for
Deployment
All
Men
Women
Deliver a Death
Message
1.9
1.9
1.9
Sexual Offence
1.9
1.4
2.3*
Missing Adult
2.6
2.5
2.6
Burglary
2.8
2.8
2.8
2.9
2.8
3.1
3.7
3.8
3.7
Fight
3.7
3.6
3.9
Domestic
Violence
3.8
3.8
3.9
Antisocial Youth
4.1
3.9
4.3
Youth Attempting
Car Theft
Road Traffic
Collision
There were few statistical differences
problematic youth or delivering a death
between men and women in terms of the
message. They were least likely to attend a
frequencies of their deployments. Both were
burglary in progress or a domestic violence
most often deployed to deal with
incident. More women than men were likely
to have been deployed to interview a victim
of a sexual assault, (t=-4.170 p<0001)
26
Figure 8 Differences in men and women’s deployment interviewing victim of sex offence
90
men
women
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
er
nev
e
/rar
ly
etim
som
es/o
y
/ver
ften
n
ofte
Deployment and priorities
When examining the officers’
there was little relationship between the
prioritisation and the frequencies with
priority an officer assigned to a task and
which they were asked to attend different
the likelihood that he or she would be
tasks, no statistically significant
deployed on that task
correlation was found. In other words
High
Figure 9 Correlations Between Officer Priorities and Frequency of Deployment
4.5
4
Do mestic
vio lence
Fight
3.5
Frequency
A ntiso cial
yo uth
Ro ad
traffic
co llisio n
Yo uth attempting
car theft
3
B urglary
2.5
M issing adult
2
Sexual
o ffence
Deliver a
death message
Low
1.5
1
1
2
3
4
5
Personal Priority
High
27
6
7
8
Low
This analysis suggests that all officers,
cases involving an elderly missing person
men and women gave domestic violence,
search, and delivering a death message had
fights and road traffic collisions high
lower priority ratings and were relatively
priority. By and large they were more
less frequent deployments. Interestingly
often deployed on these tasks compared to
dealing with anti social youth was given a
other taskings. Burglary in progress had a
low priority and yet officers were
high personal priority but was a less
frequently deployed to deal with the task.
frequent deployment. Sexual offences,
4.
Discussion
This study directed research questions to
sexual offence and female victims of
address whether the public had a
domestic violence, as women were
preference for officer by gender and
thought to be superior and more
whether this is reflected in the sills of men
confidence in the use emotional skills such
and women officers. The study was also
as such as empathy, sensitivity,
interested in seeing if there is a persistence
compassion and communication skills
of differential deployment practices.
such as easiness to talk to and
Finally the question of policing styles was
comprehension. Either gender was thought
addressed.
to be suited to deal with road traffic
collisions and elderly missing persons as
Results indicated that the public clearly
long as the officer was experienced and
expressed a preference for male officers to
professional, training was thought to equip
deal with fights involving either males and
both equally well in undertaking what was
females and disorder at football matches.
were thought of as largely procedural
The reasons men were preferred were
tasks.
beliefs that policemen possess greater
physical strength, physical presence and
Dealing with burglary or persons stealing
assertiveness than women. These attributes
from a motor vehicle was more equivocal
were deemed most useful for potential
with less clear-cut preferences. Here the
conflictual deployments. The public
preference was for either sex of officers or
thought that women would not be taken
when a gender was preferred it tended to
seriously and they would fear for a
be men. Either men or women officers
policewoman’s safety where physical
were thought appropriate to deal this
presence and physical strength were
deployment as the demand was for
believed to be the dominant requirements.
procedural knowledge. The public felt
Women were clearly preferred to deal with
adequate training will equip either sex of
child abuse accusations, female victims of
officer to deal appropriately with events.
28
Delivering a death message was also
If the member of the public had had prior
equivocal and again it was felt that
dealings with the police when comparing
training would equip officers to handle
the preferences of gender of officer to deal
this. Dealing with troublesome youth was
with a matter, some preference differences
also equivocal with a preference for either
were observed. In the cases of burglary
gender or where there was a preferred sex
and dealing with victim of sexual offence
it was for men due to their physical
there was an increased preference for a
presence, as youths may respect men
woman officer if the person had had a
more.
prior contact with the police. In the cases
of a search for an elderly missing person
Interestingly, these preferences doe appear
and dealing with troublesome youth there
demarcated along traditional gender
was a decrease in the preference for a
stereotypes. Women are thought more
woman officer. It is difficult to interpret
compassionate than men and this attribute
these findings as we do not know the
suits them to deal with victims or people
gender of officer, the member of the
in distress better than men. On the other
public had had prior dealings with. It
hand, where physical skills were deemed
might be that this was an unsatisfactory
appropriate as in conflict situations men
police-public encounter and the person
were preferred over women. In part this
thought that an officer of the opposite
was due to chivalric attitudes about
gender may be more effective. It also may
vulnerability of and greater concern about
be that women are thought better at
women being injured compared to men.
dealing with these particular tasks.
There was however, a view expressed by
the community sample that women
On the whole there were more similarities
officers were less able to deal with types
than differences between men and women
of deployments.
police officers. When considering policing
styles three foci were discernible:
There were some differences in emphasis
emotional labour; task orientation; and
for preferences of officer when
performance delivery. Specific descriptors
considering the gender of the participants.
that statistically significantly differentiated
The women in the community sample
men and women officers can be found in
were more likely than men to prefer a
each of these foci. This may be interpreted
woman officer to deal with domestic
to mean that whilst overall men and
violence or wish either gender to deal with
women officers approach policing in these
a missing person or a road traffic collision.
three distinct ways, there is a more subtle
The men in the sample preferred male
emphasis that may be reflected of how
officers to deal with theft from a vehicle.
women work within the occupational
culture. Where differences occurred
women said they treated all members of
29
the public the same, significantly more
understand something’ before asking for
than men. This finding may be indicative
help, when it comes to performance
of a greater diversity consciousness
delivery .This may be a reflection of their
compared to men. It could be imagined
adaptation to the police culture, in order to
that women are approaching the public
counter gender stereotyping. Again it may
with fewer preconceived expectations
be in a male environment, women attempt
focussing to a greater extent than males on
to undertake the task alone and so appear
the situational factors of the deployment.
less conspicuous and less likely to be seen
This has also been a feature of women’s
as needing help themselves. This accords
approach to policing identified by
with Heidensohn’s (1992) concept of
Heidensohn (1992) and discussed later.
professionalism as a female coping
strategy. Heidensohn argues that women
Male officers were more likely to indicate
seek to do things “properly“ i.e. keeping to
that they ‘improvise rather than follow
the rules and being self controlled. Being
procedures’ than females. This could
professional for women is their way of
indicate that men are more confident in
demonstrating their skills and working
deviating from procedural requirements.
hard. Another element of professionalism,
Women on the other hand are more
according to Heidensohn, is to treat the
noticeable because of their minority status
public well. She notes (1992:148) that the
and may wish to conform in order to avoid
police women she studied were
notice. Interestingly, it was men who were
exasperated by the cavalier attitude of
more likely to ‘act as a mediator when
some male colleagues which led to a
colleagues disagree’ compared to women.
determination to do things well rather than
It might have been thought that women
develop the cynicism noted in male
would more likely engage in mediation but
officers.
possibly this was construed as a cognitive
more problem solving task than emotional
Men and women officers were equally
repair work. This is indicative of the
likely to agree on the majority of the
different types of emotional labour
statements relating to policing style which
discussed by Pierce in her work with
suggests these approaches are possibly are
lawyers. This could also be construed as
a reflection of training and recruitment
men feeling more able to engage in
strategies, with differences in style being
emotional labour of the job, or women
socialised out. Men and women agreed
seeking to distance themselves from this
that it is important to show the public you
more feminized emphasis of policing
are human, to draw on their own
style.
experiences in order to relate personally to
the public, find out for themselves if they
Women were more likely than men to
didn’t know how to do something, take
‘have a go at a task first if they did not
account of the view of others, even if they
30
disagree with those views, felt it was
deployment. In four deployments, males
important to keep their emotions under
and females differed in two skill
control when dealing with public, tended
categories - cognitive and emotional skills.
to be someone who colleagues come to for
Women rated themselves higher than men
advice, and felt they were influential on
in all four deployments. Men and women
shift using their expertise. Officers were
differed in their skill profiles in the
less sure about whether socialising after
deployment of domestic violence and
work improved professional relationships,
attending a report about a missing person.
or prepared to take the lead in a situation
Cognitive skill was nominated as most
they knew a lot about. They also were
appropriate, and women rated themselves
ambivalent about getting job done, even if
higher than men. Emotional skill was
the team didn’t agree and being focussed
nominated for interviewing a victim of
on achieving results that contribute to the
indecent assault, or delivering a death
force’s performance indicators or putting
message; women again rated themselves
the needs of the organisation before that of
as having greater levels of this set of
the individual.
emotional skills than men.
Officers were asked about the most
As a whole sample, police officers
important skill or competency they
indicated burglary to be the highest
considered appropriate when dealing with
priority. Thereafter they thought domestic
a series of deployments. Individual
violence and road traffic collisions to be
responses were content analysed. The
the next in importance. They gave least
dominant skill areas were classified as
priority to anti-social youth and delivering
cognitive skills, which included problem
a death message. Whilst there were no
solving, decision making, and emotional
statistical differences between men and
skills such as compassion, empathy and
women in the average rankings, there was
sensitivity. No differences were found
a difference within men’s and women’s
between men and women officers in the
ordering that implied different
broad area of skills that they chose as
prioritisation. Thus women placed
being appropriate for the various
domestic violence and searching for a
deployments. Fewer responses were
missing person higher in their ordering
generated in the more practical skill areas
than men. Men placed road traffic
such as physical skills, health and safety
collision, sexual offence and youth trying
and forensic skills. This again may be a
car door handles higher in their rank
reflection of probationer training and the
ordering than women.
national competency framework.
Officers were asked to indicate the amount
There were few differences between men
of the nominated skill that they personally
and women in terms of the frequencies of
possessed when dealing with the
their deployments. Both were most often
31
deployed to deal with problematic youth
because of the belief that policemen
or deliver a death message, the former
possessed greater physical strength,
being the deployment that they allocated
physical presence and assertiveness; these
least priority to in terms of importance.
attributes were deemed most useful for
They were least likely to attend the
potentially conflictual deployments.
deployments to which they allocated
However male and female officers thought
highest priority, a burglary in progress or a
the dominant skill areas for the
domestic violence incident. More women
deployments were cognitive in nature,
than men were likely to have been
which included problem solving and
significantly differentially deployed to
decision-making rather than physical
interview a victim of a sexual assault.
skills. Research shows women were found
to be more courteous, sensitive, and are
When examining the officers’
perceived as less aggressive than men.
prioritisation and the frequencies with
Policewomen were thought to de-escalate
which they were asked to attend different
the potential for violence. The strategies
tasks, there was little relationship between
women are perceived to use involve
the priority an officer assigned to a task
human awareness and social skills, which
and the likelihood that he or she would be
are seen as defusing. Brown, Maidment
deployed on that task
and Bull (1992) found male police officers
self-rated themselves as having ‘physical
This analysis suggests that all officers,
strength and the ability to use force when
men and women, gave burglary in
appropriate’ and sergeants believed that
progress, domestic violence fights and
men were more likely to be assertive and
road traffic collisions high priority. By
have physical presence. Waddington
and large they were less often deployed on
(1999) suggests that the dominant
these tasks compared to other taskings.
construction of policing is one of crime
Sexual offences, cases involving an
fighting, that is demanding and conflictual
elderly missing person search and
and through a police mission to uphold the
delivering a death message had lower
law, (male) officers justify an occupational
priority ratings yet were more frequent
identity that exercises aggressive force. A
deployments. Dealing with anti-social
US study of men and women joining the
youth was given a low priority and officers
Minneapolis Police Department, 40 % of
were not frequently deployed to deal with
men were rated in the highest categories
the task
compared with 5% of women on a
measure of aggressiveness in controlling
To summarise the public and police
conflict through physical skills and voice
findings, the public preference for male
command (Byrne and Oakes, 1986).
officers to deal with fights and public
Smith and Gray (1985) point out that
disorder at football matches occurred
exerting physical and verbal control is not
32
generally the most effective method of
Heidensohn’s (1992) female police
keeping control. Martin and Jurik (1996)
interviewees stated that they could identify
have depicted some ineffective policemen
policemen who were equally capable of
who tend to ‘rely too rigidly on their
delivering the same kind of quality of
formal authority, and enact only the crime
support in dealing with female cases.
fighting aspects of their role.’
Walklate (1996) suggests ‘what women as
‘victims’ of crime are asking for is a
Women were preferred by the public to
quality of support which is commonly, and
deal with child abuse accusations, female
stereotypically, associated with women,
victims of sexual offence and female
though the delivery of which is not
victims of domestic violence, as women
necessarily (or solely) guaranteed by
were thought to be superior and more
them.’ Beck (2002) found 21% of male
confidence in the use of emotional skills
officers considered themselves less
such as such as empathy, sensitivity,
capable at community liaison and
compassion and communication skills
supporting victims of crime as well as
such as easiness to talk to and
other more traditional female areas of
comprehension. The dominant skill areas
working, e.g. adult victims of sexual
agreed by officers for sexual offences and
offences and interviewing female suspects
child abuse were emotional skills such as:
where 29% of men self evaluated
compassion, empathy and sensitivity and
themselves as less capable. Fifty two per
for domestic violence cognitive skills a
cent of men rated themselves as less
dominance of cognitive skills were cited
capable when questioning child victims of
as most important, in this skills women
sexual offences. The female style, in the
officers rated themselves higher than men.
majority of cases, was reported as being
Officers did not share the view of the
more service-oriented. This style of
public who thought women were not
working was associated with low status
useful in potential conflictual
work.
deployments, as they would not be taken
seriously and the public would fear for a
The present study showed that either
policewoman’s safety. One UK survey of
gender was thought by the public to be
women’s views on policing revealed that
suited to deal with road traffic collisions as
many participants preferred to speak to
long as the officer was experienced and
women in regard to domestic violence
professional, training was thought to equip
(Radford, 1987). However Walklate
both equally well in undertaking what was
(1996) suggests that whilst these findings
were thought of as largely procedural
support the notion that there is a gendered
tasks. Delivering a death message was
preference for officers Radford’s results
equivocal but the preference was for either
may not be totally representative of the
gender, as training will equip officers, or
general population of women.
women due to their empathy and
33
sensitivity. However officers nominated
deployments; in comparison the males
emotional skill as most important for
preferred their own gender to undertake
delivering a death message and women
tasks thereby not judging female
rated themselves as having greater levels
colleagues as favourably.
than men. Cognitive skills closely
followed by health and safety skills were
If members of the public had had prior
seen as most important to deal with road
dealings with the police in the case of
traffic collisions.
burglary and dealing with victim of sexual
offence there was an increased preference
Dealing with burglary or persons stealing
for a woman officer. In the cases of a
from a motor vehicle and troublesome
search for an elderly missing person and
youth were more equivocal with less clear-
dealing with troublesome youth a decrease
cut preferences. The preference was for
in the preference for a woman officer was
either gender, or when a gender was
evident.
preferred it tended to be men. In the case
of troublesome youth men were preferred
Whilst overall men and women officers
by the public due to their physical
approach policing in these three distinct
presence and youths may respect men and
ways, emotional labour; task orientation;
authoritativeness. The police thought that
and performance delivery, there is a more
cognitive skills were the most important
subtle emphasis that may be reflected of
skill needed in these deployments, in
how women work within the occupational
which no gender differences were
culture. Martin and Jurik (1996) cite
perceived. Research suggests that men are
research that indicates women’s working
superior in some areas of policing; for
styles vary. In some cases women
example Kay (1994) considers men as
succumb to the pressures of male
more suited to deal with male youths, due
dominated work cultures and produce
to projecting authority better.
behaviours which emphasise a passive,
supportive and emotional femininity. In
The women in the public sample had
other cases women emulate and even try
gender preferences in certain deployments,
and out perform men by engaging in
they were more likely than men to choose
masculine behaviours of task and
a woman officer to deal with domestic
performance prowess. Thus
violence or wish either gender to deal with
professionalism i.e. doing jobs
a missing person or a road traffic collision.
competently becomes a coping adaptation
The men in the sample preferred male
to the culture (Heidensohn 1992)
officers to deal with theft from a vehicle.
Women officers deemed their male
In terms of male and female officer
colleagues to be equally as able as
prioritisation there was a difference within
themselves to undertake a range of
men and women’s ordering that implied
34
different prioritisation. Thus women
their deployments. Both were most often
placed domestic violence and searching
deployed to deal with problematic youth
for a missing person higher in their
or deliver a death message, the former
ordering than men. Men placed road traffic
being the deployment that they allocated
collision, sexual offence and youth trying
least priority to in terms of importance.
car door handles higher in their rank
They were least likely to attend the
ordering than women. Martin and Jurik
deployments to which they allocated
(1996) have depicted some policemen who
highest priority, a burglary in progress or a
tend to ‘enact only the crime fighting
domestic violence incident. More women
aspects of their role.’ The female style, in
than men were likely to have been
the majority of cases, was reported as
significantly differentially deployed to
being more service-oriented and emotion
interview a victim of a sexual assault;
focussed, this style of working was
research shows that this deployment was
associated with low status work.
considered low status amongst officers
(Martin and Jurik, 1996)
There were few differences between men
and women in terms of the frequencies of
35
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40
6.
APPENDICES
Appendix 1
Individual police responses for skills needed for deployments before reduced
into broad categories
Appendix 2
Broad police categories for skill needed in deployments
Appendix 3
Mean score for male and female officer ratings for the skill needed in
deployments by broad category
Appendix 4
Police questionnaire survey
Appendix 5
Public questionnaire survey
Appendix 6
Literature Review
41
35
Appendix 1
Individual police responses for skills needed for deployments before
reduced into broad categories
Burglary
Domestic
Violence
Missing
Persons
Fight
YouthCAR
YouthASB
Indec
assault
Calm offen
Calm situa
sympathy
Investig.skills
Calm situ.
empathy
safety
Prof ethic
Dec maki
Comm. skill
Comm. skill
Dec mak
observ
0
aware
Ownsafety
Coll &publ
Compassion
dec mak
List dipl
0
med
Seperate
parties
organis
0
Health &saf
safety
Invest skills
confid
0
comm
Withhold
complaint/fear
retaliat
comms
list
0
underst
Protect own
feelings
Comm. skills
Interpers skills
leadership
compassion
Get there safe
Get there safe
Backgr info
Calm situat
obs
0
Know policy
Safety
/presence of
weapon
Local
knowleg
Get full story
Compassion
Com skills
comms
0
understanding
compassion
ownsafety
Personal
safe
Comm.
skill
confidence
0
aware
Own safety
Other
pep.spray
ownsafety
Firm polite
Get there safe
Detain offen
Sympathy fine
deatail
undestanding
experience
Posit interv
calm
Phys presence
Thorough
search/descrip
resilience
Phys fitness
Talk at their
lev.
diplom
Posit presence
Detail/
procedure
organised
caution
Get fact prior
to attend
Patience
sensitiv
sympatheitc
tact
sympathy
care
Questioning
skills
communication
strength
resilience
confidence
experience
questioning
confidence
control
friendliness
commun
sympathy
attentive
empathy
control
explanatory
Traffic law
sympathy
Empathy/care
comm
communication
Mediation
calm resp
mediation
Tact
diplomacy
control
assert
Mediatying
skills
communication
Best lang.
Quests.
Patience
sensitiv
understanding
Interv skills
communication
Self motiv
communication
communication
communication
Quick resp
Balanced view
thoroughness
observation
empathy
thoroughness
empathy
Cordon area
Resp time
safety
Scene safety
empathy
sensitivety
determination
Tact comms
comms
Publ. safety
initiative
obs
comms
Obs.
fairness
Take Positiv
action
Self motiv
Legal know
comms
Publ order
compass
comms
comms
compassion
diffusion
Phys pres.
understanding
mediation
compassion
listening
comms
Sensitive/info
gather
compass
Org skills
Firm direction
Dec making
H&S
List compass.
Listening skill
Attention 2
detail
initiative
Info gather
comms
Description/
habits
prctical
compassion
Import to detail
initiative
contain
Confidence
Arrest susp.
Split parties
Own safety/
tactfulness
dipl
Pc comms
comms
Safety all
Self
competence
Own safety
Own safety
Professional/
ethical
comms
compass
Speed
/efficiency
Drive skills
Tact
diplomacy
Tact /comms
Open minded/
expressive
listening
Firm
0tolerance
Confl res.
0
firm
Authority /
prof
thorough
Listening full
decrip
Corrct
description
Drive skills
symp
organisatiom
Phys fitness
sympathy
urgency
Local know
list
0
comm
Mental state
Open mind
obs
36
Sensitivity/
tact
Sympathetic
RTC
Death
message
professional
Tact sympathy
Appendix 2
Skills
Emotional
Burglary
N = 49
Sympathy
Empathy
Compassion
Victim care
Victim
empathy
Caring
Sensitive
Road
traffic
collision
N = 18
Compassion
Physical
Detain offender
Quick response
Response time
Urgency
Physical fitness
Arrest suspect
Speed
Get there ASP
Arrive/ depart
quickly
Catch
Forensic
Contain
Observation
Recognise
Awareness
evidence
Organisation
Preserve evidence Local know
Scene preservation Initiative
Proper recording Confidence
Forensics
Efficiency
Risk assessment
Lateral thinking
Know escape route
Decision making
Organised
Leadership
Thorough
Fairness
Organised
Local knowledge
Compassion
Empathy
Sympathy
Sincere
Sensitive
Treat as own
family
Interview Compassion
female after Empathy
Victim Care
sexual
Sensitive
offence
Understanding
N = 16
Compassion
Victim Care
Deliver
unexpected
death
message
N =19
Forensic
awareness
Youths
Trying
door
handles
N = 12
Female
victim of
dom.
Violence
N = 41
Compassion
Sensitivity
Empathy
Youth ASB Empathy
N=21
Sympathy
Understanding
Care
Empathy
Sensitivity
Dealing with
partners
emotion
Compassion
Separate parties
Split parties
Control
Speed
Keep apart
Pepper spray
Physical strength
Physical presence
Self defence
Restraint
Size,strength
Stature
Presence
Back up
Public order
Physical presence
Health & safety
Get there safe
Own safety
Drive safely
Drive skills
Safety
Communications
Composure
Procedure
Teamwork
Professional
Authority
Take control
Know policy
Caution
Scene safety
Health and safety
First aid
Explanatory
Say what has to be said
Communication skills
Bluntness
Tact
Listening
Communication
Questioning skills
Get full story
Description
Observation
Decision making
Tact
Calm situation
Diplomacy
Assertiveness
Control
Impartial
Patient
Confident
Fair
Establish facts
Open mind
Calm approach
Even hand
Establish control
Mediator
Know previous incident Resilience
Law, policy, knowledge
Calm situation
Calm
Positive intervention
Resilience
Self competence
Confidence
Determination
Conflict resolution
Courage
Self confidence
Calm & firm
Firm zero tolerance
Practice
Calm under pressure Know law
Calm composure
Authoritative
Risk assessment
Aware
Experience
Professional
Evidence gathering
Advice
Self motivation
Know law
Impartial
Adaptable
Positive action
Know ASBO procedures
Know previous problems
Professional ethics
Fine detail
Multiagency approach Experience
Investigative skill
Initiative
Questioning skills
Practical
Thoroughness
Assuring
Attention to detail
Open
minded
Know procedure
Observation
Comprehensive
Investigative
Background info. gathering
Description of habits
Mental state
37
Communication
Leadership
Quick thinking
Wits about you
Decision making
Urgency
Alert
Observation
Resources
Plan ahead
Quiet approach
Know circumstances
Thorough
Get the facts
Contact NOK
Courage
Professional
Patient
Know law
Tact
Attention to detail
Confidence
Get facts
Dec making
Presence of weapon
Local knowledge
fight
n= 40
Elderly
missing
person
N= 31
Cognitive
Safety
Personal safety
Get there safe
Own safety
Safety all
Personal safety
Safety self &
aggrieved
Personal safe
Own safety
Public safety
Officer safety
Own and others
safety
Safety self and
colleagues
Officer safety
Personal safety
Listening to full
description
Communication
Listening
Mediation
Communication skills
Listen to both parties
Diffusion
Impartial
communications
Verbal communications
Good ear
Stop worsening
Verbal communication
Communication
Communication
Talking
Listening skills
Relate communication
Talk at their level
Listening
Communication
Expressive
Good ear
Appendix 3
Deployments
Mean score for male and female officer ratings for the skill needed in
deployments by broad category
Health and safety
men
women
Emotional skill
men
women
Cognitive skill
men
women
Physical skill
men
women
Forensic skill
men
women
Communication skill
men
women
4. 17
4. 5
4. 0
4. 33
3. 93
4. 0
4. 29
4. 14
5. 0
4. 33
4. 25
(6)
(4)
(2)
(6)
(15)
(19)
(7)
(7)
(1)
(3)
(4)
(3)
T = 3.183 p > . 003
3. 33
4.25
0
5. 0
4.0
4.17
5. 0
4.7
0
0
(3)
(4)
(3)
(10)
(12)
T = 2.29 p > . 029
(2)
(3)
0
0
0
0
Burglary
Domestic
violence
Missing
person
3.83
4.44
(6)
(9)
3. 69
(16)
0
4. 40
4.21
4. 20
3. 66
(15)
(19)
(5)
(6)
4. 14
4.07
5. 0
0
(22)
(29)
(1)
4. 0
4. 18
0
(22)
(16)
4.0
3.8
(1)
(5)
4. 0
4.09
5. 0
4. 0
(12)
(21)
(1)
(1)
0
0
4. 0
(20)
0
0
4. 2
(21)
5. 0
4. 65
(20)
4. 0
4. 09
(12)
(11)
4.14
4. 33
(7)
(3)
4.12
4. 0
(8)
(8)
4. 33
4. 2
(12)
(20)
4. 08
4. 09
(12)
(11)
4. 0
0
Fight
Youth
suspected of
Motor
vehicle
crime
Youth antisocial
behaviour
Sexual
assault
Road traffic
collision
Death
message
3.83
4.36
0
(6)
(14)
(4)
4.0
4.5
3. 0
(6)
(2)
(4)
3.0
5.0
0
(1)
(1)
0
0
4.15
4.27
(13)
(18)
0
0
0
5. 0
(1)
T = 33. 261 p > 000
3.19
(21)
0
4.45
(24)
0
4.0
4. 48
4. 66
4.5
(22)
(29)
(3)
(4)
4. 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
(1)
0
38
0
0
0
0
0
(3)
0
0
4. 33
4. 25
(9)
(8)
Appendix 4
Research Supervisor
President
Acting Chief Constable
Julie Spence
Cambridgeshire Police
Prof Jennifer Brown
BA PhD FBPSs CPsychol
University of Surrey
Guildford
Surrey GU2 7XH UK
Tel: +44 (0)1483 686897
Fax: +44 (0)1483 689553
Email: Jennifer.Brown@surrey.ac.uk
Department of
Psychology
Dear Colleague,
This survey being undertaken by the University of Surrey has been commissioned by BAWP and is
aimed at examining skills and competencies associated with police deployments.
The study is also collecting community data and we hope to be able to suggest ways in which police can
realistically meet community expectations.
Your responses are anonymous and no individual will be identified. Only general trends are reported. At
this time we are only collecting data from front line police officers (as resources do not permit wider data
collection at this stage).
We do hope you will assist us by completing the questionnaire and returning it in the FREEPOST
envelope provided by July 21st 2005. The results will be disseminated widely and we hope the report
will contribute to the modernising police agenda. Many thanks for your help.
Yours Sincerely
Julie Spence
Jennifer Brown
This first set of questions asks some broad background characteristics which we will use to see if any
are relevant in distinguishing opinions. Please state your
age :
length of service:
Please indicate gender by ticking the appropriate box whether you are
male
female
Please tick any of the following areas of police work if you previously worked in these by ticking
appropriate box(es):
Operational Support
If any other, please state what this was
CID
Traffic
Training
39
This next set of questions is attempting to get at various aspects of leadership. Please can you
indicate whether you agree or disagree with the listed statements as they apply to yourself by circling
the appropriate number using the rating guide below
Disagree
1
Disagree somewhat
Neither agree / disagree
2
Agree somewhat
3
Agree
4
5
I am influential when I am sure of my aim
1
2
3
4
5
My goal is to get the job done, even if the team does not agree
1
2
3
4
5
Socialising after work contributes to improving professional
relationships
1
2
3
4
5
I tend to be the mediator when colleagues disagree
1
2
3
4
5
I act as a mentor to less experienced colleagues
1
2
3
4
5
I take the lead when I know a lot about the particular situation
1
2
3
4
5
If I don’t know how to do something I try and find out for myself
1
2
3
4
5
I take into account the view of others, even when I disagree with them
1
2
3
4
5
I try and give the same service to all members of the
public whoever they are
1 2
3
4
5
If I don’t understand something, I ask someone
1
2
3
4
5
It is important to show the public you are human
1
2
3
4
5
I try and draw on my own experiences as a person when dealing with
the public
1
2
3
4
5
I tend to be someone that people come to for advice
1
2
3
4
5
The needs of the organisation are more important than the needs
of an individual police officer
1
2
3
4
5
I am focussed on achieving results that contribute to the Force’s PIs
1
2
3
4
5
It’s important to be professional and keep your emotion under control
when dealing with the public
1
2
3
4
5
I try and read a situation and improvise rather than
“go by the book”
1
2
3
4
5
40
We are trying to find out which skill/competency you think is the most critical when dealing with the
following types of deployment. It’s your personal opinion that we are after.
There are no right or wrong answers. Then can you give a self assessment of how much of the skill you feel
you currently possess
Please write below against each deployment the skill/attribute you think is most important
And then indicate how much of this skill/quality do youthink you possess? Please indicate by
circling the appropriate number
1=none 2= little 3=some 4=quite a lot 5=a great deal
Attending a burglary in progress.
…………………………………………….
1
2
3
4
5
Managing a domestic violence incident.
……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
Taking information
about a missing person.
……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
Taking a child into police protection
following information relating to abuse or neglect
……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
A call to deal with a pub fight
involving 3-6 people.
……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
Managing an angry crowd
Attending a group of youths on a street corner
following complaints of harassment by a resident.
……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
Interviewing a female victim of a sexual offence.
……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
Managing a road traffic collision
……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
Delivering an unexpected death message to a family. ……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
……………………………………………..
1
2
3
4
5
Dealing with two women fighting
47
Finally, we want to establish, what in your view is the priority currently attached to these
deployments by the police and how often in the last six months have you been called to these
different deployments. We realise it would be difficult to estimate precisely so we are asking
you in general terms.
How many times in the
Preceding six months
Have you deployed on such a task
How important do you think this
deployment is?
1=extremely 2= very 3=somewhat 4=little 5=not at all
1=never 2= rarely 3=sometimes 4=often 5=very often
Deployment
Attending a burglary in progress.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Managing a domestic violence incident.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Taking a child into police protection
following information relating to abuse or neglect.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
A call to deal with a pub fight
involving 3-6 people
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
5
Managing an angry crowd
1
2
3
1
2
3
4
5
5
1
2
3
4
5
Interviewing a female victim of a sexual offence.
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Managing a road traffic collision
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
3
4
5
Taking information
about a missing person.
1
2
3
4
4
5
Attending a group of youths on a street corner
following complaints of harassment by a resident.
1
2
3
4
5
5
Delivering an unexpected death message
to a family
1
2
3
4
5
Dealing with two women fighting
1
2
3
4
5
48
Thank you very much for taking the time to complete this questionnaire. We greatly
appreciate your help
Please return this questionnaire by post, no later than 21st of July 2005
in the freepost envelope provided, to:
David Blok
Freepost G1197
Department of Psychology J3
University of Surrey
Guildford
Surrey GU2 5BR
01 12040 CF3007 3204
49
Appendix 5
Jennifer Brown
BA PhD FBPSs CPsychol
Professor
Forensic Psychology
University of Surrey
Guildford
Surrey GU2 7XH UK
Tel: +44 (0)1483 686897
Fax: +44 (0)1483 689553
Email: Jennifer.Brown@surrey.ac.uk
Department of
Psychology
Survey Questionnaire –
Age :
Sex:
Male
female
Area of Study :
Work discipline:
Below is a list of incidents, which may involve police presence. Please indicate by
circling whether you would like assistance from a male or a female officer and
indicate the reason why. If you have no preference, please leave blank, but state
your reason for this choice.
Incident
preference
Gender preference
Reason for
1. Burglary in your home
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
2. Investigating an accusation
by a child that he/she has been
abused by a relative
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
3. Pub fight involving 2 men
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
Pub fight involving 2 women
M / F
50
4. Wife injured in domestic violence
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
5. Disorder at a football match
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
6. Elderly missing person
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
7. Dealing with troublesome youths
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
8. Informing a family of a relatives
unexpected death
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
9. Managing a Road Traffic
Accident
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
10. Interviewing a women victim
after a sexual offence
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
11. Arrest of a person who had stolen
from a motor vehicle
M / F
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
……………………………………...
Tell me what you think are the strengths and weaknesses of men and women police
officers?
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
51
Have you ever previous contact with the police as : a witness
(please tick as appropriate )
a victim
an offender
a suspect
other
Thank you for your time in completing this questionnaire.
Please return this questionnaire by 30th of June 2005 to:
Email:
psm3db@surrey.ac.uk
Or by post, in the freepost envelope provided to:
David Blok
MSc. Office
Department of Psychology
School of Human Sciences
University of Surrey
Guildford
Surrey
GU2 7XH
52