Introduction
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This literature review looks at contemporary art-based museum education
through four facets; the aesthetics of viewing contemporary art, strategies for teaching
contemporary art, effects of contemporary art-based education, and why contemporary art
may be absent from art education.
Literature on teaching contemporary art discusses the need for integrating art
education with current times, and most experts agree that the best way to integrate art
education with contemporary issues is to use contemporary art as a basis for teaching.
(Freedman, 2010; Gude, 2004; Mayer, 2008; Marshall, 2010; Villeneuve & Erickson,
2008) Most of the literature breaks down principles, concepts and techniques into parts
and even graphs to better understand the multiple options available for using
contemporary art as a basis for teaching. Organizing into parts and graphs will better
assist educators in teaching contemporary art, making what may be confusing or
unknown to them, easier to grasp and educate high school students.
The Aesthetics of Viewing Contemporary Art
This section, explores the ways individuals view and attempt to understand works by
contemporary artists. The array of contemporary art concepts and approaches, leads to a
range of contemporary art viewers. Authors Pat Villeneuve and Mark Erickson (2008)
discuss the variety of viewpoints and reflective thinking levels of viewers, further
submitting them into a taxonomy to attempt to describe each of these viewers. Villeneuve
and Erickson give examples of possible responses. These graphs will better assist
educators in understanding their students’ perspectives and views of contemporary
art.
Villeneuve and Erickson (2008) found, through author D.H. Feldman, a continuum of
development. (p. 92) Starting on the left with universal, which every person experiences,
to the far right with unique, which is particular to each individual. The graph follows
from universal, to cultural, to discipline-based, to idiosyncratic, and to unique. From
former to latter, representing fewer and fewer people experiencing certain developments.
Universal experiences are held in examples such as humans walking and talking, while
unique experiences are such as specific to that individual’s culture and the extent to
which that culture requires its members of society to encounter that particular experience.
After they studied Feldman, Villeneuve and Erickson (2008) studied M.J. Parson’s five
stages of aesthetic development; favoritism, beauty and realism, expression, style and
form, and autonomy. Favoritism being a beginning viewer, having no real knowledge of
art, in order, to autonomy being an advanced viewer, having a mature level of art
knowledge. (Villeneuve & Erickson, 2008, p. 93)
In 2003, Erickson and another colleague, Clover, pulled mainly from Parsons study to
create five viewpoints for understanding contemporary art.
(Villeneuve & Erickson, 2008, p. 94)
They start with non-reflective viewpoint, (Villeneuve & Erickson, 2008, p. 93) which
involves the elementary viewers immediate response, usually either “I like it” or “I don’t
like it”, without understanding of the piece itself. The viewpoint following is beauty,
realism, and skill viewpoint, self-explanatory; this viewer looks for beautiful and realistic
art, and bases their judgment of contemporary art on that criteria. The next viewpoint is
called expression of feelings and ideas viewpoint, which slightly more advanced, the
viewer is “interested in interpreting the meaning, significance, and function of artworks”.
(Villeneuve & Erickson, 2008, p. 94). Following this viewpoint is the artworld viewpoint,
where the viewer is familiar and knowledgeable with a particular form and world of art,
and therefore responds to contemporary art based on what they know and relating to what
they know. Lastly, is the plural artworlds viewpoint, where the viewer is knowledgeable
in multiple forms of art making and worlds of art, and can apply what they see. “They are
able to select the most appropriate viewpoint for the artwork they are seeking to
understand.” (Villeneuve & Erickson, 2008, p. 94)
A fourth study Villeneuve & Erickson discovered was King and Kitchener’s 1994 list of
reflective thinking levels; pre-reflective, quasi-reflective, and reflective. (Villeneuve &
Erickson, 2008, p. 94)
Pre-reflective standing as viewers who believe there is one right answer and following
with what they believe to be true, basing their judgments off of that. Quasi-reflective
viewers, “knowledge becomes seen as uncertain and subjective” (Villeneuve & Erickson,
2008, p. 94). Viewers in this stage tend to relate what they see to other subjects or
contexts to try to make sense of it. The final stage of thinking is the reflective level,
where the viewer recognizes the forever-changing knowledge of art and is equipped with
the aptitude to “construct responses by evaluating current information from multiple
appropriate sources.” (Villeneuve & Erickson, 2008, p. 94)
Villeneuve & Erickson (2008) joined the five viewpoints of art viewers, and reflective
thinking levels, to create a taxonomy of Reflective Judgment. (Villeneuve & Erickson,
2008, p. 95)
Through crossing the viewpoints and thinking levels, the Reflective Judgment chart
creates a scenario for every possible viewer. From the non-reflective viewpoint, pre-
reflective thinking viewer, who would have an immediate reaction to an artwork and base
her judgment on what she thinks to be right based on her own knowledge, to the pluralist
artworld viewpoint, reflective thinking viewer, who would be “aware that there are
multiple artworlds, each with its own ideas about art” (Villeneuve & Erickson, 2008, p.
95) and therefore hold no judgment and be open to the ideas of other artists and concepts.
Separating into categories the ways learners can view and reflectively think about
contemporary art better aids in educators ability to assess each of their students
understanding of contemporary artwork. As well, teachers will be able to better work
with their students to build comprehension and appreciation for the many forms and
periods of art, more specifically contemporary art.
Another categorizing of how people view contemporary art can be brought into
Freedman’s (2010) organization of creativity and what creativity is based on in
contemporary art. Creativity is plays a key role in contemporary art, and author Freedman
(2010) agrees. Separating what creativity is depends, and is based on; critical reflection,
interests, learning process, functional, social activity, involves reproduction as well as
production, and form of leadership.
Strategies for Teaching Contemporary Art
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This section, looksat another facet of teaching contemporary artt namely ,
educating students in ways of viewing, analyzing and understanding it. Authors, such as
Gude (2004), categorize contemporary art in another aspect, rather than how people view
it, Gude (2004) separates contemporary art into concepts of art itself. Art in general is
separated into elements and principles, but what was missing was that contemporary art
needed more categories for their wide range concepts in relation to making works of art.
With this, Gude (2004) created the Postmodern Principles for art, which include;
Appropriation, Juxtaposition, Recontextualization, Layering, Interaction of Text &
Image, Hybridity, Gazing, and Representin’. Appropriation principle is set around the
belief that the artists environment will influence their art-making. Gude (2004) says, “If
one lives in a forest, wood will likely become one’s medium for creative play.” (p. 9)
Juxtaposition principle is where an artwork utilizes drastically different elements to
create a piece where choice of materials also creates a meaning; usually it involves an
exploration of non-traditional art materials. Recontextualization principle is working with
an existing image, and altering it to change the meaning, or the image to the same
meaning. Layering principle involves layering images overtop one another “evoking the
complexity of the unconscious mind.” (Gude, 2004, p. 10) Interaction of Text & Image
principle utilizes the use of text in an artwork creating a relationship between the text and
the image used as irony or a meaningful social statement. Hybridity principle involves
incorporating a mixture of media into artworks using whatever may be necessary to fully
examine the subject matter of the artwork. Gazing principle is used “by shifting the
context within which a familiar advertising image is seen, students spontaneously
question who creates and controls imagery” (Gude, 2004, pg. 10). Lastly Representin’
principle is an artist making known their identity through their artwork. (Gude, 2004)
Author, Julia Marshall (2010), pulls from concepts in contemporary art and lists five
ways to integrate contemporary art into education. Marshall’s (2010) five ways to
integrate are depiction, extension/projection, reformatting, mimicry, and metaphor.
Depiction can be used in subjects such as science and social studies. (Marshall, 2010, p.
15) Applying this to artmaking Marshall (2010) says, “It is illustration layered with
meaning and it is the implications or meaning that makes it art.” (p. 15)
Extension/projection involves the student to consider and imagine all possible outcomes
of an idea. This can be used in any subject encouraging students to question and fully
consider the topic or subject they are studying. (Marshall 2010) Reformatting is similar to
Gude’s (2004) postmodern principle recontextualization, in Marshall’s (2010) concept;
this can be integrated into other subjects by furthering students’ investigation by viewing
a topic in other context. Mimicry draws on copying “the methods and using the tools
associated with other disciplines” (Marshall, 2010, p. 17) Using methods and tools from
other subjects allows students to grasp from many resources in making art. The last
strategy, Metaphor, uses “taking an image or idea from one discipline to describe
concepts in another” (Marshall, 2010, p. 17). Marshall (2010) created a charted guide to
these five strategies for integrating contemporary art concepts into other subjects:
(Marshall, 2010, pg. 18)
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Author Barrett (2008) breaks down contemporary art practices into types, similar
to the post-Modern principles of art created by Gude (2004). Barrett (2008) overarching
ideas are explained as artist’s ability to work collaboratively and also using images and
the world around them to make it their own. Barrett (2008) best describes, “Rather than
attributing the work of art to an individual artist, as modernists do, postmodernists think
of artworks as “texts.” A work is singular, speaking in one voice, that of the artist, which
leads the viewer to look for the artist’s (singular) meaning. A text, however, implies that
any artwork is not the product of a free and unique individual, but rather a field of
citations and correspondences. Postmodernists believe an artwork is a confluence of
many voices that speak, blend, and clash, and that culture, more than the individual,
influences the image” (Barrett, p. 3). Barrett (2008) also compares the relationship
contemporary arts have with their work versus artists from the past, particularly modern.
He describes the relationship artists build with their work, relating it to the work and
culture surrounding them, or as in last weeks reading, speaking to their visual culture. “In
modern times, values shifted and the individual artist became honored as a champion of
authentic and free personal expression. Postmodernists question the concept of originality
in art, and they are suspect of the possibility of being original. They claim not to hold
originality as an aesthetic value” (Barrett, p. 3).
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Effects of Contemporary Art-based Education
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In this section, a third facet discusses the effects of contemporary art-based
education on students learning. Author Melinda M. Mayer (2008) discusses reasons
for teaching Contemporary art, in addition to the challenges, and overall, the
relevance for teaching contemporary art. Mayer (2008) believes that teaching
using contemporary art will create lifelong learners. Students will learn “The
education of an artist doesn’t stop when schooling ends, but is a continual
feeding of the mind and eye with knowledge and experience pertinent to current
issues and events.” Is this a different quote than the one in the intro from the
same author? (Mayer, 2008, p. 78) To help achieve this, Mayer (2008) offers
resources for teachers in gaining knowledge and building a repertoire of
contemporary artists to choose from to support in the creation of a contemporary
art curriculum. Mayer (2008) suggests visiting museums, finding active artists in
the area, subscribing to magazines such as ARTnews and Art Forum, using
PBS’s contemporary art series Art: 21, and surfing the internet for museum and
gallery websites that have resource center online for teachers using
contemporary art. (Mayer, 2008, p. 78) Through my experience these alternative
avenues for contemporary art-based education, specifically visiting museums, has
lead to my continual building of knowledge in contemporary art. Another author,
Marshall (2008) discusses ways in which contemporary art practices can be transformed
into projects suitable and relatable for K-12 age groups, using the types of practices
discussed by Barrett (2008), and Gude (2004), and bringing them into projects for the
classroom. Marshall (2008) explains for teachers, “Our challenge as educators is to locate
the works of art that make process visible, mine the strategies they use and reveal, and
provide art-making exercises in which students practice these strategies” (Marshall, p.
39). She provides examples of collage and metaphor, which Barrett (2008) refers to as,
appropriating, simulating, hybridizing, mixing media, layering, mixing codes,
recontextualizing, confronting the gaze, and creating metaphors, and irony. Marshall
(2008) describes Carl Sandburg poem about fog through descriptions of a cat, and their
relation to one another. Marshall (2008) says, “Metaphor is a particularly powerful
because it often creates connections we did not see before” (Marshall, p. 40).
Why Contemporary Art May Be Absent in Art Education rethink this title
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In this last section, looking at the last facet, are issues that arise with this topic.
One set of potential challenges is the expansive selection of contemporary art
styles, concepts, approaches to making, and most importantly, learning and
interpreting the new and unknown. Mayer (2008) recognizes this could be a
taxing list, Mayer (2008) reminds us “The comfort we feel with traditional art can
actually be the lure of the familiar” (p. 78), and encourages teachers and
students to follow with contemporary art on a journey as a lifelong learner. Author
Lee Emery (2002) discusses the issue of censorship related to teaching
contemporary art, through a study of fifteen secondary school teachers. Points
raised include who is to judge what is contentious and what is not, as well as the
need to be aware of the approach in teaching contemporary art. Emery (2002)
suggests teaching controversial contemporary art through the use of inquiry and
open discussions, as well as using a ‘buffer zone’ to, as Emery (2002) says, “develop
attitudes of respect and tolerance for diverse opinions and beliefs about these
issues” (Emery, p.13).
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The challenge is how to overcome these issues to teach contemporary art as a
basis of teaching art, leading to a more engaged current education for high school
students leading to a more up-to-date and meaningful educational experience for teens.
(Mayer, 2008)
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Here you may want to elaborate on the benefits and the skills that students
develop as a result of contemporary art based-education these may include but are not
limited to developing and enhancing visual thinking skills, increases observational skills,
evidential reasoning etc.
Conclusion
“Contemporary art is about now!” (Mayer, 2008, p. 77) The divisions created in literature
dividing contemporary art understanding into categories and taxonomies of concepts and
viewers, organizes the many perspectives artists and audience, view and interpret
contemporary art. Teaching art with a base of contemporary art will not only be more
accessible for students, but teachers as well will have a better understanding of how to
access their students comprehension viewpoint and reflective levels.
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Barrett, T. (2008) Approaches to Postmodern Art-Making, in
Fate in Review
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Emery, L. (2002) Censorship in Contemporary Art Education.
International Journal of Art Design Education v. 21 no. 1, 5-13
Freedman, K. (2010 March). Rethinking Creativity: A Definition
to Support Contemporary Practice. Art Education v. 63 no. 2, 815
Gude, O. (2004 January). Postmodern Principles: In Search of a
21st Century Art Education. Art Education v. 57 no. 1, 6-14.
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Marshall, J. (2008 March). Visible Thinking: Using Contemporary Art
to Teach Conceptual Skills. Art Education v. 61 no. 2, 38-45.
Marshall, J. (2010). Five Ways to Integrate: Using Strategies from
Contemporary Art. Art Education v. 63 no. 3, 13-19.
Mayer, M.M. (2008 March). Considerations for a Contemporary
Art Curriculum. Art Education v. 61 no. 2, 77-79.
Villeneuve, P., & Erickson, M. (2008 March) The trouble with
contemporary art is.... Art Education v. 61 no. 2, 92-97