CHAPTER 7
TRADITIONAL TRAINING METHODS
This chapter focuses on the traditional methods of delivering training. While new technologies,
discussed in Chapter 8, have brought new methods to deliver training, the traditional methods are
still employed in virtually all organizations—often in conjunction with new technologies. The
chapter is broken down into “presentation methods,” which are passive delivery methods and
include lecture and audiovisual instruction; “hands-on methods,” which actively involve the
learner and include on-the-job training (OJT), self-directed learning, apprenticeships, simulation,
case study, business games, role plays, and behavior modeling; and “group building methods,”
which are designed to improve work team or group effectiveness and include adventure learning,
team training, and action learning. Table 7-10 (p. 259) provides a matrix of the various methods
and multiple criteria for choosing the appropriate method(s). The important issues to consider in
choosing methods of delivery are discussed. A list of key terms, discussion questions, and
application assignments are listed at the end of the chapter.
Objectives
After reading and discussing this chapter, students should be able to
1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of presentational, hands-on, and group building
training methods.
2. Provide recommendations for effective on-the-job training.
3. Develop a case study.
4. Develop a self-directed learning module.
5. Discuss the key components of behavior modeling training.
6. Explain the conditions necessary for adventure learning to be effective.
7. Discuss what team training should focus on to improve team performance.
I. Introduction
A. Various types of instructional methods are listed including: classroom, video, role play,
case study, various types of computer-based training, adventure learning, games, and virtual
reality.
II. Presentation Methods
A. Figure 7-1 (p. 235) of the text displays the most popular training methods according to a
survey done by Training magazine. Lectures and videos ranked first and second.
B. Presentation methods are those means of training delivery in which trainees are the
passive recipients of information, such as facts or information about processes or problem
solving methods.
C. A lecture is the method of training delivery involving a trainer verbally communicating
the material the trainees are to learn.
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1. Lecture is relatively inexpensive, and an efficient way to cover a large amount of
information and/or to a large group.
2. Lecture can be used to support other methods of delivery as well
3. Table 7-1 on page 236 of the text describes variations of the lecture method, including
team teaching by more than one trainer, guest speakers, panels and student
presentations.
4. Disadvantages of the lecture method include the lack of trainee involvement, lack of
feedback, and the potentially weak connection to the work environment, all of which
inhibit transfer of training. Thus lecture is often supplemented with other more
participative methods.
D. Audiovisual instruction includes overheads, slides, and videotapes.
1. Video is one of the most popular training methods, but is rarely used alone it is
usually used in combination with lectures. It can be highly effective for addressing
communication skills, interviewing skills, customer-service skills, and for illustrating
step-by-step procedures or giving real-life examples of material covered via lecture or
other methods.
2. The advantages of videos include the flexibility in customizing the video session; the
ability of video to show things that cannot be easily demonstrated; its consistency
upon repeated use; and it can be used to record trainees’ performance for them to
review.
3. Disadvantages include too much content for trainees to absorb; poor dialogue or poor
acting could hinder the message and/or the credibility of the message; overuse of
music or humor; and drama that makes it confusing for the trainee to understand the
important learning points emphasized in the video.
III. Hands-On Methods are those that require the trainee to be actively involved in the learning
process, including those below.
A. On-the-job training (OJT) involves new or inexperienced employees learning by
observing their peers or managers at work and trying to emulate their behaviors.
1. OJT, which takes a number of forms including apprenticeships and self-directed
learning, requires less time or money investment; it utilizes expertise among peers
and managers; and can be effective for cross-training employees within a department
or team.
2. The disadvantages of OJT include that it is typically unstructured and, therefore,
managers and peers may not use the same process to complete the same task; bad
habits may be passed on; demonstration may be flawed and the opportunities for
practice and feedback not provided--all resulting in poorly trained employees.
3. OJT must, therefore, be structured to be effective (see Table 7-2, p. 239, for
principles). Successful OJT incorporates the principles of social learning theory and
involves the following:
a. A policy statement describing the purpose of the OJT and emphasizing the
company’s support of it.
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b. A clear specification of who is accountable for conducting OJT (i.e., it should be
listed in the appropriate job descriptions and incorporated into performance
evaluations).
c. A thorough review of OJT practices (program content, types of jobs, length of
program, cost savings) at other companies in similar industries.
d. Training managers and peers the principles of structured OJT.
e. Availability of lesson plans, checklists, procedure manuals, training manuals,
learning contracts, etc., for use with structured OJT.
f. Evaluation of employees’ basic skill levels prior to OJT so that the appropriate
approach can be taken.
B. Self-directed learning is an approach to training that places responsibility for learning on
the employee/learner, e.g., when the learning will take place and with whom. Training
content is pre-determined, but trainees can learn the content at their own pace and in their
own way. A trainer should be available to answer questions and facilitate the learning
process as needed.
1. The advantages of self-directed learning include the flexibility for trainees to learn at
their own pace and to receive feedback about their learning; it requires fewer training
staff; reduces the costs of facilities and travel; it allows for constant access to training
materials; and makes multiple-site training more realistic.
2. The potential disadvantages of self-directed learning include the responsibility it
places on trainees, requiring them to be willing, able, and motivated to learn on their
own. This may not be comfortable for many employees. It also tends to have higher
development costs in terms of time and money.
3. Steps to effective self-directed learning include:
a. Conducting a job analysis to identify the tasks that need to be covered.
b. Writing trainee-centered learning objectives related to the tasks that indicate what
information is important, what actions the trainee should take and what the trainee
should master.
c. Developing the content for the learning packet based on the trainee-centered
learning objectives.
d. Breaking the content into smaller pieces or chunks, each chunk beginning with the
objectives that will be covered, involving an opportunity to practice, and a means
for trainees to evaluate their learning.
e. Developing an evaluation package, including means of evaluating oneself as well
as the learning package. Questions should be developed that address whether
trainees have met the objectives and whether the material was user friendly, up-todate, and appropriate for the objectives.
C. Apprenticeship is a work-study type training method involving both on-the-job training
and classroom and typically sponsored either by the company or by the union. A
registered apprenticeship must involve at least 144 hours of classroom instruction and
2000 hours (one year) of on-the-job experience.
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1. Advantages of apprenticeships include the fact that learners are paid while they learn,
with wages typically increasing as their skills do; the effective combination of
learning principles in the classroom and having the opportunity to practice what
they’ve learned on the job; and that they typically result in full-time employment for
trainees.
2. The disadvantages of apprenticeships include the historically restricted access to
apprenticeship programs for women and minorities; the lack of guarantee that
employment will follow completion of the program; and the somewhat narrow skill
focus of current apprenticeships (i.e., one craft or trade).
D. A simulation is a training method that represents a real-life situation; with trainees’
decisions resulting in outcomes that mirror what would happen if they were on the job.
1. Advantages of simulation include allowing trainees to learn production and process
skills first hand without being engaged in the actual flow of production and without
the fear of making a mistake in the actual work environment; and allowing for the
observation and evaluation of trainees’ performance followed by feedback.
2. Simulators need to have high fidelity to the work situation, i.e., they need to have
identical elements to those on the job; they are expensive to develop and require
continuous maintenance and updating.
E. A case study is a description about how employees or an organization dealt with a
difficult situation. Trainees are required to analyze and critique the actions taken,
indicating the appropriate actions and suggesting what might have been done differently.
This approach assumes that employees will learn through this process of discovery.
1. The cases are usually appropriate for developing higher-order intellectual skills such
as analysis, synthesis and evaluation, which are needed by managers and many other
professionals; they help trainees to take risks given uncertain outcomes; and they
require high trainee participation.
2. Learners must be willing and able to analyze cases and have the ability to
communicate their recommendations, so the method requires prior skill in these areas.
3. As Table 7.54 (p. 246) indicates, the effective process for case development includes:
a. Identifying a story.
b. Gathering information about the scenario.
c. Preparing a story outline.
d. Creating and fine tuning the administrative issues.
e. Preparing case materials.
4. Existing cases have the advantage of being already prepared, but may not actually
relate to the specific company or work situation.
F. Business games require trainee to actively gather information, analyze the information,
and make decisions, typically for the purpose of developing managerial skills. The games
should reflect all aspects of management practice, including labor relations, marketing,
and finance.
1. Advantages of business games in the participativeness of the method; and the extent
to which it mirrors actual managerial tasks.
2. Disadvantages include the time-intensive development that may be required; and the
fact that the competition of the game itself may overshadow learning objectives.
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G. Role plays are a training method that requires the trainees to act out characters and based
on situations with which they have been provided.
1. Role play differs from simulation in that role plays provide limited information
regarding the situation, which simulation is more detailed. Further, role play focuses
on “soft skills” or interpersonal skills while simulation typically focuses on “hard
skills” or technical skills. Simulation requires procedural responses on the part of the
trainee; role play requires mental and emotional reactions to other trainees.
2. To be effective, it is critical that role plays be preceded by an explanation of the
purpose of the activity; clear instructions need to be given; monitoring and feedback
from the facilitator are needed; and debriefing, or helping trainees to understand the
experience, is critical.
H. Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model
demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for the trainees to attempt to replicate
through practice. It is based on social learning theory, which suggests that learning
occurs by observing a model and seeing the model reinforced. Vicarious reinforcement
occurs when a trainee sees a model being reinforced for using certain behaviors.
1. Behavior modeling is appropriate for learning skills and behaviors and is very
effective for teaching interpersonal and computer skills.
2. Developing behavior modeling training involves determining what tasks need to be
addressed and what key behaviors are necessary to complete the task.
a. A key behavior is one of a set of behaviors that are needed to perform a task.
b. Key behaviors are not exact behaviors, but rather general behaviors that are useful
across situations.
3. The modeling display provides the key behaviors that trainees will practice to
develop the behaviors. It is typically done through videotape or computer displays.
Effective modeling displays include:
a. Clear presentation of the key behaviors.
b. A model that is credible to trainees.
c. An overview of the key behaviors.
d. Repetition of each key behavior.
e. A review of the key behaviors.
f. Models using the key behaviors both positively and negatively (make it clear
which is which).
4. The most effective practice sessions allow trainees to practice key behaviors multiple
times risk-free with other trainees who understand the company and the job along
with feedback from peers and the trainer. Practice sessions may also be videotaped to
allow trainees to observe themselves.
5. Application planning is the process for preparing trainees to transfer the key
behaviors back to the job. It involves the trainee preparing a written document
specifying situations in which they should use the key behaviors and, perhaps, trainer
follow-up.
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IV. Group Building Methods are those designed to improve work team or group effectiveness.
They involve trainees sharing ideas and experiences, building group identity, generating an
understanding of interpersonal dynamics, and getting to know the strengths and weaknesses
of themselves and their teammates.
A. Group building methods often involve experiential learning. Experiential learning
training programs have four stages:
1. Gain conceptual knowledge and theory.
2. Take part in a behavioral simulation.
3. Analyze the activity.
4. Connect the theory and activity with on-the-job or real-life situations.
B. Adventure learning, also known as outdoor training or wilderness training, is a training
delivery method aimed at developing teamwork, leadership skills, self-awareness, and
problem solving and conflict management skills, through structured outdoor (or “mock
outdoor”) activities. The activities range from highly strenuous and challenging ones,
such as dog sledding or mountain climbing, to less physically challenging ones, such as
rope courses, trust falls, and even simulated high-level activities.
1. To be successful, adventure learning exercises must be related to the skill objectives
of the training. After exercises, the facilitator should lead a discussion about what
was learned.
2. Advantages of adventure learning include allowing trainees to interact and build
relationships with coworkers in a situation not governed by formal business rules; that
trainees share a strong emotional experience which may open them to change; that the
exercises can serve as “metaphors” for organizational events and behaviors; and the
exercises can be highly self-enlightening, invigorating and self-esteem enhancing.
3. Disadvantages include the highly physically demanding and risky nature of many
adventure learning activities; the company’s risk for negligence claims due to
personal injury, emotional distress or invasion of privacy; the high cost of such
activities; and the lack of evidence that transfer of what is learned occurs.
C. Team training involves coordinating the performance (i.e., knowledge, attitudes, and
behaviors) of employees who work interdependently to achieve common goals (see
Figure 7-3, p. 254). It typically involves multiple methods of delivery, such as lecture,
video, role plays and simulations.
1. The three major components of team training are:
a. The behavioral component of team training involves facilitating effective
communication, coordination, adaptability, and complex task completion to
accomplish the team’s objectives.
b. The knowledge component develops mental models allowing team members to
perform effectively in unanticipated situations.
c. The attitude component focuses on team members’ beliefs about the task and each
other, team morale, cohesion and identity.
2. The four main elements of the structure of team training (see Figure 7-3, p. 234)
include the tools to be incorporated into the training delivery and the methods of
delivery. Together the tools and methods result in strategies for meeting training
objectives. The strategies include:
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a. Cross-training, or developing an understanding among team members of each
other’s tasks and skills so that each member could cover for the others if needed.
b. Coordination training involves training the team how to share information and
decision making responsibilities for maximum team performance.
c. Team leader training is the training that the team manager or facilitator receives.
It may involve learning how to resolve conflict and how to help the team
coordinate activities and resources.
C. Action learning involves providing teams or work groups (usually 6-30 employees) an
actual problem to work on solving through an action plan for which they are held
accountable to carry out.
1. Action learning, which may have similar objectives to team training, is widespread in
Europe and is just starting to be used in the U.S.
2. It has not been formally evaluated, but action learning appears to be an effective
means of learning and transfer of learning because of its realness.
3. Table 7-9 (p. 256) shows the steps involved in action learning.
V. Choosing a Training Method
A. Table 7-10 on page 259 of the text provides a matrix for choosing training methods.
B. Factors to consider in choosing training methods include: The intended learning
outcomes; the learning environment needed; the issue of transferring learning; cost; and
effectiveness under the given circumstances.
C. Table 7-10 illustrates several trends:
1. There is considerable overlap in learning outcomes across the various training
methods.
2. Most of the hands-on methods provide a better environment for learning and transfer
than the presentation (passive) methods.
3. The hands-on methods also tend to be the more expensive methods, however, and
budgets are frequently tight. Thus, these issues have to be balanced.
CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY
This chapter described for the reader a number of traditional methods for delivering training,
from the passive presentation methods to hands-on methods to group building methods. Each
has advantages and disadvantages, which are discussed. Table 7-7 provides an excellent resource
for examining the pros and cons of each of the traditional methods, comparing them on criteria
ranging from cost to learning outcomes to learning environment to transfer of training. It gives
the reader an exhaustive summary of these methodologies, all of which are still used extensively.
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Discussion Questions
1. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the lecture, the case study, and behavior modeling?
Answer:
A lecture is one of the least expensive, least time-consuming ways to present a large amount
of information efficiently in an organized manner. The lecture format is also useful because
it is easily employed with large groups of trainees. The disadvantages are lack of trainee
involvement and lack of feedback. (p. 236-237)
The case study method requires trainees to analyze and critique a description of how
employees or an organization dealt with a difficult situation. Learners must be willing and
able to analyze cases and have the ability to communicate their recommendations. A
disadvantage is that the case may not be related to the work situation the trainee will
encounter. (p. 245-246)
Behavior modeling is more appropriate for teaching skills and behaviors than factual
information
Trainees observe behaviors demonstrated by a model and vicarious reinforcement. Research
suggests that behavior modeling is one of the most effective techniques for teaching
interpersonal and computer skills. (p.248).
2. If you had to choose between adventure learning and action learning for developing an
effective team, which would you choose? Defend your choice.
Answer:
Answers will vary. Action learning gives teams or work groups an actual problem, has them
work on solving it and committing to an action plan, and then hold them accountable for
carrying out the plan. This type of learning teaches the trainees how to work as a team by
researching the problem and finding a solution and following through by carrying out the
plan. (p. 256)
3. Discuss the process of behavior modeling training.
Answer:
Behavior modeling is a hands-on method that involves presenting to trainees a model
demonstrating the appropriate key behaviors for trainees to attempt to replicate through
practice.
See Table 7-7 in the text. (p. 249).
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4. How can the characteristics of the trainee affect self-directed learning?
Answer:
Trainees must be willing and comfortable learning on their own. Trainees must be motivated
to learn. (p.241)
5. What are the components of effective team performance? How might training strengthen
these components?
Answer:
The three components of effective team performance are knowledge, attitude, and behavior.
Research suggests that teams that are effectively trained develop procedures to identify and
resolve errors, coordinate information gathering, and reinforce each other. (p.254)
6. Table 7-10 (p.259) compares training methods on a number of characteristics. Explain why
simulation and behavior modeling receive high ratings for transfer of training.
Answer:
The learning method for both simulation and behavior modeling is a hands-on method and
research has shown that a hands-on method provides a better learning environment and
transfer of training than do presentation models. (p. 259)
7. What are some reasons why on-the-job training can be ineffective? What can be done to
ensure its effectiveness?
Answer:
Unstructured OJT can result in poorly trained employees, employees who use ineffective or
dangerous methods to produce a product or service, and products or services that vary in
quality.
OJT must be structured to be effective. Using a credible trainer and a manager or peer who
models the skill, communication of key behaviors, practice, feedback, and reinforcement.
(p. 239)
8. Why are apprenticeship programs attractive to employees? Why are they attractive to
companies?
Answer:
Employees find apprenticeship programs attractive for several reasons – they can earn pay
while they learn; they are usually effective learning experiences because they involve learning
why and how a task is performed through classroom instruction provided by local trade
schools, high schools, or community colleges, and finally apprenticeship programs usually
result in full-time employment for trainees when the program is completed.
From the company’s perspective, apprenticeship programs meet specific business training
needs and help attract talented employees.
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9. Discuss the steps of an action learning program. Which aspect of action learning do you think
is most beneficial for learning? Which is most beneficial for transfer of training? Explain
why. Defend your choices.
Answer:
Answers will vary. Table 7-9 (p. 256) shows the steps involved in action learning. Several
types of problems are addressed in action learning, including how to change the business,
better utilize technology, remove barriers between the customer and company, and develop
global leaders. Six Sigma and black belt training programs involve principles of action
learning. (p. 256-257)
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