Dan Webb
Mobile Telephony for Development in rural sub-Saharan Africa.
Mobile phone usage on the African continent has exploded in recent years, with subscriber
rates topping nearly 50% per year in some areas. The expansion of rural mobile phone
networks has been most rapid in areas with low populations and poor existing infrastructure.
Despite often having much higher tariffs, mobile telephony seems to be leapfrogging fixed
landline connections on the continent.
The uptake of mobile telephony in sub-Saharan Africa seems to be premised upon a vast
range of factors that go beyond their simple communicative benefits. Broadly speaking,
mobile networks can be installed rapidly allowing rural communities to bypass lengthy
connection period of for fixed landline connections. Secondly, mobile phones offer a much
more versatile service to consumers, in economic, social and practical terms. Payment
systems are often much more suitable for low income users who may not be able to afford
monthly charges for landlines. Mobiles can perform socio-economic functions that were not
initially conceived by the companies that made them, such as ‘missed calling’ and money
transfers. Not to mention that handsets have multifaceted functionalities, including
calculators, torches, and music and photo storage which make purchasing mobile phones an
attractive prospect.
This bibliography seeks to review a broad spectrum of literature, drawing from academic,
and non-academic sources. For those without frequent academic access to books and
journals, the proliferation of website links act to provide an easily accessible resource
base. Indeed, a diverse range of media is also included, such as; video, audio, and written
communication.
Dan Webb
BBC (1st December 2004) ‘Texts Aim to Fight Aids in Kenya’,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/4054475.stm, (Accessed 02/03/08).
This article explores an m-health project initiated in Kenya whereby individuals
who do not have regular access to health clinics, can send SMS questions regarding
HIV/AIDS to a special number and receive free answers and advice. According to the
NGO pioneering the service, One World, text messages provide a non-intrusive way of
disseminating information about AIDs, without exposing recipients to the social stigma
associated with the disease. The project has begun using English as its primary baselanguage. This will undoubtedly exclude certain individuals, but, there are plans to
develop a Swahili system.
BBC (15th November 2007) ‘Mobile Phones Reach Uganda's Villages’
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7071636.stm, (Accessed 05/02/08).
This article examines the ‘Village Phone’ initiative, pioneered by the Grameen
Bank in Bangladesh, which was successfully transferred to parts of rural Uganda in 2003.
The project provides small-scale loans to rural women so that they can lift themselves out
of poverty. Specifically, the encourages women to buy a mobile phone, a car battery (to
charge it), and a antenna that can pick up signals from base stations. Phone owners can
then charge members of the community to use the mobile phone. By making money on
every call, the initial loan can be repaid in roughly four months. From then on, the mobile
business allows owners to make profit.
Bertolini R (2004) ‘Marketing Information and Communication Technologies:
Work for Food Security in Africa’, http://www.ifpri.org/pubs/ib/ib27.pdf, (Accessed
24/02/08).
This paper examines the role of ICTs in meeting the first Millennium
Development goal, and increase food security in rural Africa. The author argues that
ICTs can enhance the efficiency of agricultural systems by opening new forms of
communication pathways, reducing transaction costs and increasing access to information
on produce prices and transportation. Briefly reviewing the growth of mobile networks
on the continent, the author suggests that rural farmers can use mobile phones to access
market information using text messages services. However, Bertolini goes on to add that
there is a need for farmers to use ICTs to market products beyond local and regional
markets, which may be a hasty and optimistic prescription.
Dan Webb
Birch D (2005) ‘Upwardly Mobile’,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2005/aug/18/mobilephones.comment, (Access
16/02/08).
This newspaper article examines the use of mobile phone scratch cards as an
alternative from of monetary payment in rural areas. Using the monetary value of the
scratch card, individuals can text the voucher number to the person receiving payment,
transferring funds instantly. The author suggests, using individual case studies, that
mobile phone scratch cards have become an acceptable means of exchange for bribing
officials. More specifically, the scratch card numbers can sent to pay bribes remotely.
This paper highlights an interesting use of mobile telephony that goes far beyond its
intended purpose.
Castells M, Fernandez-Ardevol M, Qui J, Sey A (2006) Mobile Communication and
Society: A Global Perspective, MIT Press, Cambridge.
Although many parts of the book do not refer directly to rural African contexts,
the authors provide a vast synthesis of the roles, uses, benefits and risks that mobile
communication networks play in global society. Covering issues from mobile phone
etiquette to issues of phone safety and security, this book provides a useful and broad
context into which individual and specific studies can be rooted. The authors suggest that
mobile phone now constitutes an essential feature of everyday life for many individuals
worldwide. Specifically, in Africa, it is suggested that the mobile phone fundamentally
change work and working environments, allowing personal and business communication
to pervade the workspace.
Chapman R, Slaymaker T (2002) ‘ICTs and Rural Development: Review of the
Literature, Current Interventions and Opportunities for Action’, Working Paper
192, Overseas Development Institute, 111 Westminster Bridge Road, London.
This paper problematises the role of ICTs in rural development projects. The
paper suggests that mobile phones are more flexible, lightweight and cheap than ICTs
that have previously been used in past rural development programs Furthermore, the
benefits of mobile phones is that they have lower unit and running costs, high portability
and improved information outreach potential. However, it states that in order to ensure
local appropriation of new ICTs, such as mobile phones, it is important to decentralise
control over the technologies in order to reduce the knowledge capture by rural elites.
Dan Webb
Cramtpon W (5th March 2007) ‘Wireless Technology Speeds Health Services in
Rwanda’,
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/03/05/technology/05wireless.html?ex=1330750800&en
=251ac8066ba9166b&ei=5088, (Accessed 05/03/08).
This rather simplistic newspaper article reviews an initiative by Voxiva, a
American company that has built a e-health system allowing health workers to send
information from rural clinics to the capital by mobile phone. In Rwanda, the Voxiva
system is being used to track HIV/AIDS patients, by connecting information sent from
over 340 clinics. All the information is sent to servers in the capital, Kigali and is then
used to track live disease outbreaks, and individual patient’s treatment plans. Clinics can
also be informed of test results, or urgent drug recalls. Despite the early success of the
program there have been issues in training the staff in rural clinics in using the
technology.
Cronin J (2004) "Mobile Phones are Changing the Lives of Many in Rural Africa."
BBC News Audio and Video,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/media/audio/40782000/rm/_40782577_mobiles_tanzania.ram,
(Accessed 25/02/08).
This audio clip from the BBC World Business Report reviews the growing use of
mobile telephony in Tanzania. The reporter suggests that rural populations have found
anecdotal uses for mobile phones that were not conceived by the mobile companies. In
certain Tanzanian cultures, women are not allowed to fish but have to rely on purchasing
produce from male fisherman. Mobile phones have allowed certain groups of women to
find out the best price for fish, and to start a fish-selling business. In another rural
community, the nearby 50m mobile transmitter sites have created job such as security and
maintenance for locals individuals. The reporter makes an interesting closing comment,
suggesting that mobile phones will change the old traditions and cultures of some
communities, as new markets and new people are brought into closer proximity. This
point is often forgotten.
Donner J (2005) ‘Microentrepreneurs and Mobile: An Exploration of the Uses of
Mobile Phones by Small Business Owners in Rwanda’ Information Technologies
and International Development, 2, (1) 1–21.
This paper explores the micro level use of mobile phones by small businesses
owners in Rwanda. The paper investigates a number of firms with employee numbers
between 1-20. The author suggests that mobile phones have done much to increase
income, reduce business costs and increase business security due to two main reasons.
Firstly, mobile allow entrepreneurs to reach and be reached, by customer, suppliers, or
partners. Secondly, mobiles allow family members and friends, who are recognised as
Dan Webb
important for business practices, to contact individuals Thus, the investigation focuses
heavily on the role of mobiles as facilitators of economic growth and leaves little room
for discussion of what it calls ‘non economic (social)’ implications of mobile telephony.
Donner J (2007) ‘The Rules of Beeping: Exchanging Messages via Intentional
“Missed Calls” on Mobile Phones’, Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication,
13(1) http://jcmc.indiana.edu/vol13/issue1/donner.html, (Access 20/02/08).
This paper provides a broad exploration into the role of ‘missed calling’ on
mobiles in Rwanda. Missed calling is the act of ringing a mobile phone, but purposefully
hanging up before the receiver accepts the call. The advantages of ‘missed calling’ is that
the caller can successfully convey a message to the receiver without incurring any cost.
The paper categorises three main uses of ‘beeping’ in Rwanda. Callback Beeps are when
a caller has no mobile phone credit to request a call back. Pre-Negotiated Instrumental
Beeps describe messages that have been pre-arranged between two individuals.
Relational Beeps do not require any action from the receiver, but are simply messages
conveying a simple emotion. The paper goes on to review the sociocultural rules
underlying ‘missed calling’ techniques.
Erikkson (20th November, 2007) ‘New Solar Charger for Rural Areas’,
http://www.ericsson.com/solutions/operators/news/2007/q4/20071120_solarcharger.s
html, (Accessed 17/02/08).
This webpage reviews Ericsson and Sony Ericsson’s Village Solar Chargers,
which have been designed and shipped to the 12 Millennium Village clusters in Africa.
Often many people in rural areas own mobile phones, but have no way of charging them.
The solar charger is a simple, robust, easy-to-use and sustainable solution, able to charge
eight mobiles at the same time. Additionally, the inclusion of a 12-volt lead-acid battery
allows mobiles to be charged at night time. The charger can be moved around villages as
and when they get connected to electricity networks. However, the cost of the charger is
not disclosed, and one wonders about the cost efficiency of the product.
iConnect Online (31st December 2006) ‘Rural Women to Report Human Rights
Violations Against them using Mobile Phones’ http://www.iconnectonline.org/News/iconnectnews.2006-1231.4819027372/view?searchterm=mobile%20phones, (Access 04/03/08).
This article reviews a pioneering project in Kenya, South African and Senegal
which uses mobile phones to report human rights violations. The initiative, entitled
UmNyango, uses SMS technology for rural women and men to access information to,
Dan Webb
and report incidences of violence against women and children. In addition, users can
report violations of women's right to land. The project brings together a number of
international actors. The project is funded by the Dutch International Humanist Institute
for Cooperation with Developing Countries (Hivos) and the free SMS messages are
provided by Clickatell. However, the article does not comment on the success of the
project, and provides no solution for those who do no own mobile phones.
iConnect Online (28th July 2007) ‘Mobile Service Helps Bring Down Infant
Mortality in Mali’ http://www.iconnectonline.org/News/MobileServiceHelpsBringDownInfantMortalityMali/view?searchte
rm=mobile%20phones, (Accessed 05/03/08).
This article reviews the Pesinet project which uses mobile phones to monitor the
health and development of local infants in rural Mali. The service is based on weighing
the children every week by trained women in the community. In addition, signs of
coughing fever, diarrhoea, and vomiting are noted. The information is then inputted into a
Java-based mobile phone program and sent to Pesinet paediatricians. The information is
used to alert the paediatricians as to whether infants are in good health or if there is a
need for immediate medical intervention. There is a subscription charge of US$1 a month
per child which apparently covers both visits to the doctor and basic medicines. However,
with such a relatively small charge, and a small existing client base, the viability of the
project seems to be in question.
La Franiere S (25th August 2005) ‘Cellphones Catapult Rural Africa to 21st
Century’, The New York Times,
http://www.busn.ucok.edu/dgoudge/Africas%20growing%20Cell%20phone%20ma
rket.pdf, (Accessed 11/02/08).
This newspaper article broadly reviews the advantages of mobile phone
technology in rural Africa using journalistic case studies. Much attention is given to rapid
growth of mobile phone technology, using comparative statistics from Africa and Asia.
Illuminatingly, the struggle of some mobile companies to keep apace with such growth is
emphasised. The general benefits that mobile phones bring in leapfrogging fixed landline
technology is stated, along with a brief mention of social benefit. However, the
ubiquitous discussion of economic benefits that mobiles bring are present though the use
of diverse and interesting business case studies. Finally, the problem of charging mobile
phones is highlighted, with some innovative suggestions.
Dan Webb
Manobi Development Foundation (no date.)
http://www.manobi.sn/sites/foundation/website/?M=2&SM=6, (Accessed 14//03/03).
Manobi Development Foundation seeks to creatively harness the growth of Africa’s
mobile phone surge to bring market information to rural farmers/fishermen in Senegal
and South Africa. Using GSM-Data rural farmer can access real-time market information,
allowing them to choose when to sell products. This saves valuable transport time and
money. It also benefits the consumer end of the commodity chain by allowing buyers to
have a direct communicative link with the producers. Although the website states that it
partners with the ‘poorest farmers’, does not provide an explanation as to how these
individuals are chosen.
Marsden G (4th May 2007) ‘Mobiles in Africa’
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BJnjJbhKXhE, (Accessed 07/03/08).
This video clip analyses some of the unusual examples of mobile phone usage in
rural Africa. Moving away from his background in computer science, Marsden begins by
examining the role of shared mobile phone community buildings in parts of rural Malawi
and Zambia. Marsden then goes on to explore the reasons driving individuals to spend
their disposable income on mobile phones, instead of other amenities. He suggests that
the additional and multitudinous benefits built into handsets, such as calculator functions
or torch lights, makes buying mobiles attractive. Some of the forgotten social benefits of
mobile phones are discussed, such as the storing and sharing of precious and meaningful
photographs. Finally Marsden critiques the ubiquitous myth that mobiles allow farmers to
access market information in order to choose to sell produce in an areas with higher
prices. Instead, he suggests that it is social factors that influence a farmer’s choice of
market.
Mukhebi A (2004) ‘Reaching the Poor in Rural Kenya with Market Information: A
Case Study of a Market Information System’,
http://www.cta.int/ctaseminar2004/MukhebiKACE.pdf, (Accessed 29/02/08).
This paper examines a case study of a market information system (MIS)
developed by the Kenya Agricultural Commodity Exchange Limited (KACE), for
collecting and disseminating relevant and market information to smallholder farmers
using mobile phones. KACE collects information such as; prices of commodities in
different markets and commodity offers to sell and bids to buy. It is hoped that the KACE
MIS system will lower transaction costs and improve market efficiency for rural farmers.
However the system has not been completely developed, or widely advertised, suggesting
that the success of this MIS may be worth exploring in the future. Clearly the challenge
facing KACE is the unreliable mobile network availability in some rural areas.
Dan Webb
Minges M (1999) ‘Mobile Cellular Communications in the Southern African
Region’, Telecommunications Policy, 23, 585-593.
This paper explores the potential of mobile telephony for expanding access to
communications in the member countries of the Southern African Development
Community. Specifically, it reviews the growth of mobile telephony over the last five
year, and suggests three reasons why individuals choose mobiles over landlines. Firstly,
mobile networks can be installed more rapidly than fixed lines, where individuals can
have to wait for up to a year for installation. Secondly, mobile connection charges often
cost less than fixed lines. Finally, mobiles have greater functionality than landlines. The
paper then suggests that foreign and inter-regional investment in mobile networks can be
beneficial to the SDAC region. Finally, the paper suggests that one of the biggest
obstacles to increasing mobile telephony access in the Southern African region is a lack
of coverage.
Pigato, M (2001) ‘Information and Communication Technology, Poverty, and
Development in sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia’,
http://www.worldbank.org/afr/wps/wp20.pdf, (Accessed 13/03/08).
This paper gives an in-depth account into patterns of utilisation, ownership and
affordability of ICTs in sub-Saharan Africa, providing an excellent grounding to any
study of mobile telephony and development. It provides a brief but useful quantitative
overview of mobile phone ownership in sub-Saharan Africa. The paper concludes by
suggesting that the effective use of ICTs by the rural poor is limited by a lack of skills,
financial resources and the existence of preexisting socio-economic inequities. Thus it
suggests that ICTs penetration must focus on areas where investment has already been
encouraged the participation of the communities and of the poor.
Ross W (2nd February 2004) ‘Mobile Markets Deny Middlemen’,
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/3321167.stm, (Accessed 15/2/08).
This article examines a program initiated by Foodnet in Uganda to allow rural
farmers to find out the real price of their crops, and therefore avoid being cheated by
middlemen. The program relies on individuals in urban centres to check prices of crops at
the local markets. This market information is then uploaded onto the South Africanowned MTN mobile phone network. Farmers can then gain access to this information for
the price of one text message. This program not only allows farmers to get the best price
for their produce, but nullifies the role of middle-men who try to buy produce for less
than the market price. In theory, the program could be very successful, but the article
does not give a clear indication of the success or uptake of such a system. The initiative
also may exclude those who do not own mobile phones.
Dan Webb
Safaricom (2007) ‘M-Pesa’, http://www.safaricom.co.ke/m-pesa/, (Accessed
12/03/08).
M-Pesa is a free mobile phone bank account offered by Safaricom Kenya. The
initiative is open to everyone, but is specifically targeted at people who do not have a
bank account, but do have ownership of a phone. M-Pese enables subscribers to deposit,
withdraw or send amounts of money in an instant transaction. The initiative is extremely
useful for rural communities to receive money from family in urban areas. However,
many individuals are put off the technology because of fears over safety and security.
Although Safaricom are adamant that the pin-secure program is completely safe.
Saunders A (23rd October 2007) ‘Mobile phones Speed Development in Rural
Africa’ http://www.igovernment.in/site/mobile-phones-speed-development-in-ruralafrica/, (Accessed 12/o3/08).
This paper examines the general economic benefits of mobile telephony in rural
areas. From this basis, it discusses the need for strong regulatory bodies to ensure that
mobile companies extend coverage to remote rural areas of Sub-Saharan Africa. The
author laments that whilst many mobile phone companies have contractual obligations to
provide coverage to rural areas, the tardiness of some governments has meant that these
obligations have not been met. Therefore the author advocates government incentives to
mobile companies to go beyond the cities.
Sciadas E (2005) ‘From the Digital Divide to Digital Opportunities: Measuring
Infostates for Development’,
http://www.orbicom.ca/projects/ddi2005/index_ict_opp.pdf, (Accessed 24/02/08).
This paper provides a useful overview of the extent and growth of global mobile
usage, providing a quantitative review of several Sub-Saharan African nations. For
example, it suggests that mobile phone subscriptions in Sub-Saharan Africa are at 6 per
100 people. More interestingly, it discusses the broad drivers and impediments in the
uptake of mobile technology in Africa, linking them to underlying policies, regulatory
environments and/or business strategies. The paper provides a brief analysis of the
gendered patterns of global ICT use, including an interesting case study of gender and
mobile phone use from Tanzania and South Africa.
Dan Webb
Scott N, Batchelor S, Ridley J, Jorgensen B (2004) ‘The Impact of Mobile Phones in
Africa’, Commission for Africa,
http://commissionforafrica.org/english/report/background/scott_et_al_background.
pdf, (Accessed 27/02/08).
This paper suggests that as the market for mobile telphony in urban Africa
becomes saturated, the next generation of phone users will be predominately based in
rural areas. This paper is refreshing in that it does not solely concentrate on the economic
benefits of mobiles in, but suggests numerous social advantages. The authors suggests
three main prescriptions to consider for the future of rural mobile phone use; to expand
access to, and affordability of networks; to further examine appropriate mobile services
and expand electronic financial services.
The Economist (25th Januray 2007) ‘Buy, cell, hold’.
This article suggests that the expansion of mobile phone usage in Africa may
unleash an increase of business energy that is tailored to local needs. To illustrate this, the
article briefly examines new mobile phone software that allows recreates a simple eBay
environment where rural farmers can bid for agricultural products. Individuals can upload
their contact information and indicate what they wish to buy and sell. SMS updates then
alert framers to relevant sales. Listing products is free as the software developer,
TradeNet, earns revenue by putting advertisements into the SMS messages. Eventually, it
hopes the service will become so useful that recipients will want to pay for it. The
company hopes the system will work across 12 different countries in West and Southern
Africa. Unfortunately, the article gives no indication of the success or uptake of the
project so far.
The Economist (26th July 2007) ‘Flood, Famine and Mobile Phones’.
This article comments on the use of mobile phones in drought and famine
situation in Sub-Saharan Africa. The article examines the use of ICTs by aid and
humanitarian agencies, focusing on the role of mobile phones as a replacement for
satellite phones. Mobile phones are said to increase the flow of information, and the
speed at which it can be processed, in humanitarian situations where information is often
confused or absent. Better flows of information can lead to more effective and efficient
agency responses, as well as increasing cooperation between agencies. However, an overreliance on mobile phones among agency worker could develop, which would be
disastrous if phones failed, break or get stolen.
Dan Webb
Vasagar J (2005) ‘Talk is Cheap, and Getting Cheaper’,
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2005/sep/14/kenya.hearafrica05, (28/02/08).
This newspaper article, whilst examining the broad range of roles that mobile
telephony plays within rural development, highlights the evolution of rural mobile phone
booths in Kenya. The author suggests that one of the main uses for the booths are for the
collection of remittance from distant family members. Cunningly, many of the phone
booth operators have identified the proliferation of customers that ‘miss’ call recipients,
and have begun to charge customers 2p a time to ‘flash’ someone. Unfortunately, many
of the booths have fallen victim to vandalism.
Vodafone Policy Paper (2005) ‘Africa: The Impact of Mobile Phones’,
http://www.vodafone.com/etc/medialib/attachments/cr_downloads.Par.78351.File.t
mp/GPP_SIM_paper_3.pdf, (Accessed 27/02/08).
This broad paper, commissioned by Vodafone, explores the ways in which
mobiles are used, valued and owned in Africa. In must be noted that Vodafone has a
business interest in the mobile phone in developing markets in Africa, mainly through
their investments in Vodacom, which operates in South Africa, Egypt, Kenya, DRC,
Lesotho, Mozambique and Tanzania. The paper concentrates on the economic benefits of
mobile phones to rural communities, including access to market information. The social
impacts of mobile phones in rural areas are afforded a single page. It was suggested that
for rural communities, the biggest limiting factor in mobile telephony was the lack of
electricity to charge phones. One wonders if the paper is solely written to fulfill the needs
of Vodafone as they seek to expand their networks to cover rural areas.
Wafula-Kwake A, Ocholla D (2007) ‘The Feasibility of ICT Diffusion amongst
African Rural Women: a Case Study of South Africa and Kenya’, International
Review of Information Ethics, 7, 1-20.
This quantitative research paper explores whether ICT use is feasible in the rural
areas of South Africa and Kenya by using a survey that involved interviewing 400
women. In both countries, the mobile phone was preferred over the landline. Mobile
phones were used by 15% of the respondents in South Africa and by 12.8% in Kenya
compared to 4.0% who used landlines. The results suggested that ICTs enabled most
women to keep in touch with of current affairs, the mobile phone being particularly
useful in this regard. This study, although returning some illuminating descriptive
statistics, did not provide an in-depth and explanatory study into the affects of mobile
telephony in these women’s lives.
Dan Webb
Wakunuma K (2007) ‘Mobile phones and development: The Future in New Hands?’
http://www.id21.org/insights/insights69/insights69.pdf, (Accessed 03/03/08).
This small section suggests that mobile phones can reinforce unequal gender
relations in some rural African societies. Focusing on Zambia, the author suggests that
mobile telephony has vastly benefited women, increasing their access to communication
which in turn strengthens family and business networks. However, it is suggested that
mobile phones can lead to marital conflict, such as insecurity, mistrust and jealously
between spouses. The author suggests that some cases, husbands believe that mobile
phones increase the chance of marital unfaithfulness, demanding that their wives make
and received calls in their presence. Worryingly, these sensitive marital conflicts can
easily ignite cases of domestic violence, reinforcing patriarchal power relations within
society. In addition, the author suggests that mobile phone ownership is higher among
males due to the expense of headsets and airtime. This can lead to economic exclusion of
female participation in mobile telephony. This paper sheds light on an often ignored
consequence of new technologies, and is, therefore, an important and illuminating read.
Conclusions
In conclusion, this broad sweep of existing literature reveals vastly multitudinous uses of
mobile telephony in rural sub-Saharan Africa. There was, however, a surprising lack of
academic research engaging with many of the issues described above. Instead, the vast
majority of sources are taken from news and journalistic accounts. Therefore, there is
clearly a need for academia to connect with many of the projects and initiatives
mentioned. In closing, despite facing many challenges, mobile telephony holds vast
developmental potential for rural communities.