FOREST ECOSYSTEMS: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PERSPECTIVES AND NATURE
CONSERVATION
Prepared by
Patrick W. Matakala, Ph.D (For.)
Submitted to
ILTER
July, 2004
Table of Contents
1. Introduction ................................................................................ 1
2. Framework for Achieving Balance between Use and Nature Conservation ........ 1
3. Mozambique: Key Natural Resource Management Issues............................. 3
a) Need for integrated/holistic land use planning .......................................... 4
b) High rates of illegal logging and hunting practices ...................................... 4
c) Inadequate/low human resource and institutional capacities ........................... 4
d) Need for environmental impact assessments (EIA) in licensed forest areas
(concessions ................................................................................... 4
and simple licences) prior to timber exploitation........................................... 4
e) Loss of biodiversity/Desertification ....................................................... 4
f) Unsustainable agricultural practices ...................................................... 4
g) Forest fires ................................................................................. 5
h) Lack of meaningful participation by other key stakeholders in natural resource ...... 5
management .................................................................................. 5
i) Need for industrial forest plantations ..................................................... 5
j) Need for policy integration and harmonization ........................................... 5
k) Need for strategy on protected areas .................................................... 5
4. Innovative, Emerging Research & Development Opportunities ..................... 7
Carbon sequestration & Trading .......................................................... 7
Forest Certification ........................................................................... 7
Watershed Protection ........................................................................ 7
Agroforestry ................................................................................... 7
Industrial Forest Plantations ................................................................. 8
Conservation and Use of Landscape Beauty ................................................. 8
4.1 Key actors and their roles in SFM and Conservation ............................. 8
5. Conclusions ................................................................................. 9
6. References .................................................................................. 9
ii
1. Introduction
Among the scenes which are deeply impressed on my mind, none exceed in sublimity the
primeval forests…………No one can stand in these solitudes unmoved……
— Charles Darwin
The forest community and its habitat together comprise an ecological system—
ecosystem, in which the constituent organisms and their environments interact in vast and
complex cycles of carbon, water, and nutrients (Spurr and Barnes, 1980) providing humans
with significant socio-economic and environmental benefits. In short, forest ecosystems
are "our life". If forest ecosystems are the basis for human life, then it is important that
they are exploited or used in a sustainable way over time. Merging nature/resource
conservation and economic development goals and concepts is not easy, but it is necessary
for the future survival of natural forests and welfare of humans (Sharma et al. 1992). This
implies changing the way in which forest- and tree-based activities are designed and
implemented, and it will require concerted efforts by all key actors and increased means
to expand the knowledge base (through research and education) about resources, to
develop environmental- friendly technologies, to improve the planning and balancing of
land uses, and to design and implement more effective institutional mechanisms and
policies that will encourage sustainable development. Furthermore, it will require
appropriate and coordinated actions at local, national and global levels. The very
complex nature of forest ecosystems demands adaptive research, decision-making and
development interventions. As we move away from single resource management (such as
timber) to adaptive ecosystem management, management complexity increases and the
intrinsic benefits to humans as well as environmental protection values also increase.
This paper is divided into six sections. Section 2 lays out the conceptual framework for
achieving balance between use and nature or resource conservation and Section 3 provides
a brief background to the natural resource situation and key issues in Mozambique.
Section 4 highlights the major research and development issues as well the roles of key
actors in sustainable forest management and conservation. Section 5 provides the
conclusions followed by references in Section 6.
2. Framework for Achieving Balance between Use and Nature Conservation
They key to achieving a viable and effective balance between use and conservation
(sustainability) of natural resources is an adaptive approach to forest ecosystem
management. "Adaptive" means that we learn as we go; the ecosystem teaches us about
itself; we learn from it and modify our interventions to ensure that they do not threaten
forest sustainability (Ontario Forest Policy Panel, 1993). Adaptive ecosystem management
calls for a shift from management of individual resources to a holistic view and
management of multiple resources for multiple values – much more than integrated
resource management (Figure 1). This shift presents two main challenges: a) the need for
comprehensive resource inventories delineating major ecosystems in terms of their
boundaries and the characteristics of their major components; and b) the need for
knowledge of the interactions among forest ecosystem components, and how forests
respond to disturbances.
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High
M
A
N
A
G
E
M
E
N
T
C
O
M
P
L
E
X
I
T
Y
Adaptive Ecosystem
Management
Integrated Resource
Management
Single Resource
Management
Low
BENEFIT TO PEOPLE
PROTECTION OF ENVIRONMENT
High
Figure 1: Level of management complexity and benefits under Adaptive Ecosystem
Management
From a policy point of view, the shift also means that appropriate policies for other
sectors are also critical in dealing with issues relating to forest sustainability. Unless
governments take strong measures to accelerate production through intensified
agriculture (i.e., improving production systems, land-use practices, technological
packages, incentives, and markets, the strain on forest resources will continue. Unless
policymakers dealing with key economic sectors (such as agriculture, energy,
transportation, and industry) take into account the indirect effects these sectors have on
forest depletion and on widespread poverty, the long-term prospects for sustainable use
of forests will be undermined. As noted by Sharma et al. (1992), in addition to policy and
institutional reforms, countries should seek to:
-
conserve all forests through sustainable management for multiple uses, implemented
through land-use zoning;
expand protected areas for the preservation of diverse forest ecosystems with global
efforts;
augment forest resources through forestation to meet demand for forest products and
to provide environmental services and ecosystem protection; and
develop programs for intensifying agriculture and use of agroforestry technologies and
promoting rural development, especially in densely populated areas adjacent to
forests.
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If we have to plan and manage forested ecosystems in a holistic way, we will need to
maintain their health, diversity and productive states in order to protect and enhance
their legacy, social and material values (Figure 2). Legacy values are important to ensure
that future generations inherit undegraded forest ecosystems necessary to sustain their
livelihoods. Social values are also important to assure ownership and belongingness while
material values are important for day-to-day human sustenance and development. From a
development perspective, achieving balance between use and conservation also implies
seeking a balance among economic, socio-cultural, environmental, policy and legislative
goals. It also requires engagement by other actors beyond country borders.
LEGACY
Biodiversity
Heritage
Forests
Water, Air and Soil
Cultural &
Spiritual
Fulfilment
SOCIAL
Sustainability
Knowledge &
Understanding
Tenure rights &
Incentives
Employment
Fibre and Wood
Food & Other Non-Timber
Forest Products
MATERIAL
Investment &
Revenue
Recreation
Tourism
Figure 2: Legacy, social and material values of sustainably managed forests
3. Mozambique: Key Natural Resource Management Issues
Mozambique has an estimated population of 17 million and a total land area of 786 830
km2 of which 62 million hectares (about 80% of the national territory) are covered by some
type of vegetation including 40 million hectares of forests (high dense, open, savannas),
87,000 km2 in protected areas (forest, wildlife, and marine reserves, parks and controlled
hunting areas). Productive forests containing industrial wood comprise about 19 million
hectares with a total commercial volume of 22 million m3 and allowable annual cut of
500,000 m3 (Bila and Salmi 2003). About 36 million hectares comprise arable land spread
across 10 agro-ecological zones. Agriculture is very much linked to natural resources
management in Mozambique as unsustainable local practices such as shifting cultivation,
farming on steep slopes, livestock overgrazing, and uncontrolled fires emanating from land
clearing practices denude large tracts of forested areas annually. The country has diverse
cultural and ecological conditions. This diversity presents both opportunities and
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challenges for natural resource management and development. There are over 5,500 plant
species, 220 species of mammals, 690 bird species, 67 reptile species and 79 amphibian
species (MICOA 1998). Some of these species are endemic and threatened by extinction.
Among the key issues of concern include:
a) Need for integrated/holistic land use planning
Integrated or holistic land use planning is driven by the need for ecological responsibility
and balanced use. Balanced use implies zoning land areas for different uses/values with
potential in the area; recognizing in the latter that human uses have to be balanced across
the forest landscape (where there is potential) in order to reduce social conflict and
promote economic well-being for all.
b) High rates of illegal logging and hunting practices
Illegal logging in Mozambique occurs in two forms: by unlicensed individuals removing
timber from the forests mostly for charcoal production and by licensed individuals who cut
more than what is allowed on their licences or cut outside licensed areas because they
know government has no capacity to monitor what they do. Due to inadequate or absence
of monitoring capacity, wildlife outside hunting areas (coutadas) has largely remained an
open access resource in Mozambique. Illegal activities have also been facilitated by high
levels of corruptive practices.
c) Inadequate/low human resource and institutional capacities
Following the war for independence (up to 1975) and later 16 years of civil war (19761992), the capacity of the national institutions on NRM has been severely depleted. Young
scientists and technicians were not trained during the war and so there is a very limited
pool of human resources to sustain the activities necessary for research and development
in natural resource management. The illiteracy rate in the country is 25% higher than the
sub-Saharan Africa average. Similarly, the local institutions are weak in terms of resources
and suitable infrastructures.
d) Need for environmental impact assessments (EIA) in licensed forest areas (concessions
and simple licences) prior to timber exploitation
The current Forest Law, its regulations, policy and strategy, do not demand for EIAs in
concession or simple licensed areas as pre-requisite to forest exploitation. This has often
led to degradation of ecologically sensitive (ES) and culturally sensitive (CS) areas as well
as conflicts between licensees and local people in some cases.
e) Loss of biodiversity/Desertification
This has been exemplified by the gradual loss of soil productivity and thinning out of
vegetative cover across the country due to human activities such as over-cultivation,
overgrazing, damming of rivers, degradation of wetlands, deforestation and poor irrigation
practices and also due to climatic variations such as prolonged droughts and floods. All
these factors have contributed to loss of biodiversity in turn resulting in threats to or loss
of critical species and habitats.
f) Unsustainable agricultural practices
Unsustainable agricultural practices such as slash-and-burn, cultivating on steep slopes,
indiscriminate use of inorganic fertilizers and pesticides, and improper irrigation systems
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resulting in sedimentation of waterways, have all occurred due to poor local extension
services or weak extension capacity. This has resulted in degraded ecosystems and poor
agricultural yields. Support to the national extension system is critical.
g) Forest fires
Of the many causes of land and natural resource degradation in Mozambique, perhaps
forest fires rank first as large tracts of vegetated lands burn every year thereby affecting
soil and forest quality. The major causes of these fires include: use of fire to hunt for the
cane rat; uncontrolled fires from slash-and burn practices; and unattended charcoal
production earth kilns that break and let out fire.
h) Lack of meaningful participation by other key stakeholders in natural resource
management
While the national legal framework is clear and supportive of the involvement of local
communities in NRM through Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM), in
practice, decision-making arrangements are still centralized and local benefits are unclear
(Matakala & Mushove 2001). Participation by the private sector is limited to concession
and simple license regimes through management plan requirements but which are for the
most part not followed – they are not involved in management. There has also been a lack
of co-management arrangements among government, the private sector, and local
communities in the management of parks. This has often sparked conflicts, for instance,
between private investors and local communities as both seek to maximise their benefits
from the areas. Such partnerships will be required to ensure sustainable natural resource
management in parks.
i) Need for industrial forest plantations
The country has tremendous potential for forest plantations that is not utilized. There is
urgent need for establishment of industrial forest plantations to satisfy local wood
demands and relieve pressures exerted on indigenous forests. This would also be an
important gateway for private sector involvement in forest management and
development.
j) Need for policy integration and harmonization
This is particularly important among key government stakeholders such as the Ministry of
Environmental Action Coordination (MICOA), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
(MADER), Ministry of Tourism (MITUR), and also with the Ministry of Planning & Finance
(MPF) and Ministry of State Administration (MAE). MPF and MAE are jointly involved in
developing guidelines for decentralized planning and finance. These guidelines will have
significant implications on NRM activities at local levels as such activities will have to be
integrated in local development plans and financing mechanisms.
k) Need for strategy on protected areas
There is a lack of clear strategy on creation of new and/or management of existing
protected areas and lands outside protected areas. Therefore, there is need to develop a
protected areas strategy for the country that would set clear goals to protect
representative major terrestrial, marine and freshwater ecosystems as well as cultural
heritage and recreational values.
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The foregoing issues exemplify the need for a multi-sectoral approach to forest
management in Mozambique driven by the principles of adaptive ecosystem management.
It is also clear that it will require actions at the local, national and global levels backed by
research in order to address the issues above (Table 1):
Table 1: Some key actions needed at the Local, National and Global levels to promote
Sustainable Forest Management (SFM)
Type of Action Needed
Promote commitment
and participation
Establish legal and policy
frameworks related to
tenure rights,
management
responsibilities, etc.
Consider explicitly equity
and gender issues
Local Level
National Level
Global Level
-
-
Establish strong
political commitment
to programs for SFM
-
Adopt common
agenda for SFM
-
Ensure participation of
other sectors in
meeting forest
conservation
objectives
-
Provide grants and
concessionary funds
-
Support global
initiatives such as
TFAP, ITTO, GEF, CDM,
CBD, CCD, FCC
Involve local
communities
identification, design
and implementation of
programs
-
Identify local
capacities and
strengthen those that
are weak
-
Initiate environmental
education programs
-
Develop local common
property and openaccess management
strategies
-
Establish links
between local
management groups
and higher-level
authorities
-
Enforce local
conservation related
mechanisms and rules
(bye-laws)
-
Use self-policing
approach to control
-
Get women involved in
local forest
management
-
Consider resolutions to
local situations
-
Develop and adopt a
multi-sectoral
approach to planning
and implementation
recognizing that use
and misuse of forest
resources involve other
sectors
-
Develop appropriate
inter-sectoral linkages
-
Establish appropriate
links among national,
regional, and local
authority and
management
-
Establish
environmentally sound
national land use laws
and accompanying
cadastral system to
clarify rights
-
Establish laws that
promote equity on
gender and other bases
- Develop a global
perspective on forest
policy
-
Provide financial,
technical, and
managerial support for
forest areas
designated as having
global importance
-
Develop international
legal measures for cost
sharing and benefit
distribution related to
global benefits derived
from forest use (e.g.,
genetic materials,
carbon storage, etc.)
- Contribute to the direct
and indirect costs of
maintaining
preservation forests
- Support projects that
benefit the poor and
disadvantaged
Develop appropriate
institutional mechanisms
that consider true values
of forests (goods &
environmental services)
-
Develop incentives for
local forest
management
-
Establish a forest
licensing systems that
promotes SFM
- Reduce trade barriers
- Establish "best practice"
-
Strengthen common
property resource
management
-
Develop national
incentive mechanisms
that encourage tree
planting
- Support research and
codes for SFM
training
- Promote better
valuation of forests
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4. Innovative, Emerging Research & Development Opportunities
Carbon sequestration & Trading
The nascent and emerging global carbon emissions reduction market, while promoting
sustainable development, also offers a learning-by-doing opportunity to member countries
to reduce emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. Mozambique has great
potential to benefit from this opportunity. ILTER could champion the operationalization
of synergies of the three Rio Conventions on biodiversity, climate change, and
desertification (UNCBD, UNFCC and UNCCD, respectively) through judiciously designed
research and pilot projects on carbon financing in the country.
Forest Certification
Mozambique’s abundance of forest resources have contributed little to poverty alleviation
among the rural poor due to a lack of added value on harvested forest products. Massive
deforestation for charcoal production and agricultural land clearing continues to
exacerbate the problem of unsustainable forest management. Certification of community
and industrial forests is a viable alternative for sustainable use and development of
Mozambique’s existing forests through added value and sound management practices.
This provides an opportunity to connect the poor to international markets and
Mozambique’s comparative advantage of ready access to international markets by sea is
an added plus. ILTER and its partners could undertake research in this area to establish
institutional mechanisms that permit forest actors to maximize value from both timber
and non-timber forest products.
Watershed Protection
There is very little research on and projects on watershed management in the country.
The watersheds of major river systems such as the Zambezi, Limpopo, and Save are all
without plans to be protected and thus threatening downstream negative effects on water
quality and availability. Watershed management offers a great opportunity for an
important regional project in which Mozambique would be both a major player and
beneficiary as well as research on ranging from biophysical to social and economic
aspects.
Agroforestry
Adaptive Ecosystem Management, through the participatory development of technologies
based on agroforestry, has the strong potential to contribute towards sustainable NRM,
food security and sustainable rural livelihoods. Land degradation through erosion and soil
nutrient depletion is key in the stagnation and decline of food-crop productivity. Although
soils can be improved through imported mineral fertilizers, poor market infrastructure and
the associated high transport costs mean that most Mozambican farmers cannot afford
sufficient quantities of fertilizers to replenish soil nutrients. The challenge has been to
develop and introduce improved nutrient management systems that integrate organic and
inorganic nutrient sources in practical, cost-effective ways. Agroforestry has proved to
achieve this. It has also been demonstrated that agroforestry can help to provide a
solution to the dual problem of drought and floods by:
 improving water infiltration rates and reducing flood risks;
 Improving dry season water flow and reducing erosion and the associated siltation
of downstream water bodies; and
 increasing the overall efficiency of water use.
Projects to scale up agroforestry adoption and implementation in the country would go a
long way in assuring sustainable NRM. On the other hand, there is need for research to
determine farmer adoption rates, appropriate indigenous species, and farmer yields under
different agroforestry technologies.
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Industrial Forest Plantations
Mozambique has no industrial forest plantations. This has tended to exert a lot of
pressure on existing indigenous forests to satisfy both fuel and timber demands. There is
need for private sector involvement in industrial plantation establishment and
management ensuring that environmental issues are considered as part of plantation
management plans. This will require environmental impact assessments (EIAs) for
designated plantation areas prior to establishment in order to mitigate against biodiversity
depletion. ILTER could champion research on industrial forest plantation establishment
and management. The research could focus on species screening, sawmilling technologies
up to value-added forest products manufacturing.
Conservation and Use of Landscape Beauty
Mozambique is a rich country in terms of landscape diversity and beauty combining coastal
areas (about 3,000 km of coastline), mountains and forests. The availability of this
diverse beauty presents an opportunity for ecotourism development in the country by
private investors as well as local communities that will assure conservation and profitable
use of the landscapes. It also presents research opportunities to look into development of
a comprehensive recreation opportunity spectrum for the country using zoning techniques
in order to capture a wide range of recreation values
4.1 Key actors and their roles in SFM and Conservation
The key actors in SFM and conservation can be broadly categorized in six groups:
1. Public sector: MADER, MICOA, MITUR, MPF, etc.
Government has a key role in facilitating sustainable NRM, in particular through:
- Policy and legal reform;
- Enforcement of laws and regulations;
- Facilitation of legally binding community-public-private sector partnerships;
- Strengthening research and extension;
- Supporting capacity building programmes; and
- Promoting social equity and democratic governance.
2. Educational & Research Institutions: FAEF/UEM, Catholic University, CEF, IPA, etc.
These institutions could play a leading role in undertaking applied research ranging
from biophysical, social, cultural, policy and economic issues pertaining to sustainable
forest management.
3. Non-Governmental Organizations: both local and international
Both national and international and NGOs could play an important role by:
- Providing technical expertise and financial resources;
- Undertaking independent monitoring and critical evaluations;
- Lobbying government;
- Promoting community awareness about their rights;
- Promoting sustainable forest management, agricultural and land care practices;
and
- Facilitating conflict resolution/mediation.
4. Private investors: in forestry, tourism and wildlife sub-sectors
The private sector could assist by adding value to forest products and securing
viable markets. They should also engage in ecologically and socially responsible
NRM practices as well as invest in research and development.
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5. Local communities
Local communities could be involved in SFM by:
- asserting their own rights;
- participating in policy debates;
- participating in programme identification, design and implementation;
- engaging in business partnerships with the private sector; and
- monitoring and evaluation.
6. Donors
Donors could play an important role in SFM by:
- lobbying government for better policies and transparency;
- supporting capacity building programmes and institutional strengthening;
- providing financing for research and project implementation; and
- supporting good governance and democratisation processes.
5. Conclusions
Given the limits of the existing economic paradigm for dealing with the environmental
dimensions of SFM, important decisions relating to the use and management of forests
must take into account ecological and ethical considerations as well. Incentive policies
and market forces by themselves will not guarantee sustainable use and conservation of
forests. The participation of the public and private sectors and local communities is
crucial, as is an improved knowledge base driven by research and local indigenous
knowledge, for forest management and preservation.
From the beginning of history, humans have altered their ecosystems. Many of
these changes have been essential to the development of civilizations. The world
community today must ensure the integrity and stability of forest ecosystems by
seeking a balance between development and preservation.
Adaptive Ecosystem Management offers an approach amenable to achieving
sustainable development goals while conserving nature’s resources. Is Mozambique
ready and willing to delve into this paradigm shift. With ILTER’s leadership, I am
convinced that could happen.
6. References
Bila, A. And J. Salmi. 2003. Fiscalização de florestas e fauna bravia em Moçambique:
Passado, Presente e Acçãoes para Melhoramento. MADER, DFID, IIED. Maputo. 62 pp.
Matakala, P. and P. Mushove. 2001. Arranjos institucionais para o maneio comunitário
dos recursos naturais (MCRN): Perfis e análise de 42 iniciativas de MCRN em
Moçambique.136 pp.
MICOA. 1998. Estratégia e plano de acção para a conservação da biodiversidade biológica
em Moçambique. MICOA, Maputo. 81 pp.
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Ontario Forest Policy Panel. 1993. Diversity: Forests, People, Communities – A
Comprehensive Forest Policy Framework for Ontario. Queen’s Printer for Ontario,
Toronto. 147 pp.
Sharma, N., R. Rowe, M. Grut, R. Kramer, and H. Gregersen. 1992. Conditions for
sustainable development in Managing the World’s Forests: Looking for Balance Between
Conservation and Development, N.P. Sharma (Ed.), pp. 489-514. Kendall /Hunt Publishing
Company, Iowa. IBRD, 1992. 605 pp.
Sharma, N., C. Binkley, and J. Burley. 1992. A Global Perspective on Forest Policy in
Managing the World’s Forests: Looking for Balance Between Conservation and
Development, N.P. Sharma (Ed.), pp. 515-526. Kendall /Hunt Publishing Company, Iowa.
IBRD, 1992. 605 pp.
Spurr, S.H. and B.T. Barnes. 1980. Forest Ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 687
pp.
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