Rethinking Acculturation: The influence of social contexts and gender on immigrant Asian mental health Janxin Leu Emily C. Walton David Takeuchi University of Washington For submission to Social Science & Medicine Abstract Acculturation is a popular but problematic variable in health research. An interactional, ecological model of acculturation is used with data from the first nationally representative survey of immigrant Asian mental health in the US (n=1583). Along with three conventional measures of acculturation (e.g., English proficiency, proportion of life in the US, and ethnic identification), the additive and moderating effects of gender and social contexts (e.g., family, neighborhood, and community) on mental health were modeled. Among immigrant males, family conflict, neighborhood ethnic density, and perceived discrimination were associated with symptoms of depression and anxiety; perceived discrimination moderated the relationship between English proficiency and symptoms of depression and anxiety. Among immigrant females, ethnic identity was associated with mental health outcomes; however, this relationship was moderated by family cultural conflict. Results suggest that social contexts and gender may have important influences on how acculturation is associated with immigrant mental health outcomes. Potential influences on the mental health of immigrants may be overlooked if only conventional acculturation models are considered. Word Count 167 2 Although the study of acculturation in health research is popular, it has been widely criticized as lacking validity and reliability, as well as theoretical precision (Hunt, Schneider, & Comer, 2004; Salant & Lauderdale, 2003; Zane & Mak, 2003; Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vededr, 2001; Cuellar, Arnold, & Maldonado, 1995; Arcia, Skinner, Bailiey, & Correa, 2001). The goal of this paper is to examine the relationship between acculturation and mental health using an interactional, ecological model that includes the influence of social contexts and gender. This model is demonstrated in the first nationally representative sample of Asian immigrants in the US. Acculturation, or an individual’s adaptation to culture contact and change, is usually measured using multi-item scales or single-item measures by psychologists, sociologists and epidemiologists. Multi-item scales assign an individual a single summary score on dimensions such as language proficiency and ethnic identity. Scales of acculturation often assume a unidimensional process anchored by ethnic culture and mainstream “White American” culture at each end, ignoring dynamic macro-level influences on mental health (Zane et al., 2003; Gutmann, 1999). Single-item measures (i.e., time in the US) allow for separate dimensions of acculturation to vary in their directionality. However, studies that include these measures also ignore social contexts (Hunt et al., 2004). This paper investigate the influence of three frequently examined dimensions of acculturation (i.e., English proficiency, time in the US, and ethnic identity), and their influence on immigrant mental health. We apply a novel theoretical model to examine how social contexts and gender interact with these dimensions of acculturation to influence mental health among immigrants. to illustrate the interactional, ecological model of studying acculturation. 3 Acculturation influences on Asian immigrant mental health are complex Acculturation measured by scales. The literature on scale-measured acculturation and mental health among immigrants and ethnic minorities is inconclusive, demonstrating the detrimental, protective, and null effects of adapting to the mainstream host culture on mental health. For example, among Asian Americans, greater acculturation has been associated with lower psychological distress and depression among (Padilla, 1985; Mehta, 1998; Mumford et al., 1991; Shin, 1994) and higher life satisfaction among South Asians (Mehta, 1998). However, it has also been associated with greater depression among Vietnamese women and increased engagement in risky behavior among Chinese and Vietnamese youth (Nguyen & Peterson, 1992; Shin, 1994; Wong, 1999; Yi, 1998). Still other studies have found no relationship between acculturation and mental health among South Asians (Songua-Barke & Mistry, 2000; Ogden & Elder, 1998). These studies have no measurement consensus, and vary in both the ethnicity (e.g., South Asian, Filipino, Chinese, Mexican, Turkish, Algerian) and national context (e.g., US, UK, New Zealand, Australia, France, Israel, Canada) of their samples. Acculturation measured by single measures. The data are inconsistent even when considering the three most commonly used single dimensions of acculturation. For example, ethnic identity was not related to eating disorder prevalence in a sample of South Asian women (Ogden et al., 1998). However, other research demonstrates that ethnic minority identity may promote psychological well-being among immigrants and ethnic minorities (Phinney & Devich-Navarro, 1997; Liebkind, 1996; Nesdale, Rooney & Smith, 1997; Phinney et al., 2001; Gong, Takeuchi, Agbayani-Siewert, & Tacata, 2003). 4 Research on time measures, such as nativity, generation, duration of residence in the host country, and proportion of life in the host country, also present a complex set of findings. For example, Leu (2008) has shown that the number of depression and anxiety symptoms increases as the age of immigration decreases among Asian immigrant adults. Nativity also seems related to mental health outcomes; despite better material affordances and greater access to health care, the descendants of Asian immigrants in the US are less mentally healthy than their parents’ generation (Takeuchi, Zane, Hong, Chae, Gong, Gee, Walton et al., 2007; Takeuchi, Alegria, Jackson & Williams, 2007; Breslau & Chang, 2006). Similarly, studies that directly measure the influence of years in the host country on mental health have found increased risk for depression and anxiety among Cambodian refugees (Carlson & Rosser-Hogan, 1993; greater alcohol and cigarette usage among Korean women (Hong & Faedda, 1996). However, in other studies, there is no demonstrated relationship between time measures and mental health outcomes among Hmong refugees (Mouanoutoua et al., 1991) Asian college students (Meston, Trapnell, & Gorzalka 1996), and Chinese (Takeuchi, Chung, Lin, Shen, Kurasaki, Chun, & Sue, 1998). Moreover, there is also evidence that time in the host country is associated with improvements in mental health (Westermeyer, Neider, & Vang, 1984) and health services use (Juon, Choi, & Kim, 2000; Leclere, Jensen, & Biddlecome, 1994). Research on the relevance of English proficiency to mental health among immigrant Asians is similarly inconsistent. English proficiency has been associated with risk for depression among Laotian refugees (Nicassio et al., 1986) and Vietnamese refugees (Nwadiora & McAdoo, 1996). However, English proficiency was also associated with decreased morbidity among Chinese (Takeuchi et al., 1998) and 5 improvements in depression among Hmong refugees (Westermeyer et al., 1984). Still, in at least one study, using data from the Filipino American Epidemiological Study, English proficiency was not associated with distress (Gong et al., 2003). Social contexts influence Asian immigrant mental health Research has already demonstrated that social contexts are relevant to mental health outcomes in ethnic minority and immigrant communities. For example, greater cultural conflict in Asian families is associated with higher rates of depression and lower psychological well-being among individuals (Chun & Akutsu, 2003; Tseng, 2004; Greenberger & Chen, 1996; Tsai-Chae & Nagata, 2008; Farver, Narang, & Bhadha, 2002; Ying & Han, 2007, Phinney, Ong, & Madden, 2000). Similarly, among Asian Americans, the ethnic density of a neighborhood may protect against poor mental health, such that the greater the ethnic density, the lower the prevalence of poor health (Walton & Takeuchi, in press). Additionally, commonplace discrimination experienced in everyday interactions in society may cause emotional distress (Wang, Leu, & Shoda, under review). Among Asian Americans, discrimination has been associated with poor mental health outcomes (Liang, Li, & Kim, 2004; Wong & Halgin, 2006), as well as poor physical health and well-being outcomes (Gee, Spencer, Chen & Takeuchi, 2007, Chan & Mendoza-Denton, 2008; Alvarez & Helms, 2001). An interactional, ecological model of acculturation is needed The present study tests the influence of acculturation on mental health using an interactional, ecological model of cultural development. An interactional model of acculturation assumes a dynamic, complex process that takes into consideration individual characteristics of the immigrant, the context of their settlement, and the 6 interaction among these factors (Phinney et al., 2001; Berry, 1997; Horenczyk, 1997; Jasinskaja-Lahti et al., 2003). An ecological model of human development can be used to study acculturation, as well. It argues for the examination of individual behavior within multiple environments that shape and constrain adaptation to change across time (Lerner, 2002; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998; Elder, 1974; 1998; Gabarino, 1992). Therefore, an interactional, ecological model may be a promising step in research on acculturation and health because it allows for individual variables to interact with varying levels of social contexts. There are two ways in which social context may change the influence of acculturation on mental health. On the one hand, social contexts of family, neighborhood, and community reception can increase or diminish the effect of acculturation variables when directly added to a model of mental health. For example, in a study of tobacco use among Vietnamese youth, the relationship between acculturation and smoking risk disappeared after social context factors were added to the model (Rissel, McLellan, & Bauman, 2000). On the other hand, social contexts can moderate or interact with acculturation to influence mental health outcomes. In particular, an immigrant’s acculturation status may interact with her family context to influence her mental health (Chun et al., 2003). For example, if she is highly identified with her ethnic background and experiences intergenerational cultural conflicts in her family context, she may be likely to experience worse mental health than if she were not highly identified with her ethnic background (e.g., if family were not an important cultural value). Similarly, an immigrant’s acculturation status may interact with the community reception to influence health 7 outcomes (for tobacco use, Unger et al., 2000; for psychological distress, Lay & Nguyen, 1998; for tobacco use, Rissel et al., 2000). For example, if he speaks English poorly and commonly experiences discrimination, he may suffer from poorer mental health than if he spoke English fluently. Gender may pattern the influence of acculturation on mental health A recent review of the literature on acculturation and health in Asian immigrant populations suggests that there is debate about whether gender modifies this relationship (cf. Salant et al., 2003). There is theoretical reason to suspect that gender may interact with individual acculturation dimensions and/or social contexts to influence mental health outcomes, and/or that it may interact with social contexts to influence mental health outcomes (Mahalingam, 2006). However, there is empirical evidence to suggest both the relevance and irrelevance of gender. A greater maintenance of gender roles among women than men may suggest that acculturation may be less relevant to the mental health of immigrant women, relative to men (Ghuman, 2000; Palinkas & Pickwell, 1995; Nguyen & Peterson, 1992; Romero, Carvajal, Valie, & Orduna, 2007; Ogden et al., 1998). On the other hand, greater social isolation among immigrant women, compared with men, suggests the greater relevance of acculturation to mental health (Mahalingam & Leu, 2005; Williams, Alvarez, & Hauck, 2002; Viruell-Fuentes, 2008; Pedraza, 1991; Valenzuela, 1999; Hirsch, 1999; Nguyen & Peterson, 1992). Examining the role of gender in the association between acculturation and mental health among Asian immigrants is therefore important to contribute to both the empirical and theoretical understanding. 8 In summary, this paper tests three hypotheses. The first hypothesis suggests that conventional individual-level acculturation variables, such as English proficiency, a measure of time in the host country, and ethnic identification, may influence the mental health of Asian immigrants. The second hypothesis is that social contexts may directly influence mental health. The third hypothesis is that social contexts may moderate the relationship between conventional acculturation variables and mental health. The potential moderating role of gender in all these relationships is also examined. Methods Data were selected from the first-ever nationally representative sample of Asian American immigrants (N=1583), the National Latino and Asian American Survey (NLAAS). The NLAAS used a multi-frame, stratified probability sampling scheme, described in detail elsewhere (Heeringa, Wagner, Torres, Duan, Adams, & Berglund, 2004). In summary, samples were drawn using three methods. In the first, participants were recruited with a multistage stratified area probability sampling design: (a) city or contiguous census blocks were sampled based on population density in each neighborhood; (b) dwelling units were sampled within each block; (c) one adult was sampled within each selected dwelling unit. In the second method, census blocks with at least five percent of Asian households were over-sampled. In the third method, to increase the sample size, a second respondent from a previously sampled household was recruited. Weighting corrections were constructed to control for differences in selection probability. Among the surveyed Asian Americans (N=2095), 454 were US-born, 1639 were foreign-born, and 2 did not identify a place of birth. Interviews were offered in English, 9 Mandarin, Cantonese, Tagalog, and Vietnamese. The three largest ethnic groups represented were Chinese (32%), Filipino (20%), and Vietnamese (16%). Participants self-identified with national origins in the regions of East Asia, Southeast Asia, South Asia, and Central Asia. This analysis only included data from foreign-born Asian American participants aged 18 and over (N=1583). Measures Mood Dysfunction. Our dependent variable was the presence of mood dysfunction in the 12 months prior to the interview (12 month period prevalence). Mood dysfunction was a composite formed by the presence of at least one clinical or subclinical symptom of anxiety or affective disorder, as measured by the Composite International Diagnostic Interview (CIDI; World Health Organization). The CIDI is the most widely used structured diagnostic interview and was designed to be used across cultures. This composite variable has been used in other published studies using this dataset (Leu et al., 2008). Individual acculturation measures. Three measures of individual acculturation were used. These measures reflect the most common items in acculturation scales (e.g., Zane & Mak, 2002). English language proficiency was measured using a scale that asked the respondent to rank his or her ability to speak, read and write in English. Participant’s scores were the sum of three questions. Response categories ranged from (1) poor to (4) excellent, yielding minimum and maximum scores from 3 to 12. Higher values reflected greater English proficiency. The amount of time spent in the US was calculated in relation to a participant’s age and age at immigration. While many acculturation scales only include years in the 10 host country as a measure of exposure to a new culture, recent evidence suggests that the age at immigration is also relevant to understanding cultural exposure in relation to mood dysfunction (Takuechi cite; Leu Cite). Therefore, we created a variable to measure the proportion of an immigrant’s life spent in the US (e.g., (current age – age at immigration)/current age)), which has been used in other studies (Juon et al., 2000; Maxwell, Bastani, & Warda, 2000). Responses ranged from (0%) to (100%). Ethnic identification consisted of one measure, using a 4-point scale (Felix-Ortiz, Newcomb, & Myers, 1994). Participants responded to the questions, “How close do you feel, in your ideas and feelings about things, to other people of the same racial and ethnic descent?” This question has been used as a measure of ethnic identity in other studies (Tseng, Takeuchi, X); it is similar to items in other scales of ethnic identification, including the Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale which is the most commonly used acculturation scale among Asian Americans (Suinn, Rickard-Figueroa, Lew & Virigil, 1987; Zane et al., 2002). Family context measure. To measure family context, participants were asked to respond to five questions about family cultural conflict (a subscale from Cervantes cite). The scale included items such as, “You have felt that being too close to your family interfered with your own goals,” and “Because you have different customs, you have had arguments with other members of your family.” Response categories ranged from (1) hardly ever to (3) often, yielding minimum and maximum sum scores from 5 to 15. Higher values indicated greater cultural conflicts in the family context. Neighborhood context measure. To measure the influence of ethnic density in an immigrant’s neighborhood on mood dysfunction, we operationalized ethnic density of 11 their neighborhoods by dividing the number of Asians by the total population of the census tract. Minimum and maximum scores ranged from 0% to 69.6%. Higher values reflected greater ethnic density in the participant’s neighborhood. Community reception context measure. As a broad measure of reception by other racial/ethnic groups in the US, participants responded to an 9-item scale measuring everyday discrimination (James cite). This scale is obtained by adding up the answers to the following questions: “You are treated with less courtesy than other people;” “You are treated with less respect than other people;” “You receive poorer service than other people at restaurants or stores;” “People act as if they think you are not smart;” “People act as if they are afraid of you;” “People act as if they think you are dishonest;” “People act as if you are not as good as they are;” “You are called names or insulted;” and “You are threatened or harassed.” Response categories ranged from (1) almost every day to (6) never; scores were reverse coded so that higher value indicates more often discriminated, yielding minimum and maximum scores from 9 to 54. Higher values reflected more frequent perceived discrimination. Demographics. Five groups of demographic variables were used as control variables. Each of these variables, socioeconomic status, marital status, age, gender, ethnicity, and citizenship, is associated with mental health outcomes. Socioeconomic status was measured using five items, including educational attainment, household income, family size, employment status, and subjective social status. Marital status, age, ethnicity, and citizenship were measured using single-item measures. Socioeconomic status was considered measured in five ways. Educational attainment was measured by having respondents indicate the number of years of 12 schooling they had completed. Household income was the sum of the midpoints of the following income measures: personal, spouse, other family members, social security, government assistance, and other sources. Because of a large number of missing values (270 missing), this variable was imputed using hot deck methods based on the variables of ethnicity, sex, age, education, household composition, and employment status. We divided household income by 1000 and collapsed it into four categories that we represent as a series of meaningful dichotomies, using $80,000 or more as the reference group. We controlled for the family size in order to make household income interpretable at the individual level among immigrants. Many participants did not report their occupation (95 missing values). Instead, employment status was calculated by categorizing participants as employed, unemployed, out of the labor force, or missing. Lastly, we used a new measure of socioeconomic status which has been demonstrated to be associated with mental health outcomes in immigrant and nonimmigrant national studies (Adler et al., 1994; other cites). Our independent variable was subjective social status, as measured by a symbolic ladder with ten rungs, where the first and tenth rung represent the lowest and highest social status in the US, respectively (Cantril, 1965; Adler et al., 2000). Respondents were asked to, “Think of this ladder as representing where people stand in the US. At the top of the ladder are the people who are the best off, those who have the most money, most education, and best jobs. At the bottom are the people who are the worst off, those who have the least money, least education, and worst jobs or no job. What is the number to the right of the rung where you think you stand at this time in your life, relative to other people in the United States?” 13 Demographic variables. Gender, ethnicity, US citizenship, and marital status were included in our analysis. Gender was coded as either male or female depending on participants’ self-identification. Ethnicity was categorized into one of four groups (Vietnamese, Filipino, Chinese, and Other Asian), where Chinese was the reference group as the largest ethnicity represented. US citizenship was dichotomized non-citizen versus citizen (reference group). Marital status was dichotomized married versus nonmarried (reference group). Results Statistical Analysis Our main analysis consists of a series of nested multivariate survey logistic regression models, split by gender, which assess the net effect of acculturation variables on the presence of mood dysfunction. The analyses were split by gender to allow for an easier interpretation of potential three-way interaction effects across gender, individual acculturation variables, and social context variables. All of the analyses adjust for the hierarchical nature of the multistage survey data using SAS-callable SUDAAN procedures. The SUDAAN procedures allow for the incorporation of complex survey sampling methods, including designs with stratification, clustering, and unequal sampling weights, in the point and standard error (SE) estimation. Since we have different sets of analyses to describe, we will move back and forth through different tables depending on the variables under consideration. The analyses consist of four tables. Table 1 provides descriptive statistics for the total sample, and stratifies the sample by gender. T-tests were used to compare the weighted means for all variables by gender. Table 2 reports the results from a series of survey logistic 14 regressions that focus on the relationship between conventional acculturation measures and social contexts and their relationship to mood dysfunction among immigrant males. Table 3 reports the results among immigrant females. We report unstandardized maximum likelihood coefficients and their significance levels. We perform this analysis in five steps. Model 1 tests the unadjusted bivariate relationship of conventional acculturation variables with mood dysfunction, controlling for relevant demographic variables. Models 2, 3, and 4 sequentially add social context variables (e.g., family, neighborhood, and community reception) to determine if the effects of conventional acculturation measures on mood dysfunction remain after their inclusion in the analyses. In Model 4, we test the combined effect of social contexts and conventional acculturation variables on mood dysfunction. Table 4 tests whether mood dysfunction depends on interactions between conventional acculturation measures and social contexts, separately for immigrant males and females. For example, the social context of the community reception is determined to moderate the relationship between a conventional acculturation variable and mood dysfunction if there is a significant interaction between English proficiency and perceived discrimination (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Similarly, the social context of family is tested as a moderator of the association between ethnic identification and mood dysfunction. All possible interactions between conventional measures of acculturation and social context were tested; however, only significant results are reported in Table 4. Descriptive statistics and associations Descriptive statistics. We limited data to foreign-born participants aged 18 and older (N=1583). Almost twelve percent of the sample reported mood dysfunction in the 15 past 12 months (see Table 1). Weighted 12-month period prevalence was based on the presence of at least one clinical or sub-threshold report of an affective or anxiety disorder in the past 12 months (including symptoms of panic disorder, agoraphobia, social phobia, post-traumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, major depressive episode and dysthymia). Participants could have reported multiple dysfunctions. Respondents reported above-average proficiency in English (M = 8.1mean on a scale of 3 to 12), spent roughly 40% of their lives in the US (SE = 1.38), and were relatively high in their ethnic identification (M = 3.24 on a scale of 1 to 4). Relatively low levels of family cultural conflict (M = 6.6 on a scale of 5 to 15) and perceived discrimination (M = 15.7 on a scale of 9 to 54). The mean ethnic density of Asians in the neighborhood of residence was 24% (SE = 1.43). The average age was 42 years old (SE = 0.82), and 72% (SE = 2.96) of the sample was married. The sample was 53% female. The mean number of years of formal education was 13 (SE = 0.19), the mean household income was $80,000 (median=$64,500). Roughly 64% (SE = 1.74) of the total sample was employed, and participants ranked themselves as having above-average social status relative to other Americans (M = 5.8 on a subjective social status scale of 1 to 10). Descriptive associations. Among immigrant males, English proficiency levels were significantly correlated with proportion of life in the US (r = 0.32; p<.001) but was not associated with ethnic identification (r = -0.06; n.s.). Ethnic identification and proportion of life in the US were negatively associated (r = -0.19; p<001). Among immigrant females, English proficiency levels were significantly correlated with proportion of life in the US (r = 0.40; p<.001). English proficiency was negatively 16 associated with ethnic identification (r = -0.16; p<001). Similarly, ethnic identification and proportion of life in the US were also negatively associated (r = -0.23; p<001). Comparisons by gender. As see in Table 1, Asian immigrant males were more proficient in English than females, reported more perceived discrimination, achieved greater educational attainment, and were significantly more likely to be employed (73% versus 56%). Consistent with the last finding, women were more likely to be out of the labor force or to have missing employment data, compared with men. Hypothesis 1: Conventional acculturation variables as predictors of mental health Males. Table 2 presents the results of Model 1 that examined the relationship between conventional acculturation measures, controlling for demographics, and mood dysfunction. English language proficiency was a significant predictor of mood dysfunction (B=-0.29 (0.09), p<0.01) after adjusting for relevant demographic measures. Greater proficiency in English was associated with a lower chance of mood dysfunction. Ethnic identity was also a significant predictor of mood dysfunction (B=-0.45 (0.16), p<0.01) after adjusting for relevant demographic measures. Stronger ethnic identity was associated with a lower chance of mood dysfunction. Proportion of life in the US was not related to mood dysfunction. Females. Table 3 presents the results of Model 1 that examined the relationship between conventional acculturation measures, controlling for demographics, and mood dysfunction among immigrant females. None of the conventional acculturation measures was associated with mood dysfunction after controlling for relevant demographic measures. Hypothesis 2: Social contexts as predictors of mental health 17 Males. Table 2 presents four models that examined the relationship between social contexts and mood dysfunction. Models 2, 3, and 4 test the effect of a single social context on mood dysfunction; Model 5 tests the independent effects for each social context when they are entered into the model simultaneously. Family cultural conflict was a significant predictor of mood dysfunction (B= 0.34 (0.06), p<0.001) after adjusting for conventional acculturation variables and relevant demographics (Model 2). Higher ratings of family cultural conflict were associated with higher chances of mood dysfunction. Neighborhood ethnic density was also a significant predictor of mood dysfunction (B= -2.56 (0.79), p<0.01) after adjusting for conventional acculturation variables and relevant demographics (Model 4). Greater ethnic density in the neighborhood was associated with lower chances of mood dysfunction. Everyday discrimination was also a significant predictor of mood dysfunction (B= 0.07 (0.02), p<0.01) after adjusting for conventional acculturation variables and relevant demographics (Model 3). Higher ratings of perceived discrimination were associated with higher chances of mood dysfunction. In Model 5, when the social context variables were entered simultaneously, only family cultural conflict and neighborhood ethnic density remained significantly associated with mood dysfunction, controlling for conventional acculturation variables and relevant demographic measures. Greater family cultural conflict was associated with increased chances of mood dysfunction (B= 0.92 (0.80), p<0.001), whereas greater ethnic density was associated with decreased chances of mood dysfunction (B= -2.30 (0.86), p<0.05). 18 Females. Among immigrant females, family cultural conflict was a significant predictor of mood dysfunction (B= 0.36 (0.07), p<0.001) after adjusting for conventional acculturation variables and relevant demographics (Model 2 in Table 3). Higher ratings of family cultural conflict were associated with higher chances of mood dysfunction. Neighborhood ethnic density was not a significant predictor of mood dysfunction, after adjusting for conventional acculturation variables and relevant demographics (Model 4). Everyday discrimination was a significant predictor of mood dysfunction (B= 0.09 (0.03), p<0.01) after adjusting for conventional acculturation variables and relevant demographics (Model 3). Higher ratings of perceived discrimination were associated with higher chances of mood dysfunction. In Model 5, when the social context variables were entered simultaneously, only family cultural conflict remained significantly associated with mood dysfunction, controlling for conventional acculturation variables and relevant demographic measures. Greater family cultural conflict was associated with increased chances of mood dysfunction (B= 0.31 (0.07), p<0.001). Hypothesis 3: Social contexts as moderators in the relationship between conventional acculturation measures and mental health Males. We explored the possibility that social contexts may moderate the relationship between conventional acculturation variables and mood dysfunction. As seen in Model 1 of Table 4, perceived discrimination moderated the relationship between language proficiency and mood dysfunction (B= -0.01 (0.01), p<0.05). Figure 1 demonstrates that perceived discrimination and mental health outcomes was significantly more strongly associated among immigrant males with poor or fair English proficiency 19 (B= 0.11 (0.05), p<0.05) than among those with good or excellent English skills (reference group). No other interactions between acculturation variables and social contexts were statistically significant. This interaction changed the results presented in Model 5 of Table 2. With the interaction, English language proficiency was no longer directly associated with mood dysfunction. Instead, perceived discrimination was significantly associated (B= 0.15 (0.05), p<0.01). Family cultural conflict (B= 0.28 (0.08), p<0.001) and ethnic density (B= -2.28 (0.93), p<0.05) remained significantly associated. Therefore, in the presence of an interaction between English language proficiency and perceived discrimination, no conventional acculturation measures were directly associated with mood dysfunction among immigrant males. Females. As seen in Model 2 of Table 4, the family social context moderated the relationship between ethnic identity and mood dysfunction (B= -0.19 (0.09), p<0.05). Figure 2 demonstrates that family cultural conflict and mental health outcomes were more strongly associated among immigrant females who were strongly identified with their ethnicity than among those who were less identified. No other interactions between acculturation variables and social contexts were statistically significant. This interaction changed the results presented in Model 5 of Table 3. With the interaction, ethnic identity became significantly associated (B= 1.85 (0.81), p<0.05) with mood dysfunction among immigrant females. Family cultural conflict was no longer a significant predictor. Therefore, in the presence of an interaction between ethnic identity and family cultural conflict, one conventional acculturation measure (e.g., ethnic identity) 20 and no social context measures became directly associated with mood dysfunction among immigrant females. Discussion Three hypotheses were tested using the first nationally representative sample of Asian American mental health. Conventional acculturation variables were predicted to be associated with symptoms of anxiety and affective disorders among immigrant males and females. Social contexts were also predicted to be directly associated with the mental health outcome. Additionally, social contexts were expected to moderate the relationship between conventional acculturation variables and mood dysfunction. Individual acculturation traits influence immigrant mental health Even after considering the influences of relevant social contexts, ethnic identity seems potentially important to mental health among Asian immigrant women. Among immigrant females, frequent family cultural conflict seems a particularly high risk among those who are highly identified with their ethnic identity. English language proficiency was also relevant to the mental health of immigrant males in the context of community reception. For example, perceived discrimination among immigrant males with poor English proficiency seems especially powerful in predicting poor mental health. We found no evidenced that time in the host country was relevant to immigrant mental health. Social contexts influence immigrant mental health The inclusion of social contexts in models of immigrant mental health suggests that family, neighborhood, and community reception social contexts are all relevant. Among immigrant males, increasing family cultural conflict is a risk factor, whereas living in a neighborhood with increasing representation of other Asians seems to protect 21 against poor mental health. Discrimination is associated with increases in the likelihood of poor mental health. Furthermore, discrimination seems especially harmful for immigrant males who have poor or fair English language proficiency, perhaps because immigrant males may attribute unfair treatment to a personal failure more easily if they speak English poorly than if they spoke English well. Fluent English speakers who experience discrimination may be more likely than poor English speakers to interpret the unfair treatment as racial discrimination. Literature in social psychology suggests that attributing unfair treatment to racial bias may protect self-esteem (Crocker & Major, 1989). Among immigrant females, family cultural conflict seems especially harmful among those who are highly identified with their ethnicity. This may be because family harmony is a central Asian cultural value, especially for women. Women who are not identified with their Asian ethnicity may find conflict over cultural values in the family less disruptive compared with those who feel closely aligned with the value of family harmony. Social contexts moderate the association between acculturation and mental health The analyses also demonstrated the sensitivity of the relationship between conventional acculturation measures with mental health outcomes to social context. For example, when examining only the influence of conventional single-measure acculturation variables among males, English proficiency and ethnic identification were protective of mood dysfunction. However, once three social contexts representing increasingly macro-environments were added to the model, only English proficiency was still significant. Instead, we observed that family conflict was a risk factor, and that 22 neighborhood ethnic density was a protective factor, relative to immigrant male mental health. Finally, when an interaction between English language proficiency and discrimination was modeled, no conventional acculturation measures were significantly related with mood dysfunction. The results also suggest some sensitivity to social context when examining the influence of acculturation on the mental health of immigrant females. Whereas no conventional acculturation measures were observed to be related to symptoms of depression and anxiety when social contexts were considered, family cultural conflict was observed as a significant predictor. However, when an interaction between ethnic identity and family cultural conflict was added, this effect disappeared. Instead, the conventional acculturation measure of ethnic identity was observed as a risk factor among immigrant females, whereas in early models of immigrant males, ethnic identity was observed as a protective factor. Gender is an important social context One of the most striking findings was that the results differed greatly by gender. Family cultural conflict was the only predictor that influenced the mental health of both immigrant males and females. Ethnic identity only influenced mental health among immigrant females when all significant interactions between acculturation and social contexts were considered. Among immigrant males, however, discrimination, neighborhood ethnic density, and English language proficiency were associated with mental health when all interactions were modeled. It is not clear why ethnic identity seems only relevant Asian immigrant women… Family context is important to immigrant mental health 23 These results suggest the potential significance of the family context, as measured by the frequency of cultural conflict, on the mental health of Asian immigrant males and females. Of the three most commonly used conventional individual-level acculturation measures and three ecological-level social context measures, only family cultural conflict was significantly related to symptoms of depression and anxiety among both genders. Among immigrant males and immigrant females who are highly identified with their ethnicity, family conflict acts as a risk factor for poor mental health. Limitations A panel study is needed to adequately justify a causal interpretation of the observed associations in this cross-sectional study. These findings remain important because this is the only study that examines acculturation within social contexts using a nationally representative sample of Asian immigrants in the U.S, including multiple ethnic groups. Therefore, it is more generalizable to the population of Asian immigrants than convenience samples. While Asians comprised only 4% of the US population in 2005, they are expected to be 13% of the population by 2050 (Pew Research Center, 2008). As a result of migration, roughly one in ten American adults is foreign-born (Urban Institute, 2004; US Census, 2000). Therefore, it is important to test an interactional, ecological model of acculturation in other immigrant groups. There may have been significant predictors of mood dysfunction relevant to immigrant mental health that we missed. However, in trying to build a model that could explain more variability in the rates of mental health problems, neither family cohesion nor social cohesion was a significant buffer against mental health distress. Significance of findings 24 Since the analytical model includes both individual-level conventional variables and macro-level social contexts, these results make a significant theoretical and empirical demonstration that individual acculturation traits, social contexts, and gender matter in the health of immigrants. More importantly, these results suggest that individual-level acculturation traits interact with social contexts and gender to impact mental health. Family cultural conflict seems to be a particularly important predictor of mental health among both immigrant males and females. Given this, exactly what domains of family cultural conflict and the mechanisms by which conflict impacts health deserve more research attention. Individual-level acculturation traits, on the other hand, seem potentially predictive of mental health among immigrants when considered in their social context. The interactions between individual acculturation traits (i.e., English language proficiency, ethnic identity) and social contexts (i.e., community reception context and family context) suggest that mental health needs to be understood at the intersection of the individual, gender, and society, perhaps particularly for immigrants. 25 Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for Total Sample and Stratified by Gender (N=1583) Total Sample (N=1583) Males (n=749) Variable Mean SE Mean SE Mood Dysfunction 11.9% (0.87) 10.3% (1.46) English Language Proficiency (scale 3 to 12) 8.06 (0.19) 8.27 (0.21) Proportion of Life in US 39.1% (1.38) 39.9% (1.79) Ethnic Identification (scale 1 to 4) 3.24 (0.03) 3.24 (0.04) Family Cultural Conflict (scale 5 to 15) 6.57 (0.06) 6.56 (0.08) Everyday Discrimination (scale 9 to 54) 15.73 (0.21) 16.60 (0.42) Ethnic Density 23.9% (1.43) 24.0% (1.69) Education (years) 13.48 (0.19) 13.87 (0.22) Household Income (thousands of dollars) 79.92 (2.96) 85.27 (4.12) Subjective Social Status (scale 1 to 10) 5.76 (0.09) 5.69 (0.14) Employment Status Employed 63.7% (1.74) 72.7% (1.98) Unemployed 6.5% (0.73) 5.7% (0.79) Out of Labor Force 16.9% (1.62) 12.6% (1.73) Missing 13.0% (1.44) 9.0% (1.54) Family Size (persons) 2.95 (0.07) 2.93 (0.10) Married 72.4% (1.64) 71.6% (2.76) Age (years) 42.27 (0.82) 41.59 (0.95) Ethnicity Vietnamese 15.4% (2.26) 15.4% (2.29) Filipino 19.9% (2.28) 18.2% (2.41) Chinese 30.5% (3.22) 30.2% (3.58) Other Asian 34.2% (2.66) 36.3% (3.51) Non-citizen 40.6% (2.49) 42.7% (2.91) *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001 Females (n=834) Mean SE 13.3% (1.51) 7.88 (0.19) 38.5% (1.61) 3.24 (0.03) 6.57 (0.08) 14.98 (0.26) 23.8% (1.35) 13.15 (0.21) 75.22 (3.64) 5.82 (0.09) 55.8% 7.2% 20.6% 16.4% 2.97 73.1% 42.87 (2.47) (1.22) (2.56) (1.94) (0.09) (1.87) (0.87) 15.5% 21.3% 30.9% 32.3% 38.7% (2.38) (2.55) (3.23) (2.54) (2.72) Gender Difference * ** *** *** ** ** Table 2. Logistic Regressions of Conventional Acculturation Measures and Social Contexts on Mood Dysfunction among Males (n=749) Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Variables B (SE) B (SE) B (SE) B (SE) B (SE) Intercept -1.03 (1.27) -3.69 (1.33) -1.90 (1.18) -0.51 (1.28) -3.42* (1.45) English Language Proficiency -0.29** (0.09) -0.23* (0.09) -0.28** (0.08) -0.30** (0.09) -0.24* (0.09) Proportion of Life in US 1.89 (1.13) 1.52 (1.08) 1.53 (1.11) 1.80 (1.15) 1.30 (1.07) Ethnic Identification -0.45** (0.16) -0.42* (0.20) -0.41* (0.17) -0.40* (0.18) -0.37 (0.23) Family Cultural Conflict 0.34*** (0.06) 0.29*** (0.08) Everyday Discrimination 0.07** (0.02) 0.04 (0.02) Ethnic Density -2.56** (0.79) -2.30* (0.86) *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001 Note: Models control for Education, Household Income, Subjective Social Status, Employment Status, Family Size, Marital Status, Age, Ethnicity, and Citizenship Table 3. Logistic Regressions of Conventional Acculturation Measures and Social Contexts on Mood Dysfunction among Females (n=834) Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 5 Variables B (SE) B (SE) B (SE) B (SE) B (SE) Intercept -0.58 (1.36) -3.86* (1.58) -1.82 (1.40) -0.63 (1.34) -4.09* (1.53) English Language Proficiency -0.02 (0.07) -0.01 (0.09) -0.05 (0.07) -0.02 (0.07) -0.03 (0.08) Proportion of Life in US 1.00 (0.84) 1.03 (1.01) 0.97 (0.86) 1.00 (0.84) 0.98 (1.00) Ethnic Identification 0.36 (0.23) 0.49 (0.25) 0.30 (0.23) 0.36 (0.23) 0.43 (0.27) Family Cultural Conflict 0.36*** (0.07) 0.31*** (0.07) Everyday Discrimination 0.09** (0.03) 0.05 (0.03) Ethnic Density 0.23 (0.62) -0.07 (0.66) *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001 Note: Models control for Education, Household Income, Subjective Social Status, Employment Status, Family Size, Marital Status, Age, Ethnicity, and Citizenship 27 Table 4. Logistic Regressions of Conventional Acculturation Measures, Social Contexts , and Interactions on Mood Dysfunction Model 1 Males Variables Intercept English Language Proficiency Proportion of Life in US Ethnic Identification Family Cultural Conflict Everyday Discrimination Ethnic Density English Language Proficiency * Everyday Discrimination Ethnic Identification * Family Cultural Conflict B -5.59** 0.03 1.45 -0.37 0.28*** 0.15** -2.28* -0.01* (SE) (1.65) (0.15) (1.01) (0.21) (0.08) (0.05) (0.93) (0.01) Model 2 Females B (SE) -8.81** -0.04 0.91 1.85* 0.92 0.06 -0.11 (3.16) (0.09) (1.01) (0.81) (0.33) (0.03) (0.67) -0.19* (0.09) *p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001 Note: Models control for Education, Household Income, Subjective Social Status, Employment Status, Family Size, Marital Status, Age, Ethnicity, and Citizenship 28 Figure 1. Predicted Probability of Mood Dysfunction 1.00 0.90 0.80 Low English Proficiency High English Proficiency 0.70 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 9 18 27 36 45 54 Everyday Discrimination 29 Figure 2. Predicted Probability of Mood Dysfunction 1.00 0.90 0.80 High Ethnic Identification 0.70 Low Ethnic Identification 0.60 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 Family Cultural Conflict 30