Discussion Questions- Chapter 9 Memory
1.
Explain memory in terms of information processing. to remember an event get info into brain(encoding), retain it (storage) as STM OR LTM, and get it back out
(retrieval). These 3 steps not only apply to humans but also other info processing systems (computers)
Atkinson/Shiffrin’s 3-stage processing model:1 st
record to-be-remembered info as brief sensory memory, 2 nd processed into STM/working, 3 rd encoded LTM
2.
Explain the process of encoding, and distinguish between automatic and effortful processing.
Encoding=sensory info transferred into memory system. Info about space, time, frequency, & well-learned info encoded with little or no effort.(automatic processing) Encoding of other type of info requires attention and conscious rehearsal(effortful processing)
3.
Discuss the importance of rehearsal, spacing, and serial position in encoding.
Ebbinghaus= the amount of material remembered depends on time spent rehearsing, Even after material is learned, extra rehearsal (overlearning) increases retention.
Distributed study=better LT retention instead of cramming(spacing effect) serial position effect=remembering 1 st and last items in list rather than middle.
4.
Explain the importance of meaning, imagery, and organization in the encoding process. the processing of meaning(semantic encoding) =better memory of verbal info than does the processing of images(visual encoding) or sounds (acoustic encoding). people excellent memory for pictures and pictureevoking words help mnemonic devices. good org into chunks/units
5.
Distinguish between iconic and echoic memory.
Iconic memory= momentary photographic memory in which eyes register an exact representation of a scene, lasts few tenths second. Echoic memory disappears after 3 or 4 seconds=sensory memory for sound
6.
Describe memory capacity and duration.
Studies by Peterson/Peterson show STM stores ~7 chunks of info(better for #s than letters, better for hear than see) STM limited/LTM limitless but not stored exactly same, forgetting occurs & new memories/experiences interfere causing decay
7.
Discuss research findings on the physical basis of memory.
Lashley=memories not in single/specific part of cortex. Gerard lowered temp in animal’s body’s, with brain’s electrical activity ceased, didn’t disrupt LTM. Snails=more transmitter serotonin released certain synapses and neural transmission easier when learning thus increasing efficiency (LT potentiation) neurotransmitters blocked by alcohol and drugs=memory disrupted. Learning/attention boosted by emotion-triggered hormonal changes
8.
Discuss what research with amnesics and animal conditioning studies reveals about the brain mechanisms involved in the dual explicit-implicit memory system.
Amnesics often can’t recall new facts or recent experiences, most are capable of learning new skills. This suggests that there are 2 types of memory: IMPLICIT (nondeclarative) and EXPLICIT(declarative) of facts & exp that are consciously known. Amnesics suffer damage to hippocampus, (crucial limbic structure) older M remain, hippocampus not for permanent M, but is a relay station that feeds new info to other brain circuits for permanent storage
9.
Contrast recall, recognition, and relearning measures of memory.
Recall=ability to retrieve info not in conscious awareness. Recognition-only need to ID previously learned material, relearning measure amount time saved when info learned is learned for 2 nd time. Tests of recognition/relearning reveal people remember more than they recall, recognition “easier” b/c provided retrieval cues (reminders)
10.
Describe the importance of retrieval cues, noting the effects of priming, contexts, and moods on retrieval.
Priming and context effects show importance of retrieval cues in M. State-dependent M= things learned in one emotional state more easily recalled when we are again in the same state. Our current mood influences our retrieval of past experiences. Mood influences how we interpret people’s behavior and how attentive we are to new info.
11.
Describe the effects of mood on memory.

When happy, perceive things in + light and recall happy events; these perceptions & memories then prolong good mood. Also influence how we interpret people’s behavior.
12.
Broadly describe Schacter’s seven sins of memory as a categorization of the ways in which we forget.
7 sins of memory in 3 categories: sins of forgetting(b/c encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure), sins of distortion(b/c memory reconstructs reality), sins of intrusion(b/c motivated forgetting of unwanted memories)
13.
Discuss forgetting as either a form of encoding failure or storage decay.
What we think we’ve forgotten was never “remembered,”was sensed but never entered memory system b/c not encoded. “loss” = encoding failure. Areas of brain responsible for encoding are less responsive w/age(why elderly recall less)
Even when info encoded well, may gradually fade w/time. Ebbinghaus’ “forgetting-curve” and Bahrick’s LT retention of vocab shows forgetting occurs soon after learning.
14.
Discuss the roles of interference and motivated forgetting in the process of retrieval failure.
Experiences interfere w/retrieval. Proactive interference=disruptive effect of previous learning on the recall of new info. Retroactive interference= disruptive new info on previously learned material. RI reduced sleep after learning episode (b/c # interfering events minimized)
Motivated forgetting=irretrievability of memories embarrassing to remember, Freud’s repression self-censoring
(may be retrieved later)
15.
Discuss the evidence for memory’s being constructive.
Memories constructed as we encode, then altered w/ new experiences. Eyewitnesses exposed to subtle misinformation incorrectly recalled actual incident(misinformation effect). Source amnesia =misattribute an event we experience, read, imagined to wrong source. “hypnotically refreshed” memories usually have false info
16.
Identify several ways in which real memories differ from false memories, and discuss whether children are credible eyewitnesses.
False memories & misattribution feel real, but confidence not same. PET scans-brain responds dift to T/F M.
Real M from experience have more detail that from imagination.
17.
Explain why memory researchers are suspicious of claims of long-repressed memories “recovered” with the aid of a therapist.
Skeptical b/c recovered memories are commonplace. Memories of things happening before age 3, “recovered” under hypnosis, or under influence of drugs are unreliable. “Recovery” of painful M assumes human mind represses traumatic experiences (assumption being challenged)
18.
Describe what Loftus’s studies have shown about the effects of mislead post event information on eyewitness reports.
Subjects viewed film of traffic accident & were quizzed a week later, misleading postevent info was found to influence recall of event(it did not affect ability to recognize what they witnessed). Phrasing of questions affected answers, ex: word “smashed” made subjects think they saw broken glass
19.
Discuss strategies for improving memory. rehearsing material over many separate and distributed study sessions w/ objective of learning, active rehearsal instead of mindless repetition of info, organizing info w/ what is already known, developing retrieval cues, mnemonic devices w/ imagery