STALLINGS SNAPSHOT OBSERVATION MANUAL
JANUARY 2007
MODIFIED FOR USE IN THE WORLD BANK PROJECTS
TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
CENTER FOR COLLABORATIVE LEARNING COMMUNITIES
COLLEGE STATION TEXAS
COPYRIGHT 2001
PERMISSION GRANTED FOR MODIFICATIONS
Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
TABLE OF CONTENTS
OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................... 3
CLASSROOM SNAPSHOT OBSERVATION CODING MANUAL .................................................................................. 4
DESCRIPTION ......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
PROCEDURES FOR COMPLETING THE DEMOGRAPHIC PAGE .............................................................................. 4
PROCEDURES FOR TIMING THE 10 SNAPSHOTS ......................................................................................................... 4
PROCEDURES FOR COMPLETING THE SNAPSHOT .................................................................................................... 5
STEPS TO RECORD THE SNAPSHOT PICTURE ............................................................................................................. 6
CODING OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS AND PROCEDURES ..................................................................................... 7
OTHER CODING RULES ..................................................................................................................................................... 14
CALCULATIONS ................................................................................................................................................................... 15
REVIEW YOUR CODING FOR ACCURACY ................................................................................................................... 17
APPENDIX 1: CLASSROOM INFORMATION SHEET/SNAPSHOT COVER SHEET .............................................. 18
APPENDIX 2: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION SNAPSHOTS (1-10) ............................................................................. 19
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION
The Stallings’ Observation System was developed in the 1970’s to evaluate how elementary teachers
and students used their time in classrooms. Early findings found that, most students in the United State
attended school six hours a day, but on the average, they spent less than an hour engaged in academic
activities. This was a shocking finding. In many studies, student engaged rates have been positively
related to student achievement. When engaged rates are low, student achievement is low.
Using the Stallings Snapshot Observation, we learned that in classrooms where students were achieving
academically, the teachers provided 50% or more active instruction activities and spent 35% or less of
the time actively monitoring students as they did their seat work. Further, effective teachers were very
efficient in managing the organization details, spending 15% or less of the class time (i.e. taking the roll,
passing papers, grading papers, making assignments). Little classroom time was wasted and students
spent significantly more time on academic tasks. During the 1980s and 90s the Stallings Observation
System was modified for use in middle schools, high schools, and continuation schools.
Data collected from the Snapshot has been used as a teacher training program to make teachers aware of
how they use classroom time. By giving teachers specific, factual information about the activities they
offer their students, the materials used, the groups of students with whom they work, and when their
students are Off Task, teachers have significantly modified how they used their time.
In 2002 Helen Abadzi, representing the World Bank, requested Dr. Stallings to provide training on the
Snapshot in a variety of countries. To answer educational questions raised by the World Bank, and
simplify the system so that it can be used in a wide variety of countries, some modifications have been
made, while retaining the integrity of the instrument.
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
CLASSROOM SNAPSHOT OBSERVATION CODING MANUAL
DESCRIPTION
The Classroom Snapshot records the environment and the participants in the classroom as if they were
being photographed at one instant. It records every person in the classroom in the activity in which they
are engaged and shows with whom they are engaged.
The distribution of adults and students among the activities that are occurring simultaneously are
recorded as the observer places first the teacher on the grid and then going clockwise around the room
places all of the students on the grid. Essentially, the Snapshot provides data to assess the teacher
activities, the student activities, the materials being used, and grouping patterns. The snapshot can be
implemented by computer, resulting in a database that can be used for immediate statistical analysis, by
Scantron, or paper and pencil for later entry into a database. The directions that follow are for the pencil
and paper-based version of the instrument.
PROCEDURES FOR COMPLETING THE DEMOGRAPHIC PAGE
On the first page of the Snapshot, the observer records the demographic data i.e. the school, the
teacher’s name and identification number, the observer’s name and number, the number of adults in the
classroom, the number of students in the classroom, the subject being observed, the period or time of the
class observed, grade level (including combination of grades in the room). The observer also records the
percentage of students who have textbooks and the language or languages used in instruction in the
class. The observer should obtain some of this information from the teacher before or after the
observation. (See the Snapshot Cover Page in Appendix 1)
PROCEDURES FOR TIMING THE 10 SNAPSHOTS
Prior to starting the observation, ask the teacher how long the period will last. If it is 50 minutes, the
observer will record one Snapshot every five minutes. If the period is 30 minutes in duration, the
observer records a snapshot every three minutes. The point is to distribute the ten Snapshots evenly over
the entire class period. To record the data for the snapshot, the observer sits at the back of the classroom
or from a point where he/she can have a good view of the entire class. Allow three minutes to pass after
the bell rings and take the first Snapshot.
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
PROCEDURES FOR COMPLETING THE SNAPSHOT
Look at the Snapshot grid in Appendix 2. Across the top of the grid are 7 materials that may be used in
the activities. These seven form the columns.
Along the left side there is a list of 15 activities that may occur in the classroom. (The “Other” activity
is reserved for some special activity. It is not often used). The 15 activities form the rows of the grid.
Within each Activity row are the letters
T = Teacher
I = Students working independently, without a teacher
The 1, S, L, and E bubbles located on the T line and on the I line indicate the number of students who
are in the group that is being recorded. S, L and E vary on the basis of class size. The following table
(Table 1) can be used for reference to decide the category. (Table 1: N denotes the class size or the total
number of students present in the class. S, L and E refer to small group, large group and everyone (or
whole group) respectively and the number of students in these groups can be calculated using Table 1.
“<=” refers to less than or equal to)
Table 1: Calculation of Group Sizes
Class strength N<=15
16<=N<=30
31<=N<=45
N=46+
or Group size
I: Individual
1 student
1 student
1 student
1 student
S: Small Group
2 to 5 students
2 to 10 students
2 to 15 students
2 to 20 students
L: Large Group
6 to 14
11 to 29 students
16 to 44 students
21 to (N-1) students
N=30
N=45
N = 46+
students
E : Whole
N=15
Group
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
STEPS TO RECORD THE SNAPSHOT PICTURE
The following steps should be implemented using the classroom snapshot during classroom observations
(See Appendix 2 for the Snapshot)
The observer scans the classroom going clockwise around the room. First determine where the Teacher
is. In what activity is she/he involved. Find the activity row. What material is being used? Find the
material column. (The activities and materials are operationally defined later in the manual). Is the
teacher working with 1 child? A small group? A large group? Or everyone? Fill in the ONE bubble on
the T line that indicates the Activity, Materials, and the student group with whom the teacher is
involved. Now scan the room going clockwise and place all of the students on the grid. There may be
several small groups of students involved in several different activities. Continue until all students and
the teacher have been recorded. If you mark E, this includes the teacher and all the students. If you mark
E do not mark any other code. (E= everyone)
A Golden Rule 1: The Teacher must be placed only one time on each of the ten Snapshots.
Golden Rule 2: If you mark E do not make any other mark on that Snapshot. E is only marked on
the T line.
Golden Rule 3: Never mark “1” in the co-operative column
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
CODING OPERATIONAL DEFINITIONS AND PROCEDURES
Classroom Snapshot Activities
CODE ITEM
OPERATIONAL DEFINITION
CODING PROCEDURE & EXAMPLES
ACTIVE INSTRUCTION (ACTIVITIES 1-5)
1. Reading Aloud
Reading Aloud or Oral Reading. 
Although one person reads at a time,
Teacher or Students are reading
all students are coded as engaged in
aloud.
the oral reading activity with the
One or more students are reading
teacher.
connected text from a textbook, 
This activity is usually coded on the
trade book, periodical, their own
T line. It can be coded on the I line
writing, or reproduced material.
using the 1, S, L, if the teacher is not
When reading aloud, generally
present and the children are reading
students
aloud to each other.
take
turns
reading
sections from the material. The 
Reading in unison is also coded as
teacher or student may also read
reading aloud.
aloud while the rest of the class
follows along in their own texts.
2. Instruction/
The teacher, television
or some
 Code this activity if a teacher models
Demonstration/Lecture
form of media is informing a
a procedure or shows students how to
student or groups of students
do
about a subject i.e. reading,
experiment, math problem, use of
mathematics, science, history.
materials)
something
(example:
science
 To provide the instruction, the teacher
may
use
books,
manipulatives,
audio
paper
visual
pencil,
tools,
chalkboard, or no materials
 Code this category if the teacher is
showing one student how to do a math
problem or sound out a word
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
 Code this category if the student(s)
are learning a new song
 If the teacher is not present in the
class a student is conducting the class
or playing the role of the teacher, mark
the student on the I line.
3. Discussion
Students and teacher interact in
 This code may be used with no
an academic discussion i.e. a
materials
verbal exchange of ideas or
discussing in small groups or large
opinions. This may be, slow
groups, without books or any other
paced questions and answers
material.
regarding
material,
cooperative group column to show that
science, mathematics, political
a cooperative group is discussing an
science or any problem where
assignment.
reading
and
when
students
are
It may be coded in the
there is not one right answer. This
could also be a check by the
teacher
or
student
for
comprehension and understanding
of material
4. Practice/ Drill
The object here is to memorize
 If the teacher is leading drill and
material such as multiplication
practice, code on the T line. Code on
tables or spelling words.
the I line if two or more students are
The
teacher and students or several
practicing
groups of students interact in oral
words, the alphabet, or any rote
questions and answer session
learning activity.
where there is one right answer.
may be manipulatives, the chalk board,
The teacher asks the students
or paper/pencil.
repetitive questions in order for
 If students are singing a song they
the students to memorize the
correct answer
addition
spellings
The materials used
know already or have been taught
already, code here
8
facts,
Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
5. Projects/Kinesthetic
These activities are usually coded
 Art and craft activities e.g. Projects
on the I line, since for the most
include - Constructing a bird house,
part, the students, individually or
painting a mural, making puppets,
in groups are involved in any
making a pottery bowl, or creating a
activity which requires them to
book.
use information to create a project
 Doing
i.e. hands on activities that result
agriculture projects is coded here
in a product and can extend over
 The Projects category may often be
one or more class sessions.
science
experiments
or,
coded with Cooperative Groups when
Code here kinesthetic activities
two or more people are involved in a
which require body movement as
joint project.
in dance, marching to music or
any physical activities (Make a
note in the log describing the
kinesthetic activity)
PASSIVE INSTRUCTION (ACTIVITIES 6-7)
6. Silent Seatwork
One or more students are writing
 Code Written Assignments if students
papers, doing computation, or are
are completing assignments. They will
involved in any other silent
most likely be using paper/pencils in
written work at their seats.
the materials column. If a student is
Reading silently is also coded as
writing and reading, use the Written
seatwork.
Assignment activity. If the teacher is
not actively monitoring the seatwork,
Code students on the I line.
 If the teacher is walking around the
room actively monitoring the children
as they do their seatwork, code this
activity on the T line using 1, S, L, or
E. E will imply that all students are
working on their assignment as the
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
teacher monitors.
 If students are reading a comic book
when
they
should
be
doing
a
mathematics assignment, code them as
off task, uninvolved.
 Written test taking is coded here.
Please note in the Log when test-taking
occurs.
7. Copying
Students are copying work or  When the teacher is copying on the
exercises from the blackboard. blackboard
(not
interacting
with
The primary purpose of the students) and the students are copying at
activity is to transfer the text on their seats, code the teacher in the
the
board
verbatim
to
the Teacher Management Alone (activity
students’ paper or copybooks.
15) and code students on the I line (1,S,
If students are interacting with the or L) with notebook or slate.
material to learn or practice  When the teacher is monitoring while
concepts or procedures or to the students are copying, code the
apply knowledge (work math teacher and students on the T line with
problems, conjugate verbs), then S, L or E.
code as Written Assignments on
the activity line.
ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT ITEM : 8, 13, AND 15
8. Verbal Instructions
The teacher is verbally making
 Code the discussion of grades and
assignments
clarification of behavior expectations
for
the
work
expected during the day or for
on the Assignment activity line.
homework. He/she is explaining
 This activity does not focus on the
the procedures to be followed, the
amount of work to be finished, or
rewards
for
completing
10
the
academic
content,
but
on
the
information that students need to carry
out the assignment.
Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
assignment.
9. Other
A special code.
Use only when directed
OFF TASK ACTIVITIES (ACTIVITIES 10-12)
Student Off Task: 10,11,12
Teacher Off Task: 10, 14, 16
10. Social Interaction
Two or more students are talking 
Code here if students are passing
or laughing about activities or notes, or having negative interactions
subjects other than what the that disrupt the class. This could include
teacher expects for the class to be physical interaction between students.
engaged. They could be passing
notes,
or
having
negative
interactions that disrupt the class.

If the teacher has a social interaction
with students mark this on the T line.

If a teacher interacts socially with
visitors to the classroom code on
Teacher Social Interaction line (14).
11. Student Uninvolved
This category is recorded when
 If the teacher has not specified an
one or more students are not
instructional activity and all of the
involved
children are waiting, then record an L
in
instructional
activities, for example, if a
on the I line
student is staring out the window,
 Code students who are arriving or
resting the head on the desk, or
departing as uninvolved.
sleeping.
 Code students who are waiting for the
teacher in order to begin an assignment
or take an exam as uninvolved.
12. Being Disciplined
13. Classroom Management
One or more students are being
 This
reprimanded for their behavior or
punishment.
are being sent out of the room for
punishment occurs please record the
disciplinary reasons.
incident in the snapshot log.
Teachers
and
students
11
are
may
include
corporal
When
corporal
 Mark No Materials. Even though
Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
involved
in
classroom
materials are being handled, they are
management: passing out papers,
not being used.
changing activities, putting away
 If students are performing classroom
materials, preparing to leave.
management
activities
without
the
teacher involved, code this under the I
line in Classroom Management
14. Teacher Social
The teacher and an adult (parents/
 Code T to indicate that the teacher is
Interaction/Teacher
visitor / community members –
not working with the students.
Uninvolved
any one other than the students)
are interacting about subjects
other than class-related activities.
Teacher is in the classroom but
not involved in any academic
activity
15. Teacher Management
The teacher is alone (without
 Teacher correcting papers at his/her
students)
duties
desk, copying material onto the board,
related to the classroom but not
setting up materials, or arranging books
directly related to students who
on a shelf.
may be doing seatwork. This also
 Code T for the teacher on the right
performing
included the teacher talking to the
principal,
administrator
or
supervisor.
hand side of the form to indicate they
are not working with students.
 If teachers and students are involved
in classroom management, use coding
rules from 13. Classroom Management.
16. Teacher out of the
This code should be marked if the
Room.
teacher is late, or the teacher
leaves the room for any reason.
12
 Describe what happened in your log
Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
Classroom Snapshot Materials
Code Item
No Materials/ None
Description
This is coded when materials are not being used. No Materials is always
coded with Social Interactions, Students Uninvolved, Being Disciplined,
and Classroom Management. This category is also coded when human
bodies are used as a tool in any activity
Books
This category refers to printed materials that students do not write-in
directly. The Book category includes textbooks, anthologies, periodicals,
students' own produced writing, and material copied from books or
periodicals.
Notebooks, Pencil and
This designation refers to consumable materials that students work with to
Paper/Slate
develop concepts or skills and include notebooks, workbooks, worksheets,
journals, sets or files of teacher or commercially prepared work, or blank
sheets of paper on which students work problems, write answers, or write
essays and stories.
If students are copying work from the blackboard/
chalkboard onto their papers, use this category. Classroom materials such as
pencils, crayons, or erasers are coded here.
Chalkboard / Blackboard
Code this category when teachers or students are working at the classroom
chalkboard.
Manipulative
Code this category for hands-on materials that provide instruction or
practice. Any physical object that the student or teacher uses as a learning
tool. This may include: science experiments, rulers, compasses, currency,
blocks, flash cards, or materials used to construct a project. Materials such as
pencils, crayons, or erasers are not coded here, they are coded under the
Paper/Pencil category.
Visual Aides, Computers,
Code this category if calculator or computer is used. Please describe the
Calculators
machine(s) in your log. Use this category to describe visuals or the graphical
display of information used to accompany instruction and enhance student
understanding. Visual aids include information written on the overhead
projector, maps, charts, photos, posters, flipcharts, pocket charts, slides, or
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
felt boards, audio tape recorders and other teaching learning materials. This
category does not include the chalkboard – activities using the chalkboard
should be coded under Chalkboard.
Cooperative Learning
Use this category when students work together on an assignment in small
groups. (Note it should be coded on the I line) The assignment should have
a final intended product, such as a mural, a revised essay, a group report, a
map, a science experiment done as a group, something done in shop, etc. If
students are working co-operatively in small groups, without the teacher
monitoring, code students on the I line (along the appropriate activity line),
in small groups. Never code a 1 in the co-operative coloumn
OTHER CODING RULES
Be certain to calculate how many minutes can be allowed between each observation so that you
will have time to collect ten Snapshots.
1.
Teacher can be placed only once for each snapshot
2.
When completing the Snapshot, first record the teacher, and then going clock wise around the room,
record the students involved in activities or are off task.
3.
Do not code the students who are working with the teacher on a separate line – remember they are
included in the teacher code.
4.
More than one student, more than one small group of students or large groups of students can be
marked on the “I” line in the same or different activities.
5.
E = Everyone. If you code E, Do not mark any other code. E includes the teacher and must be coded on the
T line.
6.
Do not code in the Other line (Category 9), unless otherwise instructed
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
CALCULATIONS
Activities are grouped as: a) Active Instruction, b) Passive Instruction c) Classroom Management
d) Teacher Off-Task e) Student Off-Task.
a) Active Instruction: Active Instruction includes activities where the teacher is directly involved with
students in one of the activities listed below. Active Instruction also occurs among students if more than
one of them are interacting with each other in activities such as projects. (Refer Appendix 2, activities 15)
1. Reading Aloud
2. Instruction/Demonstration/Lecture
3. Discussion
4. Practice/Drill
5. Kinesthetic/Projects
b) Passive Instruction: Passive Instruction activities are those where the teacher may be monitoring for
example: moving around the room and looking over shoulders, but the teacher is not directly involved as
the students do their seatwork or copying. (Refer Appendix 2, activities 6-7)
1. Copying
2. Silent Seatwork
c) Classroom Management: (Refer Appendix 2, activities 8,12, 13, 15)
1. Verbal Instruction
2. Classroom Management
3. Discipline
4. Teacher Managing Alone
d) Teacher Off-Task: (Refer Appendix 2, activities 10, 14, 16)
1. Social Interaction (with students)
2. Teacher Social Interaction /Uninvolved
3. Teacher out of the Room
e) Student Off-Task: (Refer Appendix 2, activities 10, 11, 12)
1. Social Interaction
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
2. Student Uninvolved
3. Discipline
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
REVIEW YOUR CODING FOR ACCURACY
Look at the cover page of each booklet.
Have you recorded the correct teacher number?
Have you entered your observer number?
Have you recorded the date and time?
Have you completed each line of the form?
Look at each of the ten observations.
Do you have only one T marked on each Snapshot?
Do you account for all of the children?
If you marked an E on the T line, do you have any other marks on the form?
Erase and change any errors you find during your review of the coding.
Did you complete all ten observations?
Did you describe any unusual event in the log? (Punishments, kinesthetics, tests)
Are your coding marks clear so that the data recorder can read them easily?
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
APPENDIX 1: CLASSROOM INFORMATION SHEET/SNAPSHOT COVER SHEET
CLASS ROOM INFORMATION SHEET (SNAPSHOT COVER SHEET)
Day
Month
1.DATE OF OBSERVATION (MM/DD/YY)
2. DURATION OF OBSERVATION
Year
Minutes
3. NAME & ADDRESS OF SCHOOL_____________
____________________________________________
____________________________________________
4. SCHOOL CODE
5. STATE/REGION_________________________
6. OBSERVER NAME _________________________ 7. OBSERVER CODE
8. TEACHER NAME __________________________
9. TEACHER CODE
10. GRADE OBSERVED
11. SUBJECT______________________________
To
12. NO. OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN CLASS
Total
13. NO. OF STUDENTS PRESENT IN THE CLASS
Of Which Girls
Total
Of Which Girls
14. PERCENTAGE OF STUDENTS USING TEXTBOOKS
15. WHAT TIME WAS CLASS SUPPOSED TO BEGIN
:
16. WHAT TIME DID CLASS ACTUALLY BEGIN
:
17. WHAT TIME WAS CLASS SUPPOSED TO END
:
18. WHAT TIME DID CLASS ACTUALLY END
:
19. Log: Mention any special events, problems with coding this sheet, abnormal activities etc
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Stallings Snapshot Observation Manual
APPENDIX 2: CLASSROOM OBSERVATION SNAPSHOTS (1-10)
Snapshot 1
Classroom Observation Snapshot
MATERIALS
1. Reading Aloud
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
Visual
Aides/
Compu
ter/Cal
culator
1SLE
1SLE
2. Instruction/Demonstration/Lect
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
3. Discussion
T
I
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
5. Kinesthetic/Projects
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
6. Silent Seatwork
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
7. Copying
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
8. Verbal Instruction
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
9. Other
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
1SLE
10. Social Interaction
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
11. Student Uninvolved
I
1SLE
12. Discipline
T
1SLE
13. Classroom Management
T
I
1SLE
1SLE
No
Materia
l/None
Books
Notebo
ok/Pap
er/Penc
il
ACTIVITY
4. Practice/Drill
14. Teacher Social Interaction/Uninvolved
T
15. Teacher Mgmt.
19
Chalk
board/
Blackb
oard
Manip
ulative
T
Cooperativ
e
1SLE
1SLE
16. Teacher out of Room
T