The implications for rural and regional
populations of the Irish government’s
provision of broadband communications
infrastructure
Or:
Taking discs into Sligo
Report for the National Institute for Regional and Spatial
Analysis (NIRSA),
National University of Ireland, Maynooth.
Dr Sarah Skerratt.
Visiting Associate, April/May 2003.
Contents
1
2
3
Acknowledgements .............................................................................................................3
Executive Summary ............................................................................................................4
Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 10
3.1 Background................................................................................................................. 10
3.2 Outline of Report: rhetoric and reality ......................................................................... 12
3.3 A postscript on the alternative title: Taking discs into Sligo ....................................... 12
4 Aims & Objectives ............................................................................................................ 13
5 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 14
5.1 A national picture ........................................................................................................ 14
5.2 Regional focus ............................................................................................................ 14
5.3 A qualitative approach ................................................................................................ 15
5.4 Generating the interview sample ................................................................................ 15
5.5 The semi-structured interview .................................................................................... 16
5.6 Data analysis .............................................................................................................. 17
5.7 Dissemination and participant validation .................................................................... 18
6 Findings ............................................................................................................................ 19
6.1 An evolving policy context .......................................................................................... 19
6.1.1
Discussion of key documents ............................................................................ 20
6.1.2
Overall observations .......................................................................................... 28
6.1.3
Shifts in language and terminology .................................................................... 29
6.1.4
Further reports and initiatives ............................................................................ 30
6.1.5
Some recent events ........................................................................................... 33
6.2 A picture of telecommunications infrastructure provision ........................................... 34
6.3 Voices from the North West........................................................................................ 37
6.3.1
Describe Leitrim and Sligo Counties to me........................................................ 38
6.3.2
To what extent is there a ‘digital divide’ in Ireland? ........................................... 40
6.3.3
Understanding of “broadband”? ......................................................................... 42
6.3.4
Do Leitrim and Sligo Counties need broadband? .............................................. 43
6.3.5
What happens if Counties Leitrim and Sligo do NOT get broadband? .............. 49
6.3.6
What, then, are the key issues for the future, from your point of view? ............ 51
7 Some personal reflections ................................................................................................ 55
7.1 Further research ......................................................................................................... 55
7.2 ‘Remote’ rural areas will not get DSL ......................................................................... 55
7.3 Demonstration of relevance ........................................................................................ 56
7.4 Community as key driver ............................................................................................ 57
7.5 Generate own critical mass – even ‘virtually’ ............................................................. 58
7.6 Concluding comments ................................................................................................ 58
Appendix 1: Maps of County Leitrim & County Sligo ............................................................... 59
Appendix 2: The Border Region (National Spatial Strategy, 2001, p.77) ................................ 60
Appendix 3: List of organisations approached for interview .................................................... 61
Appendix 4: Policy evolution timeline ...................................................................................... 62
Appendix 5: BMW Regional Assembly Call ............................................................................. 63
Appendix 6: List of attendees at the Sligo Seminar ................................................................. 64
Appendix 7: List of attendees at the Maynooth Seminar ......................................................... 65
Appendix 8: Abstracts for two proposed papers ...................................................................... 66
Bibliography ............................................................................................................................. 68
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
2
1 Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to thank the National Institute for Regional and Spatial
Analysis (NIRSA), National University of Ireland, Maynooth, for their funding of
this research project. Without their invitation and resourcing, this work would
not have been possible. In particular, thanks to Dr Rob Kitchin (Director) and
Ann-Marie Burke (Assistant to the Director), both of whom provided great
support during the research and helped with numerous logistics.
Secondly, I would like to thank Dr Perry Share at IT Sligo, for being my
sponsor, for pointing me in the direction of initial interviewees and
documentation, and for arranging for me to be based at the Institute for the
duration of my research visit.
Thirdly, this research would also not have been possible without the 25
interviewees who gave of their time, and were happy to discuss openly their
views, concerns, and visions for the way forward. In particular, I would like to
express additional thanks to David Long (Chairman, Ireland Offline) & Dr Pat
O’Hara (Director, Western Development Commission) – both of whom gave
great inspiration and energy, as well as ‘demystifying’ for me some of the
technical and political issues surrounding broadband provision within Ireland.
Also, to one interviewee who plied me, courtesy of the Sligo Park Hotel, with a
large plate of bacon sandwiches and three cappuccinos, when the going was
particularly tough!
Fourthly, those who attended the two Seminars deserve my thanks, for fitting
it within their busy schedules, for travelling considerable distances, and for
taking the opportunity in the way that it was meant – for critique, correction,
further explanation, and also for networking and discussion of possible future
actions and ideas.
Finally, I am extremely grateful to my colleague, Martyn Warren (Head of
Land Use & Rural Management Department, University of Plymouth), for
preparing and presenting the UK broadband picture at the Sligo and
Maynooth Seminars. And further thanks for his usual perceptiveness and
clarity of thought concerning earlier drafts of the analysis and presentation,
invaluable for someone so immersed in the topic and not able to see a way
through!
However, the usual disclaimers fully apply: all omissions and errors remain
entirely my own, and the views expressed herein are the author’s and do not
necessarily represent the views of NIRSA.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
3
2 Executive Summary
Introduction

There is increasing concern that the rural and remote areas of advanced
societies are at risk of exclusion from technological developments in
communications, in particular high-speed information and communications
technologies (ICTs). [3.1.]

This may particularly be the case where policies of competition and
privatisation of telecommunications and allied services have taken place.
Profit-driven telecoms companies appear generally unwilling to invest in
areas where a critical mass of potential customers does not exist. [3.1.]

A rural-urban digital divide may be posited. Further, international research
has also suggested the existence of an intra-rural digital divide. [3.1.]

The current Irish government appears to give cognisance to such realities
and, in the absence of apparent adequate investment by the private
sector, has sought to stimulate the provision of broadband (DSL)
infrastructure in regional and rural areas. [3.1.]

Key questions are raised: (a) how will the more remote and peripheral rural
dwellers, communities and businesses fare under the NDP-funded
programmes? (b) how would those provided with the opportunity through
infrastructural provision actually use the technology? and (c) what is the
level of preparedness of rural dwellers, businesses and communities?
[3.1.]

The aim of the research therefore is: to evaluate the implications for rural
and regional populations of the Irish government’s provision of broadband
communications infrastructure and related initiatives. [4]
Findings
An evolving policy context [6.1.]
 A Timeline synthesises the broadband-related policy developments from
1993-2003.

A review is presented of the key reports and events within this timeline:
 The National Development Plan 2000-2006
 The National Spatial Strategy
 “New Connections” (including the MANs) [March 2002]
 “Future Delivery of Broadband in Ireland” Consultation Document,
ODTR [September 2002]
 “Building the Knowledge Society” [December 2002]
 The BMW Regional Assembly Call [January 2003]
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
4

There are three observations relating to the thrust and content of policy
evolution:
 Within the Government Reports, the wording is careful in its
specification of “seed money only”, in order to “address market
failure”.
 Drivers for increasing demand for broadband are seen as : (i) egovernment, and (ii) the Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) of the
Regional Broadband Programme.
 The “last mile” is not addressed. There appears to be an
assumption of a trickle-down effect from the fibre-optic rings,
through suitably modified exchanges, to all those who need to avail
themselves of high-speed broadband technology.

There are two significant shifts in language, and therefore possibly in
conceptualisation, that can be observed
 In December 2002: “Broadband is an enabling infrastructure …
The importance of broadband investment to the knowledge society
will be no less significant than that of electricity…” (ODTR 2002,
p.41, emphasis added).
 In December 2002, we read: “Broadband investment is a key
determinant of future socio-economic development, both nationally
& regionally…” (ODTR 2002, p.41, emphasis added).

Alongside the policy developments presented on the timeline, there are
other reports and initiatives which need emphasis, from: IBEC, the IDA,
Enterprise Ireland, and the Western Development Commission (“The State
of the West” [2001], and “Update on Telecommunications within the
Western Region” [December 2002]). In addition, a review of local
government documentation highlights key Objectives and Actions,
including capacity-building and partnership.
A picture of telecommunications infrastructure provision [6.2.]

Eircom’s and EsatBT’s high-speed telecommunications infrastructure
maps are presented, with commentary from the telcos on the extent to
which there is a ‘digital divide’ within Ireland and within the NW region.
Voices from the North West [6.3.]

Describe Leitrim and Sligo Counties to me [6.3.1.]
 The “Windowsill of Europe” – the periphery of the periphery.
 ‘Infrastructure deficit’ re-emphasises peripherality, both for those
wishing to travel east, and for those wishing to travel to the west, or
re-locate to the west. This detracts from its ability to attract, and
retain, a workforce and therefore, in turn, a rural population.
 County Leitrim: “the forgotten county”; poor infrastructure, and
depopulation.
 People are easy-going, not necessarily making the first move;
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
5

A lack of circulation with the ‘bigger players’ in the west.

To what extent is there a ‘digital divide’ in Ireland? [6.3.2.]
 At national level: digital divides are “East-West” and “Dublin and
the rest”.
 Within the region: a mixed response towards the National Spatial
Strategy with its selection of ‘Gateways’ and ‘Hubs’, with the
associated presumption that benefits from such a devolved
approach will automatically trickle down. This is felt to be further
exacerbated, potentially, by the MANs, which will focus on making
provision for ‘metropolitan’ areas, causing outlying areas to be
further marginalised, and leading to intra-regional digital divides.
 Broadband as infrastructure: broadband is seen as a ‘basic utility’
and thus who are not provided for in the NW are being
disadvantaged now, with direct implications for the future.

Understanding of “broadband”? [6.3.3.]
 There is confusion over what broadband actually is and can do, and
it is now often being used as the default term that equates with ecommunication of any form.
 When definitions are put forward, they focus primarily on speed, not
on “always-on”. Within speed definitions, there is variation, ranging
from 128 kbps through 512kbps to at least 2 Mbits/sec.

Do Leitrim and Sligo Counties need broadband? [6.3.4.]
 Local level - no: (i) there is diversity within the SME and microbusiness sector within the Counties. Local businesses, whose client
base and suppliers are also located within the geographical vicinity,
do not see the need to trade, or be supplied, from further afield, and
thus the internet, and particularly high-speed internet access, is not
important for them. (ii) People’s expectations of broadband: where
people want to go, and what they think they are entitled to, in terms
of high-speed infrastructural provision, is directly related to where
they have come from. (iii) The presence or absence of broadband
is not going to determine the success or failure of an SME.
Broadband is one component, but more significant is the vision,
risk-taking and adaptability of the SMEs and microbusinesses
themselves.
 Local level – yes (raised by the majority of interviewees): There
appears to be a lack of need because there is a lack of knowledge
concerning what is missing. The corollary that can be inferred is that
if people could see how broadband could enable them, what its
affordance might be, then there would be an articulated need;
however, interviewees feel that this need remains, and will remain,
‘latent’ rather than ‘articulated’.
 Local Case Study - Ballinamore, Co Leitrim: 50 small businesses,
90% of which access the web through normal telephone line at
56kbps (dial-up) and 10% through ISDN (128 kbps, also dial-up).
The townspeople have identified that they need to use high-speed
telecoms to build business and attract replacement businesses to
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
6
the town. Ballinamore is not an exceptional example of a rural need
for broadband, but is part of a potential groundswell of demand.

Regional level – yes: (i) high-speed bandwidth affects returners’
location decisions; (ii) For FDI, broadband is a necessary
prerequisite for location.

National/international level – yes: (i) Views are consistent
concerning the absolute need for fully rolled-out broadband across
the regions, if Ireland is to continue competing on the international
forum. (ii) Ireland is now, and will continue to do more so in the near
future, competing with the accession countries (or ‘EU Applicants’).
(iii) on the international level, it is well known that an increasing
number of high-speed applications are ‘coming our way’, and that
microbusinesses, SMEs and larger companies will need to be given
the option to chose those applications, and will need to
accompanying bandwidth to make use of such applications feasible.

What happens if Counties Leitrim and Sligo do NOT get broadband?
[6.3.5.]
 For rural areas specifically: the limiting of broadband access
through DSL to those inhabitants and businesses that lie within the
radius of an upgraded telephone exchange, particularly since the
3.5 or 5km radius raises the spectre of an intra-rural digital divide.
 The two minimum requirements of Foreign Direct Investment
(FDI) are: (1) a minimum of 2 national telecommunications
operators, and (2) resilience of the network. Where these are not
present, FDI is likely to locate elsewhere.
 The NW within Ireland: without broadband, there will be a loss of
business & competitiveness within Ireland, because “people follow
the bandwidth”.
 There will be a loss of competitiveness internationally

What, then, are the key issues for the future, from your point of view?
[6.3.6.]
 There is a great need for strategic vision, thinking and
behaviour by local government, and where appropriate by
regional government.
 There is a great need to raise understanding and awareness of,
and demand for, broadband within the region, and specifically
within the two Counties of Leitrim and Sligo.
 There is a need to think and plan beyond the Metropolitan Area
Networks (MANs), since focus only on the fibre rings, and
associated DSL technologies will further a digital divide within the
region and within the Counties.
 There are great needs identified in the area of ICT within
education. Firstly, that there is a need to demonstrate to teachers
the curriculum-relevance of ICT usage - that is, how ICT, and
specifically broadband-enabled ICT can support teachers in
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
7


delivering their curriculum commitments to their pupils. Secondly, it
is stressed that IT skills, enabled through high-speed telecoms
infrastructure, is absolutely essential for post-primary, and ideally
primary, pupils now coming through the education system.
Cross-Border
initiatives
and
options
for
high-speed
telecommunications infrastructure and its applications should
continue to be explored.
Further research: areas of further interest include e-Government
as a driver & its implications for a universal network; the potential
negative impacts of rural ICT as rural areas are opened up to global
competition; that the ‘east-west’ divide may be more than digital;
and an historical perspective of (IC)T deployment in rural Ireland.
Some personal reflections [7]

Further research [7.1.]
 A particular issue which I feel needs further inquiry is that of “need”
for broadband: how is need identified, generated, articulated, and is
“need” a response to seeing what is possible yet not currently
attainable? This is more than a philosophical question: telcos, as
commercial companies, make investment decisions based on likely
demand, or need, and associated uptake.

Interconnected with this, however, is the presumption that “if we
build it, they will come”; however, further research is required to
understand better how and why people are currently using – and
not using – ICT, and particularly how they then might adapt highspeed enabling facilities within that usage pattern, and how such
usage might therefore change as a result.

Remote rural areas will not get DSL
 It has become apparent that the “last kilometre” is not being
addressed. There is a trickle-down effect anticipated from the
regionalisation of policy. However, therefore, a need to examine,
creatively and purposefully, alternative technologies, such as fixed
wireless, meshed wireless, and satellite – but at affordable levels for
dispersed rural populations within Ireland.

Demonstration of relevance
 The internet has potential for increasing localisation, for ‘reclaiming
the local’, to promote local produce, programmes, locales, venues,
events, and can also be used by local communities for community
activity through their own village websites. I would argue that there
is a need to illustrate how the internet can be used to re-emphasise
regionality, and local-ness, particularly in the context of a region
which sees itself as being on the periphery, on the “windowsill of
Europe”.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
8

This means, in turn, that there are likely to be a range of
applications (rather than the much-talked of search for a single
‘killer-app’) as individuals think creatively about how they might
apply the internet to their needs and requirements.

Community as key driver
 It appears that in the rural north-west of Ireland champion
communities comprise the level at which locally-led action and
activity is taking place in trying to acquire high-speed internet
access. A collation, even informally, of activity, experiences, and
potential need for broadband internet access, would be a key
resource in taking the debate forward. Further, developing a better
understanding of the processes by which communities are
articulating need, and the extent to which they are able to bring
together diverse needs into a coherent vision, is critical. The extent
to which this subsequently leads to community buy-in and selfsustaining of initiatives would also be an issue for further focus.

Generate own critical mass – even ‘virtually’
 Within the region, I have come across individuals who were not
aware of one another’s existence, and yet were raising and trying to
address some of the same issues in relation to broadband provision
for rural areas. Networking could create its own ‘critical mass’ – of
argument, of debate, of information exchange, updates, and of
partnership ideas and plans, however informally.

Concluding comments
 There is a digital divide within Ireland, between East and West,
between urban and rural, and additionally within the region of the
northwest, where the reality of an existing intra-rural digital divide is
likely to be further exacerbated by a focus on hotspots that are
DSL-enabled. The shift towards a complementary, coherent,
strategic approach to examining affordable alternative methods of
broadband provision for dispersed rural populations is paramount, if
such divides in access are to be addressed.

In the seminar in Maynooth, one member of the audience asked the
question: should we continue to use the term “last kilometre” or
should we shift our thinking substantially to talk, instead, of this
being the “first kilometre”, from the customer to the supplier? I leave
this question with the reader, with all its manifold implications and
possibilities.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
9
3 Introduction
3.1
Background
Too much research has focused on new technologies and markets, on the
possibilities rather than the realities of human communication, and ignored the social
context of peoples’ needs, desires and patterns of behaviour, both at work and at
leisure (Local Futures Group 2002)
There is increasing concern that the rural, regional and remote areas of
advanced societies are at risk of exclusion from technological developments
in relation to communications, in particular high-speed information and
communications technologies (ICT) [(Agnew 2002), (Anon 2002), (BBC News
online 2002), (Mathieson 2003), (Net Imperative 2002), (Dilenge 2000),
(Grimes 2000), (Hindman 2000), (NTIA 1998; NTIA 1999; NTIA 2000), (Parker
2000), (US Department of Commerce 1995)]. Internationally, rural areas are
relatively disadvantaged in terms of ICT infrastructure provision. This may
particularly be the case where policies of competition and privatisation of
telecommunications and allied services have taken place. Profit-driven
telecoms companies appear generally unwilling to invest in areas where a
critical mass of potential customers does not exist (Skerratt and Warren
2003a).
A rural-urban digital divide may be posited, whereby non-metropolitan
dwellers are disadvantaged by lack of access to leading-edge
communications technologies. However, at the same time, such technologies
have the capacity to address some of the historical issues of ‘distance’ and
exclusion that rural areas have experienced – famously, the “death of
distance” (Cairncross 1997). Further, international research has also
suggested the existence of an intra-rural digital divide: access to and use of
ICT is not equally distributed within rural populations (Warren 2003). Thus the
picture of inclusion or exclusion is more layered and complex than simply
urban-rural.
In the Government Action Plan (March 2002), “New Connections”
(Department of the Taoiseach 2002), we find the following explanation of the
digital divide, within the context of eInclusion:
“To be on the wrong side of the digital divide means less opportunity to
take part in the Information Society, in which more and more jobs will
be related in some way to the use of ICTs. It also means a loss of
opportunity in education, learning, training, shopping, entertainment,
and communications … As more and more people regularly use ICTs
in their daily activities, people who lack access to these tools are at a
growing disadvantage…” (p.39)
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
10
The current Irish government appears to have given cognisance to such
realities and, in the absence of apparent adequate investment by the private
sector, has sought to stimulate the provision of broadband (DSL)
infrastructure in regional and rural areas. Under the National Development
Plan (NDP) 1994-1999, existing national and some regional communications
fibre-optic trunklines were upgraded. The subsequent NDP 2000-2006
supports a programme to roll-out broadband on a phased basis to 123 towns
and cities, such that all towns of 1500+ population will have a broadband loop
within a given timeframe. The initial phase involves 19 centres (including, in
the Northwest region, Manorhamilton, Letterkenny and Gaoth Dobhair); the
second phase will involve a further 27 centres, with the remainder to be
completed in the third phase. Phase 1 involves cooperation with local
governments. Central government will finance 90% of expenditure, with local
authorities providing the balance. Each community will generate a local
‘Management Services Entity’ to oversee the deployment of the infrastructure.
Bodies that will be involved in the development of the allied communications
services include Eircom (who will focus on larger urban centres), EsatBT (who
have a fibre-optic network based on the CIE rail network) and the ESB (who
are ‘piggybacking’ a communications network onto the electricity supply
infrastructure).
The development of the physical infrastructure is accompanied by some
capacity building investment, specifically through the government’s CAIT
(Community Application of Information Technology) Initiative, launched in
December 2000. CAIT aims to support the involvement in ICT of ‘those in our
society who are unfamiliar with, and who do not use, the new technologies in
their everyday lives’ through the provision of grants (total €5m to Dec 2002) to
community-based and non-profit groups to develop demonstration projects. A
number of groups in the Northwest region were funded under the first tranche,
such as the New Ballagh Centre, Co. Leitrim; and National Council for the
Blind, County Sligo.
Given these processes of infrastructural development, a number of key
questions then arise:
 how will the more remote and peripheral rural dwellers,
communities and businesses fare under the NDP-funded
programmes?
 how would those provided with the opportunity through
infrastructural provision actually use the technology?
 what is the level of preparedness of rural dwellers, businesses and
communities?
These questions can be seen to relate directly to the objectives of ‘social
inclusion’ and ‘territorial cohesion’ espoused by the European Commission
and by the EU Committee of the Regions (European Commission 2000;
European Commission 2001), (Committee of the Regions 2002).
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
11
3.2
Outline of Report: rhetoric and reality
In this Report, I begin by presenting a synthesis of the evolution of Irish
Government policy over the past 10 years, as it relates specifically to
regionalised provision of high-speed, broadband, telecommunications
infrastructure (Section 6.1.). In addition, within this Section, I outline those
reports and initiatives from other organisations which provide a commentary
on the state of broadband provision, particularly within the north-west,
together with strategy documents from both local government and business
organisations.
In Section 6.2., I give a brief overview of the backbone high-speed
infrastructure provision by the two main Telcos in Ireland – Eircom and
EsatBT, together with a brief commentary based on interviews.
Section 6.3. comprises the findings from the interviews which I carried out in
the rural north-west of Ireland over a four-week period. The aim of the
interviews themselves, and the presentation of the data within this report, is to
juxtapose the ‘rhetoric’ of policy and strategy, with the realities of living and
working in Counties Sligo and Leitrim, given the current levels of high-speed
telecoms infrastructure provision.
This is, by design, a qualitative study (see Section 5), and thus it has not been
my aim to provide a quantitative inventory of high-speed internet experience
within the north-west. Rather, my focus has been to investigate the extent to
which a digital divide may currently exist, and may persist, even within the
context of efforts of government (both national and regional) and telcos to
support roll-out within the context of a free market.
In this regard, it is important to highlight the observation of (Servon 2002) that
digital divides do not simply relate to a matter of access, crucial though this is.
Rather, two further dimensions are integral: capacity to use the technology,
and relevance of local content. As will be seen in the recommendations from
interviewees, and in my own personal reflections (Sections 6.3.7. and 7),
addressing these three components of the digital divide comprises a central
priority, if they are to be addressed and overcome within Ireland.
3.3 A postscript on the alternative title: Taking discs into Sligo
The alternative title “Taking discs into Sligo” is taken from a very illustrative
description from one interviewee, and I felt that it neatly summarised the
realities of living in the ‘digital and analogue north west’. This individual,
working from home on behalf of community and voluntary organisations,
frequently found that it was quicker for him to zip files from his PC onto a disc,
drive into Sligo (a distance of approximately 35km), send them via email at the
Institute, where there is a high-speed link, collect emails and attachments, and
drive the 35km home again. Quicker, that is, than trying to send and receive
such files through his 56kps dial-up modem, and far more reliable…
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
12
4 Aims & Objectives
The aim of the research is:
to evaluate the implications for rural and regional populations of the
Irish
government’s
provision
of
broadband
communications
infrastructure and related initiatives.
In order to address this aim, the objectives of the research are:
(1) to assess the trends and developments in web-based ICT provision
and use in Ireland over the last decade that have shaped the Irish
government’s decision to invest in the widespread provision of
broadband (DSL) infrastructure;
(2) to evaluate the Government’s objectives and targets in relation of
the provision of broadband services to rural dwellers, businesses (in
particular micro-businesses) and communities;
(3) to
examine
the
perceptions,
practices,
preparedness
and
expectations in the rural sector, for web-based ICT, and specifically
for broadband.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
13
5 Methodology
5.1 A national picture
Firstly, I wanted to familiarise myself with the national and regional policy
developments of the past 10 years, as outlined in the objectives above, in
order to gain an understanding of the extent, and ways, that (rural) high-speed
telecommunications is addressed within policy. For the first period of the
study, I therefore carried out a desk-study of developments in, and associated
government policies for, ICT provision, since the early-mid 1990s, focusing
mostly but not exclusively on rural areas. I was informed of these documents,
sources (online and offline) both through initial pointers from Perry Share, and
then through extensive searching of the web through the various Government
Departments and organisations within whose remit broadband, or even rural
broadband, might form a constituent part. I plotted these documents, and
policy initiatives, on a timeline (see Section 6.1.) in order to clarify the
developments and policy evolution over the ten-year period. The key findings
of this process are reported below. In addition, during the interviews, I was
often given many copies of publications, brochures, and other literature, which
was crucial to my investigation, and these form part of the timeline and the
additional documentation on which I report.
5.2 Regional focus
I carried out the research over a six-week period (9 April –23 May 2003), in
the Northwest region of Ireland, and was based at the Institute of Technology,
Sligo.
I selected ‘the north-west’ as my geographical focus, and not a rural region
closer to Dublin, since I wanted to investigate notions, and realities, of
peripherality, as lived and experienced by rural dwellers and businesses in
Ireland. This would raise a specific research issue relating to ICT and rurality:
that of the potential for the ‘death of distance’ (Cairncross 1997) afforded by
such communications technologies that are not, in theory, place or location
dependent. As an outsider, from my initial reading, I saw the rural north-west
as such a region. However, in the interviews (see below), I did not introduce
such terminology as labels, but rather asked people themselves to describe
the Counties to me as an outsider. The terms ‘peripheral’ and ‘outlying’ did
indeed emerge, which confirmed my selection criterion, but had they not done
so, this would in itself have been a further result of the investigation.
Within the north-west, the Counties of Sligo and Leitrim (see Appendix 1)
were selected for two initial reasons: firstly, my research ‘sponsor’, Dr Perry
Share, is based at the IT Sligo, and his links within the County were seen as
important to initiating a first interview sample, and his knowledge of the area
was also seen as an asset. On arrival, the County of Leitrim was also
suggested, particularly since it is often bypassed in studies focusing on the
northwest, or at least given a lower priority than the counties of Donegal and
Sligo. Further, given the time-constrained nature of the study, I felt that to try
to look at County Donegal would push the limited resources too far, and result
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
14
in a picture that was too superficial. However, where appropriate to the
defining of the northwest region, the neighbouring Counties of Donegal and
Mayo are sometimes brought into the frame1. My aim was not to feel that I
had covered the whole of the north west, but rather to use the focus on two
counties to illustrate the issues arising within the region. Finally, the selection
of these two Counties falls within the Border Region identified in the National
Spatial Strategy (see Appendix 2).
5.3 A qualitative approach
I adopted a qualitative approach to generating the interview sample, and for
both data collection and data analysis. I took this decision since the issues I
am addressing are complex, and many-layered, and include analyses of
factors underpinning trends, peoples’ motivations and expectations, human
factors of confidence and trust, and how these expectations do or do not
relate to perceptions and behaviours. In addition, these are being played out
within a complex institutional, policy and commercial context, which is in itself
multi-faceted and evolving, even within the timescale of the research. I
therefore decided that an approach to the research questions required
flexibility to emerging issues, and a sampling framework that could give
enough room for ‘snowballing’ – that is, one interviewee suggests another,
and they in turn suggest another. As far as possible, I aimed to use
‘theoretical sampling’ – that is, to interview a range of people who have been
selected purposively (that is, not randomly) who will then be able to reflect on
the key issues raised (and wider), and I kept interviewing until I felt that no
substantially new issues were emerging. However, I also have to recognise
that this is a difficult task when the study is taking place within a six-week
period; I do feel that many of the key issues have been raised, although of
course (and I highlight this in my personal reflections), there are issues that
are deserving of further investigation.
5.4 Generating the interview sample
As outlined, my emphasis was not upon producing and analysing statistically
representative samples and findings, but rather focusing on the reasons,
rationale and beliefs of various ‘players’ in the future development and usage
of ICT in rural Ireland. This meant a reliance on a recognised sampling
approach: that of ‘purposive sampling’ – sampling those interviewees or
informants who are able to reflect on their location (in its broadest sense),
their practices, norms of conceptualisation and behaviour, are also able to
reflect on other’s behaviour, and on possible ‘ways forward’. I wanted to select
those within the Counties of Sligo and Leitrim who could reflect both their local
setting, as well as a wider regional perspective. Thus, these criteria
immediately limit the potential list of interviewees, but also provide for a
sample of individuals which is extremely rich in terms of both ability and
willingness to discuss and pick over issues in detail.
1
As will be seen from the Reports cited in the following section, there are a number of
‘administrative’ definitions of the ‘northwest’, within the National Spatial Strategy, the
publications from the Western Development Commission, and the coverage of the Border,
Midlands & Western (BMW) Regional Assembly.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
15
Appendix 3 comprises a list of the organisations whom I approached for
interview (I approached individuals, but am not able to disclose their names
since a promise of confidentiality was given), and in summary was made up of
the following:




Sectors: education, health, agriculture, tourism, SMEs & FDI,
teleworkers, voluntary & community2;
Local & regional government, development bodies, business
organisations, lobbyists, & Telcos;
Consultants in broadband;
Local, rural population.
A total of 36 individuals were approached, with a final interview sample of 25.
5.5 The semi-structured interview
I used a semi-structured interviewing approach, and the topics I selected as
the focal points related directly back to the objectives of the research.
However, as emphasised, a qualitative approach also allows the interviewee
to dictate the interview agenda to an equal extent, and thus issues additional
to those I had anticipated at the beginning, were raised.
Each interview lasted at least 45 minutes, the majority being over one hour,
with some lasting 2-3 hours. Notes were taken: I took the decision in the first
interviews that, since I was repeatedly being given data ‘off the record’, it
would not be appropriate for me then to tape the interviews.
Confidentiality was assured for each interviewee, in that they were given a
guarantee that their comments could not be traced back to them as
individuals.
The interview format is presented on the next page.
2
Unfortunately, interviews with individuals from the health and tourism sectors could not be
arranged. These sectors therefore need to be integrated within any further phases of this
research into broadband need and provision within rural NW Ireland.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
16
INTERVIEW FORMAT
The aim of this interview is to examine practices & expectations for
rural web-based ICT, & specifically for broadband.
There are 4 sections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Personal background, roles etc.
Setting the scene: digital divides in Ireland?
Current usage of information & communication technologies
Broadband
1. Personal background, roles etc.
a. Please could you describe your roles & responsibilities in relation to
Sligo/Leitrim?
b. Please can you describe “Co Sligo/Co Leitrim” to me?
2. Setting the scene: digital divides in Ireland?
a. To what extent does an urban-rural digital divide exist in Ireland?
b. To what extent would you say there are intra-rural digital divides within Co
Sligo/Co Leitrim?
c. How is national &/or regional policy addressing these, in your view?
3. Current usage of information & communication
technologies (ICTs)
a. How would you describe ICT usage, according to sectors
(microbusiness/SMEs/larger business; agriculture & tourism; health;
education)?
b. How important is ICT usage for economic survival in Co Sligo/Co Leitrim
– now & in the next 10 years? Why?
c. Specifically, how will the drive towards e-government change needs,
requirements, or usage of ICTs?
4. Broadband
a. What do you understand by the term “broadband”?
b. If provided, how would broadband be used in Co Sligo/Co Leitrim?
c. How prepared are rural dwellers and businesses for broadband, in Co
Sligo/Co Leitrim (including in terms of hardware)?
d. How could awareness of broadband & its benefits be increased?
e. How important is broadband for economic survival in Co Sligo/Co Leitrim
– now & in the next 10 years? Why?
Figure 1: Semi-structured interview format used in face-to-face interviews
5.6 Data analysis
I used a thematic analysis approach to analysing the interview data. This
entails collating and interpreting the data relating to the four broad ‘themes’
examined in the semi-structured interviews. That is, the responses to these
four main questions (above) are examined alongside one another, and key
issues which arise within each question are then noted.
I have made use of quotations in the presentation of the data, with the aim of
illustrating the points being made. However, they are not to be interpreted as
a ‘uniform voice’, with overall consensus, although typically they represent the
majority view. Where there is significant disagreement, or range of responses
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
17
(such as concerning whether, at local level, ‘people need broadband’), these
are highlighted and reflections given as to why such differences may exist.
5.7 Dissemination and participant validation
It has been important to me from the outset that the findings from this study do
not (only) sit on a shelf, even a virtual one. Rather, that there is an opportunity
for them to be debated, corrected, challenged, and developed such that they
form something of use in the wider discussions on rural broadband provision
within Ireland.
With this objective in mind, I proposed two seminars to take place in week 4 of
the 6-week study, to allow for the dual processes of dissemination of early
findings, and their validation (or otherwise) by those interviewed, together with
a wider audience. Appendices 6 & 7 respectively comprise the lists of those
present at the local/regional seminar (at ITSligo) and the national/regional
seminar (at NIRSA, Maynooth). The seminars were held on consecutive days,
which allowed for a comparison of the two types of debates that followed. In
addition to a presentation of the NIRSA-funded NW Ireland broadband
research, we also used the opportunity to present our rural broadband
findings from the UK, which enabled a necessarily brief, but nonetheless
useful, comparison of the two countries’ experiences3.
During the two seminars, pointers to further data and reports were given from
individuals within the audiences, and the aim has been to integrate these
within the findings presented in Section 6.
In addition, two papers are proposed for submission to academic journals and
potentially for presentation at conferences. The Abstracts for these proposed
papers can be seen in Appendix 8. In disseminating to these wider audiences,
the aims are to give further exposure to the findings of this report, to generate
critique and debate, and to provide a wider international comparative context
for the findings.
3
See NIRSA’s website for the PowerPoint Slides of the presentation.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
18
6 Findings
6.1 An evolving policy context
One of the objectives of the research is to examine the evolution of Irish policy
over the past 10 years, in relation to telecommunications infrastructure
provision, and also in terms of how the ‘information society’ is presented,
discussed, and provided for within the Government documentation.
In order to assist in the sifting through of these documents, and with a view to
trying to represent the changing context, a timeline was constructed which
illustrates the main events and outputs (this is reproduced as a full page in
Appendix 4):
Liberalisation of telecom
market: 1998-1999
ComReg
established
to replace
ODTR
ODTR
established
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
National Devt
Plan 20002006
National Devt
Plan 19941999
Rural Devt
White Paper
Blueprint:
ICT in
Education
2001-03
Mid-term
Review
BMW
Fitzpatrick
Report
Econ
Infrastructure
Operational
Prog: 12 BB
Projects
Govt Action
Plan “New
Connections”
National
Spatial
Strategy
2002-2020
Schools
IT2000
Info Soc
Commsn:
“Building
Knowledge
Society”
Telecoms
Infrastrct
Wking Gp
WLAN – Dept
Comms…
CAIT
initiative
Metropolitan
Area
Networks: 123
cities & towns
BMW R.A.
(through
ERDF):
Wireless Int
19
towns
CLAR Prog
Figure 2: an illustrative timeline for the policy developments relating to ICT & broadband
provision in Ireland, 1993-2003.
There are three initial points to observe in relation to the timeline:
1. Above the line, the key date is the liberalisation of the telecom market
in 1998-1999. In principle, this meant the end to Eircom’s monopoly of
the telecommunications market, and the possibility for other providers
to enter the frame, for example, EsatBT.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
19
2. The timeline itself is expanded towards the right, that is for 2002-2003,
since there are a number of key events taking place during that period.
3. Where the boxes have a blue surround, broadband is specifically
mentioned and addressed, and further shading of these boxes
indicates specific objectives or actions relating to broadband telecoms
infrastructure.
6.1.1 Discussion of key documents
The key reports and events within this timeline are now reviewed in
chronological order, in the context of telecommunications and specifically
broadband. They comprise:






The National Development Plan 2000-2006
The National Spatial Strategy
“New Connections” (including the MANs) [March 2002]
“Future Delivery of Broadband in Ireland” Consultation
Document, ODTR [September 2002]
“Building the Knowledge Society” [December 2002]
The BMW Regional Assembly Call [January 2003]
The National Development Plan 2000-2006 (Department of the Taoiseach
2000)
The two National Development Plans (NDPs) for 1994-1999 and 20002006, which give the possibility for a longer-term coherence and setting out of
targets. Amongst the specific objectives of the NDP 2000-2006 are ‘fostering
balanced regional development’ and ‘promoting social inclusion’, the former
being further emphasised by the observation that: “in the overall, there has
been continuing divergence between the economic performances of the South
& East and Border, Midlands & Western (BMW) Regions” (p.9). In recognition
of this regional imbalance, the NDP makes mention of a number of additional
regional ‘Gateways’ (urban growth centres) to drive development, and
espouses “positive discrimination in favour of regions lagging behind” (p.10).
Under the Priorities for 2000-2006, Telecommunications (2.1.4.), and their
relevance for rural regions, is described thus:
“The deregulation of the telecoms services … means that delivery …
will be primarily by the market. However, the market alone may not
deliver advanced telecommunications services to rural areas … The
lack of these services hinders businesses in these areas” (p.36).
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
20
Further:
“Under the current investment plans of the communications companies
… much of the west coast will not be served. Leitrim will be almost
completely devoid of modern information and communications
infrastructure and other border counties are poorly served. This
deficiency has clear implications for regional development…” (p.68).
Specifically, within the Communications/Electronic Commerce Strategy, it is
stated that:
“The strategy for the development of the communications sector is
based on the promotion of a liberalised market, effective competition,
with clear regulatory rules backed by independent arbitration through
the Office of the Director of Telecommunications Regulation… A
provision of €152M is being made in the Plan to promote investment in
advanced telecommunications in areas where it is clear the market will
not deliver sufficient investment… This investment is being provided in
the regional programmes, with two-thirds of it in the BMW Regional
Operational Programme” (p.68).
When outlining the rural impact of such an approach, the NDP states:
“… Investment in telecommunications … will be mainly concentrated in
more peripheral areas where the market alone is unlikely to provide,
and this should be of direct benefit to the surrounding rural areas”
(p.82)
In “Rural Development” (Chapter 11), the context for service delivery is
highlighted:
“The demographic situation has implications for public and private
service delivery, with a trend towards service concentration in urban
areas and increasing unit cost of service delivery in areas already
sparsely populated” (p.199).
It is stated that “targeted investment in telecommunications … will also
improve the accessibility of rural areas” (p.201). However, it is not bracketed
within ‘Rural Infrastructure’, which is defined rather as comprising: regional
and local roads, drinking water, and the built environment in rural towns and
villages.
Within the main body of the text of the NDP, broadband itself is only
mentioned in the sub-section concerning Foreign Direct Investment (FDI),
within the ‘Productive Sector Operation Programme’:
“The intention is to encourage developments in E-commerce in
selected regional locations in line with the evolution in site location of
teleservices, software and shared services projects. A key issue being
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
21
addressed in the NDP … is the provision of broadband capability in
regional locations” (p.139).
However, within the Appendix 1 of the NDP (Preparation of the Plan and
Consultation Process), broadband is mentioned on a number of occasions, in
particular under the Employers’ Priorities, Irish Congress of Trade Unions,
with The Farming Group locating broadband firmly within the wider context of
infrastructure provision:
“in the broader context of rural development and the promotion of more
balanced regional development, the Farming Group proposed
investment
in
secondary
and
local
roads,
broadband
telecommunications, water supply and treatment, waste management
and transport” (p.265).
The National Spatial Strategy (NSS) (Department of the Environment and
Local Government 2001)
The NSS comprises an explicit push towards ‘regionalisation’, and subsidiarity
of the regions within an otherwise potentially core-periphery, or top-down,
approach to development, the core being seen (in various commentaries) as
being not only Dublin, but also the South and East (compared with the Border,
Midlands & Western) Region4. Specifically: “the NSS is a 20-year planning
framework designed to achieve a better balance of social, economic, physical
development and population growth between regions” (p.10).
Within the NSS, Gateways and Hubs are designated within newly-ascribed
regions, and are seen as catalysts for economic regeneration at a subregional level. The underpinning rationale is outlined as follows:
“The availability of a critical mass of labour and skills, underpinned by
high-quality business infrastructure, is essential to achieving
competitiveness… Given that resources are not unlimited, attempts to
create the requisite competitiveness on a widely dispersed basis would
undermine Ireland’s capacity to exploit the potential of centres where
critical mass exists or can be promoted. Without having this at the heart
of the NSS, balanced regional development will not succeed” (p.35)
Further, within the NSS, the specific elements “whose assembly at strategic
locations in a targeted way is vital to foster a range of enterprise activity and
employment creation” include, as 8th out of 15 elements “effective
telecommunications, including broadband” (p.35). Further, within the definition
4
These two Regions were framed under the NDP and NSS to link in with the European
Structural Funds. The BMW Region has Objective 1 status for Structural Funds for the full
period to 2006 (the South & East being an Objective 1 Region in Transition, up to the end of
2005).
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
22
of Gateways and Hubs, (p.40), “effective, competitive broadband access” is
listed as one of their characteristics.
Of specific relevance to rural provision, the NSS sets out ‘Rural Area Types
and Policy Responses’ (p.53), with the following table comprising extracts
from this typology:
Rural Area Type & Description
(2) Areas that are changing:
Including many parts of the BMW, where
population & agricultural employment
have started to decline and where
replacement employment is required.
(3) Areas that are weak:
Including more western parts of the
Midlands, certain parts of the Border, and
mainly inland areas in the West, where
population decline has been significant.
(4) Areas that are remote:
Including parts of the west coast and the
islands.
Rural Area Policy Responses
Support communities where the viability
of agriculture is under stress through
promoting diversification in enterprises,
local services and tourism.
Build up rural communities through
spatially
targeted
and
integrated
measures.
Develop new rural tourism resources…
Overcome distance barriers with the
support of technology
It is worth noting that there appears to be a discrepancy, therefore, between
the Policy Response to remote areas (4) cited here, and the overall
prioritisation within the NSS of focusing on those areas of existing critical
mass through a strategy of supporting hubs and gateways.
Broadband telecommunications is discussed as an ‘enabler of economic
activity’, specifically in the context of the opportunities within the knowledge
economy (p.69). It is emphasised, however, that:
“… The provision of low-cost, high quality access to broadband and
similar technologies will be highly influenced in the future by their
combination with other critical elements such as population base,
transport facilities, innovation capacity and quality of life” (p.69).
Further, and of key relevance, since it comprises a major factor in evaluating
the potential roll-out of broadband to rural areas, the NSS states:
“… the provision of broadband telecommunications infrastructure is the
responsibility in the first instance, of the private sector. Any State
involvement in this area is confined to the provision of seed capital”
(p.69).
This further contextualises the Communications Priorities of the Government,
where it is stated that:
“The Government’s programme to address deficiencies in Regional
Broadband networks takes account of … the need for clustering of
potential customers of IT infrastructure to provide a basis on which
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
23
market providers of such infrastructure can respond to demand
resulting from effective spatial policies” (pp.71-72).
Once again, it is interesting to juxtapose the notion of ‘clustering’, alongside
the notion of ‘overcoming distance barriers for remote rural areas’.
“New Connections” – A Government Strategy to realise the potential of
the Information Society. (Department of the Taoiseach 2002)
In the Foreword to this Government publication (March 2002) is the sentence:
“The networking technologies of the Information Society allow new ways of
interacting that challenge the boundaries of what is traditionally possible –
in terms of both time and location”.
Under the Section ‘Telecommunications Infrastructure’, we read that “the
availability of adequate bandwidth and of affordable, always-on access to
advanced telecommunications services is fundamental to … ensuring
balanced regional development” (p.6). A key finding that is highlighted at the
beginning of this Section is from the Working Group on Telecommunications,
who - in assessing the broadband situation in Ireland - concluded that: “the
primary deficit is not at the national or regional level. The key deficit is in
local access broadband networks” (p.6). In ensuring the widespread
availability of ‘open-access, affordable, always-on broadband’, however, it is
emphasised that “The State’s role in this area … is confined to provision of
seed capital” (p.7), since “Government is not in the telecommunications
business” and that “supply will drive demand”. Reference is made to the NDP,
and the Government’s role to address priority areas where the private sector
alone will not deliver, through pump-prime investment and seed capital, with
the involvement of the appropriate local authority as partners being seen as
essential. The rationale behind this is explained as follows:
“The State’s role is to provide seed money. By demonstrating in the
initial intervention that resolving the specific infrastructural deficit
identified will unlock latent commercial and domestic demand for
broadband services, it is envisaged that the strategy will attract
significant private investment in subsequent roll-out phases” (p.8).
The initial intervention is through the pathfinder projects in the 19 towns
identified in the Metropolitan Area Networks under the NDP. Subsequent
Phases “will seek to maximise private sector investment and will be contingent
on successful implementation of Phase 1” (p.9), the intention being to cover
the remainder of the 67 towns identified as priorities, then to cover the 123
towns with a population of over 1500 within five years5. The publication “The
National Development Plan Fibre Optic Metropolitan Area Networks”,
5
At the time of writing, I have heard from a number of sources that the funding available
under the NDP for Phase 1 has been reduced, and that, in addition, subsequent Phases
appear ‘unlikely’. However, I have not, as yet, been able to corroborate this with further
evidence.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
24
Department of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources, comprises
an excellent overview of the MANs and gives schematic diagrams and
technical explanations which set out the key attributes of the proposed
network.
“Future Delivery of Broadband in Ireland” Consultation Document,
ODTR6 [September 2002]. (ODTR 2002)
Firstly, in this Report, the ODTR sets out the difficulties of defining
‘broadband’, and reviews the diversity in international uses of the term. For
the purposes of their paper, however, they define ‘broadband’ as follows:
“… as capacities of 512kbit/s and above, in the portion of a network
that a customer uses to connect to a service provider – i.e. the access
network. However, we regard this as a somewhat arbitrary working
definition, and we recognise that technological and market
developments may require us to revisit this definition in the future. It
should be noted that the definition excludes Basic ISDN connections
(max. speed of 128kbit/s) of which there has been strong growth over
the past 18 months”. (p.15)
It is extremely useful to see a working definition within such a document, and
more so, since the ODTR points out what broadband is not (this point being
followed up in the primary data section concerning interviewees’ own
perceptions of broadband; Section 6.3.3.).
The key features of the Report are (i) an assessment of SME and domestic
demand for broadband, and (ii) cost projections for broadband rollout within
Ireland.
As part of the independent research conducted for the report, over 700 people
in the residential market and 400 SMEs were interviewed to ascertain their
attitudes to the Internet and the provision of high speed, always-on services in
particular. The main findings were that price is one of the key factors in
encouraging broadband adoption amongst residential and SMEs users, with a
broadband package at between €40 - €60 per month would attract a relatively
high percentage of Irish SMEs. For residential users a targeted product
emphasizing broadband’s fast and unmetered nature may gain some appeal,
with €30 - €40 per month likely to represent the upper price range. In addition,
the survey results also point to content as a key factor in determining not only
the interest in getting online but also in staying longer online. (p.8)
The cost projections are summarised within the ODTR Report as follows:
 512Kbit/s is an attainable goal, even up to 85% availability at a total
incremental cost of €450 million.
6
The ODTR (Office of the Director of Telecommunications Regulation) was dissolved after
the Communications Regulations Bill was published [1 st March 2002], and was replaced with
ComReg, the Commission for Communications Regulation.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
25



2Mbit/s is feasible in urban areas (i.e. the Dublin region and larger
towns) however beyond this costs begin to rise quite rapidly with no
apparent economies of scale.
5Mbit/s appears not to be a feasible option at present using current
technologies and means of deployment. However, technological
advances should bring this cost down in time.
Current backbone capacity is broadly sufficient and future investment
should therefore concentrate on bottlenecks closer to the user.
If we focus on the 512kbit/sec as the speed used to define broadband by
ODTR in their Report, the scenario is as follows:
“at the lower levels of service availability, broadband services will
primarily be provided through ADSL and cable technologies in Dublin
and the larger towns. These technologies are assumed to have
relatively lower per user provisioning costs and a high take-up of
services in these areas is assumed. As the level of service availability
increases, FWA and satellite begin to make a larger contribution and
ADSL has to be enabled at smaller, more rural exchanges.” (p.57)
The issue of rural exchanges is particularly pertinent, and is returned to within
the analysis of findings from the interviews, in the final recommendations from
interviewees themselves, and in my reflections at the end of my Report.
Although the term ‘digital divide’ is not used, the ODTR refers to the
‘broadband gap’, stating that:
“The promise of broadband communications can leave those who are
unable to access facilities they require, through high costs or lack of
availability, frustrated and unable to develop their businesses in
directions that they want. For example, ordering and maintaining
leased lines has not been as easy, quick and cheap as many users
would like. This has caused some users to turn to or explore alternative
solutions including those presented by new technologies”. (p.12)
Further, this ‘broadband gap’ emerges because broadband rollout is largely
restricted to price insensitive large companies mainly concentrated in the
major urban centres, for whom broadband is likely to be a crucial input for
their business (p.31). The ODTR then explores how policy-makers in Ireland
have launched several initiatives aimed at both the supply and demand side;
the specifics of these have been outlined elsewhere in this section and will
therefore not be repeated here. However, their summary of demand and
supply is useful:
“Demand-side initiatives concentrate on raising the demand curve by
either highlighting the value of broadband (e.g. through ‘demonstration
projects’, training, more relevant content, etc...), or else lowering the
costs associated with getting online (e.g. subsidizing PCs). The
objective here is to raise end-users’ perceptions of the value of
broadband and hence increase their likeliness to subscribe to
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
26
broadband services as prices begin to fall. In contrast to this, supplyside initiatives concentrate on lowering the ‘Cost of Supply’ curve for
operators. This is usually achieved by providing operators with
subsidies for infrastructural deployment, or alternatively developing
public networks for onward lease to service providers. Both of these
approaches seek to improve the incentives for operators to roll-out
services to areas that they would otherwise not consider it profitable to
do so.” (p.32)
It is interesting to see that a number of these issues are subsequently raised
by interviewees in the primary data collection phase of the research. However,
I feel it is important, in the context of examining urban-rural and intra-rural
digital divides, to maintain some caution before anticipating that such Demand
and Supply initiatives will necessarily incentivise suppliers to roll-out to nonprofitable areas. This observation is based both on the other reports cited
within this sub-section, and on the experiences reported in the interview
findings.
“Building the Knowledge Society” – A Report by the Information Society
Commission7 to the Government, December 2002. (Information Soceity
Commission 2002)
This comprises one of the key documents to emerge, in relation to broadband
provision. Key in both the sense of what is discussed, and more so, in terms
of how it is discussed. These elements are developed below, where I reflect
on the shifts in language over the ten-year time horizon represented by the
timeline (6.1.3.). However, in its assessment of Ireland’s broadband
performance, we read that:
“Given its significance as the underlying information infrastructure,
progress with provision of broadband services in Ireland is a cause for
concern… An OECD study [October 2001] ranked Ireland 27 th of 30
countries in terms of penetration of broadband technologies… The
November 2002 update shows no appreciable improvement, with
Ireland being the worst performing country of the benchmarking group
for broadband take-up… we must recognise that we are 2-3 years
behind leading competitor countries” (p.28).
7
The Information Society Commission was established by the Government in 2002, and
draws on high-level representation from business, the social partners, the Government itself,
and reports directly to the Taoiseach. It will provide independent advice to the Government,
and monitor Ireland’s progress as an Information Society.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
27
The BMW Regional Assembly Call for tenders for Wireless Broadband
Internet Access, January 2003
In January 2003, the call for tenders was issued, with a closing date of 28 th
February 2003 (see Appendix 5). The Regional Assembly received
approximately 19 submissions, some of which represented more than one
rural town. The criteria for eligibility for submission is that the town is not one
of those listed under the 123 towns for Regional Broadband rollout under the
NDP. At the time of writing, the Assembly have short-listed to 9, and are in the
process of awarding 3 towns the opportunity to develop this technology, out of
an approximate 19 applicants. The issue of self-sustainability and commercial
viability within the two-year time-frame appear to be key criteria for selection.
6.1.2 Overall observations
In commenting on the developments summarised in the timeline, I would like
to make three overall observations relating to the thrust and content of
policy evolution.
Firstly, having gone to great effort to deregulate the telecommunications
industry in the late 1990s, the Irish Government is in no hurry to step in once
again, and regulate, or provide financial assistance, which may be interpreted
as distorting the free market. Therefore, within the Government Reports, the
wording is careful in its specification of “seed money only”, in order to
“address market failure”.
Secondly, the drivers for increasing demand for broadband, both at a national
level, but specifically within the regions, are: (i) e-government, and (ii) the
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) of the Regional Broadband Programme.
The Government has set out specific e-government targets for 2005 (see
(Department of the Taoiseach 2002) “New Connections” Section 3), and
anticipates that as e-citizenship becomes more the norm, the realities and
benefits of interacting online will be increasingly realised, and this will in turn
lead to a demand for higher speed internet-based services. The MANs are
being rolled out to 19 towns, and it expected that networks emanating from
these fibre optic rings will enable the high-speed link up of a greater
proportion of the regional population, even stretching to what some may term
as rural, although still within 3.5km of an enabled exchange.
The third observation which can be made from reading the policy documents,
is that the “last mile” is not addressed. This links in part to the previous point
concerning MANs; there appears to be an assumption of a trickle-down effect
from the fibre-optic rings, through suitably modified exchanges, to all those
who need to avail themselves of high-speed broadband technology. However,
it is not possible to envisage how, in practical terms, this last mile is
realistically being addressed within the strategic documents currently within
the public domain.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
28
6.1.3 Shifts in language and terminology
Finally, with reference to the timeline of policy developments, I would argue
that there are two significant shifts in language, and therefore possibly in
conceptualisation. These are seen most starkly in the Information Society
Commission’s publication (December 2002) “Building the Knowledge Society”.
Prior to the publication of this document, broadband (not
telecommunications) was described as relating most closely to eBusiness
(particularly FDI) and to eGovernment (where mentioned). It was not explicitly
described as being a component of ‘infrastructure’ – that is, alongside other
facets of infrastructure such as roads, railways, electricity, water, buildings,
and regional airports. However, we see a different wording in December 2002,
as follows:
“Broadband is the enabling infrastructure … The importance of
broadband investment to the knowledge society will be no less
significant than that of electricity to 20th century industrial development.
Broadband investment must therefore be guided by a clear sense of its
importance as a key 21st century infrastructure…” (p. 41; emphasis
added).
The implications for this may be many, in that one could then call into question
issues such as “Public Service Obligation” (PSO), or “Universal Service
Obligation” (USO)8, in terms of the citizen’s ‘right’ to such infrastructure. In
addition, it could move broadband closer to the centre of the debate, rather
than being seen as a specific, yet still optional facet.
A second shift in language concerns the extent to which broadband is seen as
essential to the future of regional development within Ireland. Prior to
December 2002, there was no explicit mention of broadband as an imperative,
a precondition, but rather it appears to be described as a feature which will
enable some sectors of the economy to take steps forward within competitive
international and national arenas. However, in December 2002, we read:
“Broadband investment is a key determinant of future socio-economic
development, both nationally & regionally…” (p. 41; emphasis added)
Thus, broadband has moved from being an ‘enabler’ to being a ‘determinant’.
This appears to be the first time that such strong, direct language is used, and
also from which the corollary can be drawn, that without such broadband
investment, socio-economic development, both nationally and regionally, will
not take place.
8
Directive 2002/22/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 March 2002 on universal
service and users’ rights relating to electronic communications networks and services (Universal Service
Directive) defines a universal service as “a defined minimum set of services of specified quality which is
available to all users independent of their geographical location and in the light of specific national
conditions, at an affordable price”. Article 4(2) stipulates that functional Internet access is to be provided
universally in each member state – ‘data communications, at data rates that are sufficient to permit
functional Internet access, taking into account prevailing technologies used by the majority of
subscribers and technological feasibility.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
29
6.1.4 Further reports and initiatives
Alongside the policy developments presented on the timeline, there are other
reports and initiatives which need to be highlighted briefly. Organisations
providing not only commentary, but – to varying degrees – lobbying, on
matters of telecommunications infrastructure, are: IBEC North West (Irish
Business & Employers’ Confederation), the IDA (Investment & Development
Agency), Enterprise Ireland, and the Western Development Commission.
Their publications which are in the public domain provide a complementary
perspective to those outlined above.
Enterprise Ireland has produced a number of handbooks and guidelines for
their client base, including: “Competitive Advantage through IT and
eBusiness: a handbook for Irish Managers” (2002), “eBusiness is here and
now. Open up to it” (2000), and “ITS2007 – Opportunities for Ireland’s HighTechnology Internationally Traded Services (ITS) Sector to 2007” (2000)
(Enterprise Ireland 2000; Enterprise Ireland 2000; Enterprise Ireland 2002).
Their emphasis, as suggested by the titles, is that eBusiness is the future, and
that there is a need to be fully conversant with it as a way of working now, in
order to remain competitive, locally, regionally and nationally.
IBEC North West, similarly, and most specifically through an organization
within its remit, TUG (Telecommunications User Group), also recognizes the
variety of uses and needs for ICT within its client base, and regularly
examines the requirement for high-speed telecoms infrastructure within the
NW. In their overall “Statement of Strategy 2002-2005” (IBEC 2002), they
focus on what they term “The Big Eight” policy priorities, which include highspeed ICTs. Further, in their Spring 2003 Business Focus North West News,
the following statement is made:
“The reality is that a ‘Digital Divide’ now exists between companies
based in Dublin and those based in the regions in locations such as
Letterkenny, Sligo and Carrick-on-Shannon. Higher costs, poorer
quality inferior service and lack of infrastructure are emerging as major
issues for business. Companies in the NW region now need to
maximize the use of available technology, R&D and highly trained staff
to sustain competitive advantage. World class telecommunications
infrastructure is essential if we are ever to achieve balanced regional
development” ((IBEC 2003) p.7)
The Western Development Commission (WDC) has published two key
reports, the first of which “The State of the West” (July 2001) includes a
section on telecommunications, and the second is an “Update on
Telecommunications within the Western Region” (December 2002) (Western
Development Commission 2001; Western Development Commission 2002). In
reading these documents, I found them to be the only ones which (i) gave a
full explanation of broadband technology, ranging from layman’s terms
through to technical specifications, and (ii) gave an opinion on the state of
provision in the west per se, and vis-à-vis the provision levels in other parts of
the country. The refreshing directness of their style meant that it was possible
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
30
to appreciate the ‘true picture’ of provision in the Western Region9 , as
compared with the often rhetoric-bound publications from other sources. I
would like to source a number of key comments from both reports.
Firstly, in “The State of the West”, the following contextual statement is made:
“As the deregulation process is evolving, rollout is proceeding in areas
with high-density business and residential usage. It is the free market
that is largely determining supply and provision. If free market
principles continue to determine rollout, then much of the Western
Region will have extremely limited provision and capacity. This will
hamper efforts at enticing new investment into the region, as well as
limiting the development of existing business … (and) further widening
the digital divide.” (p.xiv).
In contrast with ODTR (2002), the WDC define broadband as at least
2Mbit/sec, and argue that access for SME and residential users to broadband
is believed to be about two years behind best practice in the US and EU (p.
102 & p.103). Further, the weaknesses of the broadband backbone network
are described as “primarily insufficient bandwidth but also lack of competition
and higher cost in the west and northwest”, and these are limiting the
possibilities for investment (p.106). In their conclusions, they highlight nine
key points (p.114), one of which is of particular interest to my investigation of
broadband for remote rural areas: “Another appropriate technology for more
remote areas is Wireless Local Loop (WLL). Again, the planned development
of WLL has been restricted due to the closure of Formus” (p.114).
The “Update on Telecommunications in the Western Region” (December
2002), builds on the previous observations, and argues (similar to the
terminology used in “Building the Knowledge Society” [Dec 2002]) that:
“the availability of quality telecommunications infrastructure and
services at a competitive price is as crucial to regional development
today as rural electrification was in the 1940s and 1950s” (p.5).
Further, that access to, cost and quality of services in Ireland is very much
related to location “suggesting an emerging ‘digital divide’ or ‘broadband gap’”
(p.5). In concluding their commentary on the rollout of telecommunications
services, the authors state that:
“… the delivery of broadband services is not dependent on public
expenditure and most of the finance would be expected to come from
the private sector. Nonetheless … the rollout of broadband services to
the more sparsely populated areas of the Western Region is likely to be
unattractive in purely commercial terms to the private sector” (p.24).
9
For the WDC the Western Region comprises the seven western counties of Donegal, Sligo,
Leitrim, Roscommon, Mayo, Galway and Clare.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
31
In concluding their telecommunications report, the WDC make 16 Key
Recommendations, four of which are of direct relevance to my research and
are thus cited (pp.39-40):
1
5
6
14
Many parts of the Western Region do not have access to broadband services. In a
knowledge-based economy, quality broadband infrastructure is a necessity, and
without it growth and competitiveness will be constrained. Telecoms infrastructure
policy for the Western Region should be based on an acceptance that infrastructure
there must be at least on a par with other regions.
In areas with dispersed population, such as the Western Region, it is important to
maximize the rollout of services based on wireless and satellite technologies. Public
investment is essential to offset market failure… Funding should be increased
significantly and every effort made to secure the involvement of commercial providers.
In the Western Region, the higher cost of broadband connectivity is a major issue and
a disincentive to investment. The pricing structure for leased lines should be reviewed
by ComReg…
In the context of the Government’s commitment to the widespread availability of
broadband services, consideration should be given to extending the minimum
requirement of the Universal Service Obligation to include basic broadband…
WDC Key Recommendations (Dec 2002)
Finally, in this Section, in addition to the above publications, there are the
strategic documents produced at local county level, for example (from within
the Region I have been studying), Leitrim County Council has produced its
“Social, Economic and Cultural Strategy for County Leitrim 2002-2012: A
shared vision” (Leitrim County Development Board 2002). Within this
Telecommunications Infrastructure Section of the Strategy, the following Aim
is outlined:
“To ensure that there is a comparable telecommunications
infrastructure available in terms of cost, quality and access in Leitrim
and the North West to that available along the East Coast, to meet the
needs of potential investors, large commercial users, educational
users, business parks, SMEs and residential users” (p.30).
Their objectives include: to increase access to bandwidth across the County,
and to ensure the rollout of Wireless Local Loop which is considered
appropriate for remote areas. Within their ‘Actions’, they plan to establish a
Telecommunications Forum within Leitrim “to act as a co-ordinated voice for
promoting better infrastructure” (p.30). Significantly, they also plan to Action
highlighting to central government that:
“continued deregulation and free market principles in the area of
telecommunications will work to the disadvantage of more rural areas
such as Leitrim” (p.30).
In their Section on Enterprise Development (p.38), the objective of Leitrim
County Council is “to promote a greater awareness of the importance of
telecommunications to developing enterprise in Leitrim”, with two specific
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
32
Actions of importance to my research: (i) to facilitate wireless broadband
adoption through flexibility in the planning process; and (ii) to provide an
annual two-day induction course for planners and development staff on
telecommunications which would explain the area and highlight its
importance. This latter Action is one which is reflected in the
recommendations from interviewees (see Section 6.3.6. of this Report).
6.1.5 Some recent events
Finally, since the relative prioritisation of broadband, and events surrounding
its roll-out and application, comprise an evolving context, I would like to
highlight the events that took place, or were reported, even within the short
time-period during which I was researching in Ireland. I summary, these were
as follows:
 April 19th 03: internet into every class – tax to fund this.
 April 23rd 03: Launch of rollout of new €11.4M BB network in Midlands.
 May 8th 2003 “NTR takes 3M Euro stake in broadband telco”: Irish
Broadband - Dublin
 May 9th 03: Bid to boost rural internet access (Government & ESB):
“the government & ESB will jointly fund a pilot project in a bid to bring
BB into homes in rural peripheral areas”
We can see from these headline events alone, that the profile of broadband is
being maintained within the national press.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
33
6.2 A picture of telecommunications infrastructure provision
In addition to gaining information and understanding from government and
non-government publications, the desk-based part of my study also involved
accessing both Eircom’s and Esat BT’s high-speed telecommunications
infrastructure maps, on order to contextualise further the policies and
initiatives outlined above.
I also used primary data to increase my understanding from the telcos’
perspective, and since the interviews were carried out in confidence, I can
only release comments in the most general of terms, and pull together those
threads which are already likely to be in the public domain and therefore do
not breach any confidences. What is useful, however, is the juxtaposition of
these alongside the reports such as those from the Western Development
Commission and others.
Firstly, the two maps that are available are as follows:
Source: “Update on Telecommunications in the Western Region”,
WDC Dec 2002
Figure 3: Eircom’s Fibre Backbone Network (Source: (Western Development Commission
2002).
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
34
Figure 4: EsatBt National DSL Network (Source: EsatBT, May 2003, pers comm)
These two maps illustrate the backbone network provided by Eircom and
EsatBT, and further show the capability of those networks for high-speed rollout to, and within, the regions.
Additional commentary from the interviews appears to show that there is not a
digital divide within Ireland, and specifically not in terms of an east-west
divide. Although initial targets for high-speed rollout may be where the
population density is highest, and therefore the potential number of users is
greatest, there are further plans to rollout such infrastructure in the medium
term. Within the North West, there is an excellent backbone network, and
local access fibre rings, and thus there is no shortage of bandwidth capacity.
Thus, it cannot be said that an absence of a network would be the reason for
companies not investing in the region. Where there is demand for high speed
connectivity, it can be provided for.
Further, it is important to realise that in some areas, and for some sectors,
demand is only ‘reasonable’. It is felt that the recent reduction in costs for
broadband (May 2003), and the range of options now available for accessing
different speed of broadband provision (see www.irelandoffline.org for
excellent, up-to-date information on these options), will trigger an increase in
demand.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
35
When raising the issue of provision to remote rural areas, however, there is a
little variation between interviewees, one pointing out that “because the cost of
rolling out the networks is so huge, land-line broadband is never going to get
to the remote rural areas”. In the context of alternative technologies for such
harder-to-reach areas (and particularly fixed wireless broadband), the
impression gained from the interviews with telcos is that this option will be ‘left
open’, once initial demand has been met, primarily through DSL provision,
since provision, overall, is driven by customer demand. However, security
issues associated with wireless-based provision are highlighted, particularly
for the business sector.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
36
6.3
Voices from the North West
In addition to the overall research objectives, an additional objective of
collecting data in the north west region, and specifically in Counties Sligo and
Leitrim, was to generate findings that could be viewed alongside the policies,
programmes, and rhetoric that has been outlined in the previous two subsections (6.1. & 6.2.) – hence the mention of ‘rhetoric or reality?’ within the
introductory section. Although it is not my aim to juxtapose findings from
secondary and primary data one-by-one alongside one another, the thrust of
the policy and telecoms section leaves one with an impression of momentum
and moving forward in high-speed telecoms infrastructure provision. It is
important, now, to examine the extent to which this is the reality for those
living and working within the case study counties.
As stated in the methodology section of the report (pp.14-18), a number of
sectors, or those who could ‘speak for’ the sectors, were approached for
interview. In total, 25 interviews were carried out, and these interviews ranged
from 45 minutes to 2-3 hours, depending on the time the interviewee wished
to take to discuss the four main issues:
(1) Personal background, roles, description of Sligo & Leitrim
Counties.
(2) Setting the scene: digital divides in Ireland?
(3) Current use of Information & Communication Technologies
(ICTs)?
(4) Broadband:
understandings,
preparedness,
awareness
amongst rural population, businesses, other sectors, likely
use; future issues.
The final question developed, after the first interviews, into a discussion of
what would happen if the rural north-west, and specifically rural Sligo and
Leitrim, did not get broadband, rather than a focus on what broadband would
enable individuals and businesses to do and how they might benefit. That is,
the scenario was turned on its head by interviewees, and in fact presented a
far more stark, and richer, scenario than the discussion solely of the positive
enabling of broadband would have otherwise done. For interviewees, this then
naturally brought into focus the questions: ‘what next?’, ‘what needs to be
done?’ and these two additional facets are also presented below.
In the presentation of the data below, quotations are used to illustrate some of
the points made by interviewees; these are intended to throw light on the
sentiments behind their comments, and to give examples which may provide
further depth.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
37
6.3.1 Describe Leitrim and Sligo Counties to me
Interviewees, having described themselves, their organisation (where
applicable), and their role(s) within it, were then asked to describe the
Counties of Leitrim and Sligo to me, as an outsider. Some asked for further
clarification – that is, did I mean in terms of telecommunications infrastructure,
as a tourist, did I want them to ‘promote’ the area to me, and/or to ‘tell it like it
is?’ Given this wealth of options, I asked the interviewee to choose, and I
would then pursue the other options they did not start with. The summary
below is of necessity a synthesis, since the descriptions could be voluminous,
both positive and negative.
A first comment which I found to be particularly pertinent is that these
counties, and the north-west in particular, were described as the “Windowsill
of Europe” – the periphery of the periphery. I heard this first from one source
(IBEC 2003), and then - although not the windowsill analogy – others did
develop the periphery of the periphery. I was told that here, not only are you
on the periphery of Ireland, but even more critical, on the periphery of Europe.
Further, that Ireland is physically detached from Europe, and it requires
crossing the sea to reach the European Continent. Although the UK could be
described by some as being in a similar situation, the existence of the
Channel Tunnel as a land-link was highlighted as making Ireland distinct in its
geographical isolation.
Its physical peripherality was felt to be further reflected in its ‘infrastructure
deficit’ – a term used quite widely amongst interviewees. This was felt to be
the case particularly when considering roads, and regional airports10:
“We’re effectively second-class citizens; that’s why we
have Objective 1 status. We’re going to be in catch-up
mode for some time”
The reasons why this deficit is felt to be significant is that it re-emphasises the
peripherality, both for those wishing to travel east, and for those wishing to
travel to the west, or re-locate to the west. The perception of difficulties of
access, of hours taken to drive on poor quality roads, are felt by those in the
region to be facets which detract from its ability to attract, and retain, a
workforce and therefore, in turn, a rural population.
A number of interviewees described County Leitrim in particular as being poor
in terms of its infrastructure, and that this is both a cause and effect of its rural
depopulation and relative poverty (relative to other Counties). Further, it was
described to me as “the forgotten county” in terms of infrastructural and other
investment. Indeed, surprise, and delight, was expressed at a study which
actually gave some focus to County Leitrim, since apparently when ‘the north
west’ is considered, Counties Sligo and Donegal receive priority attention, with
10
The regional airport at Sligo was only re-opened again in early 2003, and its temporary loss
was a key issue in terms of linking it to Dublin and to onward international flights.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
38
Leitrim being passed over. A feature perhaps unique to County Leitrim is its
physical spread, and the fact that there are loughs through the middle of the
County, so it is not possible to drive from north to south and remain in the
County (one has to drive through neighbouring County Roscommon). This
generates potential for a divide within the County, both in terms of a distinct
north-south identity and sense of place and also in terms of an overall
strategic perspective on investments and its future as a coherent county unit.
Focusing further on the sense of peripherality, there are two further facets that
were highlighted to me, both as stand-alone, and in terms of their impact on
potential for development in the north-west. Firstly, that people here are:
“People here are easy-going; they don’t necessarily
make the first move… ”
Although this is indeed one of the reasons why people are apparently relocating to the west of the country, to escape the high-pressure world of the
bigger cities and of the east of the country, it is also perceived as a
characteristic which may be to the detriment of forward-thinking, strategic
developments, particularly in the SME sector, and that this is – in turn –
particularly significant when one is focusing on telecommunications as a
medium of the future.
Secondly, it is felt that, in the west, there is a:
“Lack of ‘circulation’ with the bigger players… there is
networking at the core, but not here…”.
There is a perception that, in Dublin, and in the larger cities of the South and
East, there is the opportunity for networking with the Managing Directors and
CEOs of the larger multinationals, such as Hewlett Pacard, Dell, and so on.
That the ‘buzz’ which develops around such formal and informal networking
leads to discussion and generation of ideas and options, and also generates
an atmosphere of greater risk-taking and vision. Interviewees state that such
networking does not take place in the north-west, and particularly in the two
Counties of Sligo and Leitrim, and this is to the ongoing detriment of future
developments, particularly in businesses, and again, particularly in the fastmoving world of information brokerage, and telecommunications. Once again,
this is felt to be both a consequence, and cause, of the region’s peripherality.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
39
6.3.2 To what extent is there a ‘digital divide’ in Ireland?
Whilst I was carrying out interviews in the north-west of Ireland, the Sligo
Weekender carried the following headline:
Tuesday, April 22, 2003
‘Digital divide’ is holding back West
A ‘digital divide’ exists between the east
and west of the country and is affecting
development here, it has been claimed.
Independent Sligo/Leitrim TD Marian
Harkin
This provided me, as a researcher, with some ‘evidence’ from one source,
which I subsequently followed up. However, it did not prejudice the way I still
asked the question, such that interviewees could feel free to point out that
there was no digital divide, if that was their perception.
Amongst those interviewed, however, there is a consensus that there is a
digital divide, and that this can be both described, and experienced, at three
levels: national, within the region, and within the debate over ‘broadband as
infrastructure’. These findings are now presented.
At national level, the digital divides which appear to exist, and indeed are
experienced by those in the north-west, are “East-West” and “Dublin and the
rest”. When asked for specifics, interviewees talk of infrastructural investment,
particularly in high-speed telecoms, how there are multiple providers within
the M50 ring (the ‘ring-road around Dublin) which drive down prices due to
competition, but how – due to low critical mass – such competition, and
therefore fair pricing, are unlikely ever to reach the outlying regions. Mention
is made of the Celtic Tiger, and its impact on the South & East Region, and
how at least the downturn now being experience post-Celtic Tiger is not being
experienced in the NW, since the boom never reached out as far as the NW
itself. However, there is a sense that there is ‘no question’ that such a divide
exists. Such a view is further underpinned by an initiative such as the Digital
Hub, which has been located in Dublin, and the views reported by some in the
NW are that, if telecommunications purports to be ‘location-independent’,
indeed, ‘location-free’, then why create a hub in Dublin – why not in one of the
outlying regions? Its location in Dublin is felt to be a further demonstration of a
digital divide. As one interviewee expressed:
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
40
“we feel a frustration & humiliation of being in a location
where we are hampered.”
The only exception to this overall view is from the telcos, reported in the
previous section, who state that the backbone network, and the forthcoming
MANs, demonstrate the regionality of telecoms provision, and that no such
east-west divide exists.
Within the region, interviewees give a mixed response to National Spatial
Strategy with its selection of ‘Gateways’ and ‘Hubs’, with the associated
presumption that benefits from such a devolved approach will automatically
trickle down. This is felt to be further exacerbated, potentially, by the MANs,
which will focus on making provision for ‘metropolitan’ areas, causing outlying
areas to be further marginalised. There is a sense that these strategies,
although intending to redress core-periphery realities, will, in fact, lead to intraregional digital divides, since non-provided-for zones and areas (for examples,
beyond the 3.5 or 5km limit from upgraded exchanges) will be further ‘hidden’
in the interstices.
Further, a key argument relating to provision of high-speed
telecommunications infrastructure is always the existence of ‘critical mass’ –
that is, sufficient numbers of potential customers to justify commercial
investment which has been based on likely demand for that service. A critique
relating to the concept of gateways, hubs, and MANs is that they will lead to:
“sucking all the enterprise into metropolitan areas – I
thought this was something they weren’t wanting to do”
and that entrepreneurship outside of these pre-designated zones, will be, by
default, disadvantaged. Linked with this is the very real sense from many
interviewees, that if you live and/or work at a distance of 5km or more (indeed,
sometimes less) from a modified exchange that can ‘carry’ ADSL 11, then you
will not be able to receive broadband, and are unlikely to in the next 10-12
years, unless you have access to sufficient resources to fund your own leased
line, one or two-way satellite, or unlicensed fixed wireless broadband facility.
There are examples, more than anecdotal, of a new purpose-built business
park having no high-speed telecommunications provision within County Sligo,
and of other examples where there is an identified demand, but SMEs and
micro-businesses (1-9 persons) remain disadvantaged, and to avail of such
technological provision, they should move to centres where there is provision.
A further facet of life outside the networks and upgraded exchanges is that,
even if provision were to become possible over greater distances in theory,
the quality of the copper wires is not sufficient for running a high-speed
service.
11
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
41
An allusion was made on a number of occasions by interviewees, to the city of
Birmingham, and Greater Birmingham (or the West Midlands), in terms of its
population size and density, and therefore the ease with which such a
population will be recipients of broadband investment. On further investigation
of this argument, it appears that the population of the Republic of Ireland is
approximately 3.9 million; and that the population of Birmingham/West
Midlands is in the region of 1.5 million through to 5 million respectively (based
on the most recent Census statistics). Thus, it is then argued, that in Ireland, a
comparative ‘critical mass’ inherently does not exist for the telcos. Further, the
population is dispersed, so even if you could put an argument for critical mass
(given declining costs in infrastructure provision, for example), then the
geographical spread of the population precludes commercially-sound
investment. In the context of a deregulated telecommunications industry, it is
felt that Ireland, therefore, and most particularly north-west rural Ireland, is
going to remain disadvantaged unless government steps in to address ‘market
failure’.
Finally, within this section on a digital divide within Ireland, an issue was
raised by interviewees which also came to light in the desk-based study of
Irish policy, statements and initiatives. Broadband as infrastructure, and
more than that, as essential infrastructure, was emphasised on a number of
occasions. Terms that were used in connection with the lack of broadband
infrastructure included (those that can be repeated here): frustration, personal
affront, anger, and injustice. Further, broadband is seen as a ‘basic utility’ and
thus who are not provided for in the NW are being disadvantaged now, with
direct implications for the future; specifically:
“telecoms are just as important as roads, rail, airports,
skills availability…”
From the interviewees’ perspective, this raises the issue, therefore, (as
highlighted in the policy section of the report), of increasing degrees of
expectation and of ‘rights’ for citizens in relation to telecommunications (data)
infrastructure, in the same way that it does for roads, railways, voice
telephony, and electricity provision.
6.3.3 Understanding of “broadband”?
Before discussing with interviewees the extent to which broadband is needed
within the region, it was important to gain a picture of the range of
understandings of ‘broadband’ that existed amongst the interviewees, and
how this may impact on the recommendations subsequently given by those
interviewees
themselves
concerning
the
future
of
high-speed
telecommunications infrastructure.
Firstly, as one interviewee expressed succinctly, but with a view similarly
articulated by a number of interviewees:
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
42
“Broadband has become a generic term for computermediated communications”
There is confusion over what broadband actually is, and can do, and it is now
being used, often inaccurately, as the term that equates with e-communication
of any form.
When focusing on SMEs and micro-business, and their evaluation of
broadband as an option, a number of interviewees pointed out that there is
often no technical specialist within the business who has sufficient knowledge
or confidence in making IT-related decisions. Confusion as to the speed of
broadband, being able to use the telephone at the same time as surfing the
internet, and concerns over escalating (rather than fixed) costs because you
are “always-on”, are outlined as facets of misunderstanding. Often such
business people are over-committed, however, and it is impossible for them to
find the time to become more familiar with broadband as an option. Thus, as
one interviewee stated: “people want broadband so that they feel they’re part
of the technical age. They don’t necessarily know what it is, or why they’ve got
it”.
Secondly, when definitions are put forward, they focus primarily on speed, and
do not focus on the “always-on” aspect. Within speed definitions, there is
variation, and the reasons for this are explored more within the following
section concerning whether there is felt to be a need for broadband at local,
rural level. The range of perceptions of broadband are from: ISDN at 128 kbps
(approximately twice the speed of a dial-up modem), through 512kbps –
considered by some interviewees to be “a good offering for rural users” - to a
firm definition of broadband being at least 2 Mbits/sec. These definitions are
spread throughout the interview sample, the only ‘outlier’ being those SMEs
who regularly use, and need to use, high bandwidth to send and receive large
data files; those who are experiencing this need for high-speed electronic data
transfer talk of “512kbps being a joke” and their need is for at least 2Mbps.
These specific requirements, however, represent a minority of responses,
since the majority remain relatively uninformed as to precise speeds, and
added value or additional capability of broadband over narrowband
telecommunications.
6.3.4 Do Leitrim and Sligo Counties need broadband?
As with the findings relating to ICT usage outlined above, a key objective was
not to presume a need for broadband within the rural northwest; rather, to
investigate the extent of that need, and the reasons for its presence or
absence. I have subdivided interviewees’ responses into three categories,
since, as the findings began to accumulate, it was possible to see these three
levels of response clearly emerging. Respondents could think in terms of their
own locale, and in addition, there are those who are engaging in
telecommunications debates at a regional level, with a small number at
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
43
national and or international level, who could give additional insights into how
the Counties of Sligo and Leitrim need broadband, both now and in the future.
Local level:
The views expressed by interviewees can be further sub-divided into negative
and positive – that is, those who feel there is no need for broadband, and
those who feel that broadband is essential to the future survival of local areas.
These two types of responses are summarised in the following quotation
boxes:
Negative local views
× “BB’s not for everyone… Some say ‘if you can’t deal
locally, you can’t deal…’ ”
× “It’s about where you have come from/what you are
used to”. “If we can get it a little better, that’d be
grand!”
× “BB isn’t going to make or break SMEs; it depends
on how innovative they are…”
The first quote highlights the diversity within the SME and micro-business
sector within the Counties. Local businesses, whose client base and suppliers
are also located within the geographical vicinity, do not see the need to trade,
or be supplied, from further afield, and thus the internet, and particularly highspeed internet access, is not important for them.
Secondly, a point which relates also to speed of internet access (see previous
section on understandings of broadband) concerns people’s expectations of
broadband. Interviewees explained to me that where people want to go, and
what they think they are entitled to, in terms of high-speed infrastructural
provision, is directly related to where they have come from. The trajectory
along which people have moved determines their perceptions of what they
now require. Thus, if rural dwellers and SMEs have moved to 56kbps from
fax, regular mail and phone, then this is a great step up. And the expectation,
therefore, is that if they can move on up to 128kbps, then this is even better. It
is not necessarily linked therefore, with a lack of ‘need’ (see below), but is
based on previous and current experience. Thus, there may be a satisfaction
with an ISDN line simply because it is so much better than a dial-up modem,
and is therefore considered to be ‘high-speed’ and even ‘broadband’.
The third quotation raises the point that the presence or absence of
broadband is not going to determine the success or failure of an SME.
Interviewees gave me examples of adaptability of SMEs, when one of their
outlets collapsed, or a sector downsized, and in order to survive, they had to
think laterally and creatively. Without those skills and characteristics, the
possession of a high-speed internet link is not, on its own, going to ensure
success in a rapidly evolving industry-base, where the shift appears to be
from traditional low added-value products and processes, to higher addedNIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
44
value, knowledge-based products and services. It is one component, but more
significant is the vision, risk-taking and adaptability of the SMEs and
microbusinesses themselves.
Positive local views

“Lack of need is because
knowledge”

of
lack
of
“A lot of people don’t know what they’re
missing, so how can they miss it? Because they’ve
never seen BB, it doesn’t exist…There are many
businesses that would benefit”
The above two quotes are interlinked, and reflect views raised by the majority
of interviewees. In summary, it is stated that there appears to be a lack of
need because there is a lack of knowledge concerning what is missing. There
has been no, or extremely limited, opportunity, for domestic users, SMEs, and
microbusinesses, to see, first-hand, how broadband ‘works’ and how it could
be of benefit to them as potential users. In addition, because of this, there can
be no hands-on experimentation, and therefore, in turn, no exploration of
specific applications that could be adapted or created through a broadband
facility. As one interviewee expressed:
“broadband is meant to be an open structure for people
to dream up all sorts of concepts and applications – it
should be an enabler, not a restrictor”
However, there has been, to date, little or no opportunity for such dreaming of
broadband-enabled concepts and applications, and, according to the majority
of interviewees, this means that potential users ‘do not know what they are
missing’. The corollary that can be inferred is that if people could see how
broadband could enable them, what its affordance might be, then there would
be an articulated need; however, interviewees feel that this need remains, and
will remain, ‘latent’ rather than ‘articulated’.
There are moves at local level to assess awareness and demand, one such
example being “The KiltyCashel Post” (Cross-Border Project), in their April
2003 Newsletter, in which they have inserted a ‘Telecommunications
Questionnaire”. The introduction to the questionnaire is as follows:
“We want to find out if you would be interested in getting improved
telecommunications services into this area and into your homes. This
improved service is called “Broadband”, which gives you connection to
the internet that is ‘always on’. At a minimum, it is up to 10 times faster
than a 56k modem dial-up. Broadband also allows you to use the
telephone at the same time as surfing. Although you are constantly
connected to the Internet, you only pay a flat monthly fee”.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
45
The aim of the organizers is to gather names and addresses of those
interested and then approach a telco, such as Eircom, BT or EsatBT, to
provide for their area.
Further, bodies representing local microbusinesses and SMEs within the two
Counties state that there is a huge demand for IT training, and for knowing
more about internet applications for business, particularly within the sectors of
manufacturing and internationally traded services, and tourism - especially
those with an international visitor dimension. Within the microbusiness sector,
training is also being provided for the long-term unemployed and for women
returners to the workforce – both of whom have low IT usage and are ‘not
accustomed to the technology’. However, demand for these skills, and for
understanding the potential of ICT, is high, and an ongoing local need has
been identified by those providing the support and training.
Remaining at local level, as part of the primary data collection process, and
directly through snowballing of the interview sample, I was pointed in the
direction of a rural town in County Leitrim, within which a group of locals have
voiced their need for broadband, culminating in a bid (through a consultant) to
the BMW Regional Assembly Broadband Wireless Internet Access fund; they
also plan to bid for cross-border funds (under the Peace2 initiative). The
following figure is taken from their website, and illustrates their geographical
location as being close to Carrick-on-Shannon (a County Town within the
Border Region of the National Spatial Strategy), but not on the list of the 123
towns selected for the Regional Broadband Programme of MANs.
Figure 5: The town of Ballinamore, with exerts from their website.
Within the town of Ballinamore, there are approximately 50 small businesses,
90% of which access the web through normal telephone line at 56kbps (dialNIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
46
up) and 10% through ISDN (128 kbps, also dial-up). The range of businesses
within the town can be listed as follows, together with a summary of their
usage of the internet:










Gift shop – ordering & selling
Flower shop – ordering
Stocks & shares - trading
Cakes business - ordering
Local property auctioneer (30-40 email enquiries/week); update WWW
Guest houses, hotels - bookings
Canal holidays (international) – parent company
Supermarket - restocking
Paint factory - ordering
Domestic – children at exam time; information search
The reason that people within the town of Ballinamore bid for the BMW fund,
and may well bid for other funds, is summarised in the following quote that
represented a consensus around the table of interviewees:
“We need to use high-speed telecoms to build business
and attract replacement businesses to town”
There is a need to replace those traditional industries now in decline and/or
which have ceased to operate, and to encourage new businesses to choose
to locate in Ballinamore, rather than in other rural towns, such as Carrick-onShannon. Broadband is described as the ‘enabling infrastructure’ which will
allow such a plan to be realised, and it is to this end that its installation is
being called for within the rural town. As part of their submission, those
leading the campaign for rural broadband for the town collected 75 signatures
from those small businesses who would be willing to sign up for broadband,
should it be made available within the town.
It is worth noting, in terms of reflecting on the level of articulated need for
broadband within the NW region, that Ballinamore was one of 19 submissions
to the BMW Regional Assembly Call, therefore demonstrating the level of
interest generated in rural areas by this Call. Eligibility for the Call comprised
those towns which are outside the 123 towns identified within the MAN
network, and therefore typically of small population size within a rural area.
Thus, Ballinamore is not an exceptional example of a rural need for
broadband, but is part of a potential groundswell of demand.
Regional level:
When responding to a question over the level of need for broadband at a
regional level, there was no such disparity of views as outlined for local level,
the following two quotes being illustrative:
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
47


“There is a need, to attract in-migrants (returners)
& Foreign Direct Investment (FDI)”.
“People in the W have made it clear that they want
the same access at same price as in the E –
standards that are prevailing nationally”.
Interviewees are conversant with the argument that many of those returners to
the area who are making specific location decisions, and who want also to
work from home, or have the capacity to do so, will be looking at speed of
telecommunications infrastructure as one of their decision criteria, particularly
if they are returning from the city or abroad, where their access to such
infrastructure is likely to have been high. Secondly, as can be seen below in
terms of a future scenario without broadband, FDI has high-speed
telecommunications infrastructure demands, which well outstrip the typical
demands of the indigenous SMEs, and therefore, at a regional level,
broadband is a necessity of location decisions are to favour investment in this
region rather than the relatively advantaged (in telecoms terms) South and
East.
Further, it is felt by a number of interviewees that those engaging in debate at
a regional level are aware of the disparities alluded to and described as part of
an east-west digital divide, and that there is a rising associated demand for ‘a
level playing-field’, if the vision of documents such as the National Spatial
Strategy is to be realised within its timeframe.
National/international level:
As with responses from interviewees concerning the regional level, views are
consistent concerning the absolute need for fully rolled-out broadband across
the regions, if Ireland is to continue competing on the international forum.
Three specific points are raised in this regard. Firstly, that Ireland is now, and
will continue to do more so in the near future, competing with the accession
countries (or ‘EU Applicants’) which will begin to join the EU in 2004. There
are rumours, for example, that every house in Bulgaria will have 5Mbps within
two years – such a scenario puts the level of provision, particularly in sparsely
populated rural areas, into a different perspective, and raises the debate over
the feasibility of competition if such differential provision is to exist.
Secondly, on the international level, it is well known that an increasing number
of high-speed applications are ‘coming our way’, and that microbusinesses,
SMEs and larger companies will need to be given the option to chose those
applications, and will need to accompanying bandwidth to make use of such
applications feasible – both in terms of reliability and cost of the supporting
network.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
48
Thirdly, in the words of one of EsatBt’s brochures12: “later will soon be now” –
that is, without making investment decisions now that are supportive of a highspeed telecommunications infrastructure, the implications will be felt for 20
years hence, and what is now perceived as “later” will be upon those living
and working in the regions sooner than anticipated. This final point is followed
up in the recommendations from interviewees (see 6.3.7.).
6.3.5 What happens if Counties Leitrim and Sligo do NOT get
broadband?
As stated at the beginning of the ‘Findings’ section, this question originated as
a sub-theme worded as “how important is broadband for economic survival in
Counties Leitrim and Sligo, now and in the next 10 years? Why?” However,
early on in the interviewing schedule, it became apparent that interviewees
preferred to turn that question on its head and ask instead “what happens if
Counties Leitrim and Sligo do not get broadband?” This is the approach that I
therefore used with subsequent interviewees, and the findings are now
reported.
In researching the documents for the earlier part of this report, I came across
two cartoons which seemed to summarise the sentiments and perspectives of
those responses to this question13:
There were four broad themes which I identified within the responses to this
scenario.
Firstly, for rural areas specifically: Interviewees are concerned at the
limiting of broadband access through ADSL to those inhabitants and
businesses that lie within the radius of an upgraded telephone exchange,
particularly since the 3.5 or 5km radius (depending on the speed of upload or
12
EsatBt (n.d.). Think Faster than your Capabilities: Broadband DSL.
Enterprise Ireland (2002). Practical eBusiness: Competitive Advantage through IT and
eBusiness; a Handbook for Irish Managers: 132.
13
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
49
download you select) is length of wire, not the distance as the crow flies. The
spectre of an intra-rural digital divide is considered as very real, and one
which is likely to persist, unless the focus shifts from ADSL (this is discussed
more in the next section). Secondly, again when considering rural areas, it is
argued that “returners won’t locate here if there’s no broadband” – that such
individuals and their families and businesses will choose to locate in hubs or
gateways, or within other locations close enough to an enabled exchange,
having a two-fold effect: firstly, a ‘sucking in’ of critical mass (as highlighted
earlier), and secondly, the areas that lie outside these hotspots will become
further disenfranchised because they will become more hidden. A persisting
‘patchwork’ coverage will work against those who are currently situated
outside, or between, broadband-enabled areas.
Secondly, when considering the two minimum requirements of Foreign
Direct Investment (FDI) which are: (1) a minimum of 2 national
telecommunications operators, and (2) resilience of the network (that is,
should one supplier’s network fail, there is an automatic, instantaneous rerouting of the customer’s needs through the other network). Interviewees
stated that these are the two criteria by which an FDI will select a location,
and thus, if the northwest, and specifically if Counties Sligo and Leitrim,
cannot provide both of these, then FDI will go elsewhere.
Thirdly, the NW within Ireland: it is felt that, without broadband, there will be
a loss of business & competitiveness within Ireland, the following quotations
being particularly apposite:


“people follow the bandwidth”
“we will be branded as out of fashion & out of time
rather than more modern & contemporary”
It is felt that increasingly SMEs will have difficulties without the greater
bandwidth, particularly those that are involved with data transfer “and are
trying to do that on an ISDN line – that’s not proper broadband!” Thus, areas
without broadband are going to become increasingly disadvantaged – both for
those enterprises already located there who may have to consider moving, as
well as for those considering where to locate.
Finally, without broadband, it is felt that there will be a loss of
competitiveness internationally, the main points being reiterations of those
made earlier when identifying the need for broadband within the region:


“Eastern Europe is leapfrogging us…”
A conundrum exists with telecommunications
provision: “if they come, we will build it”, rather
than “if we build it, they will come” (FDI).
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
50
On this latter point, it is felt that the initiative needs to be taken to build and
maintain a high-speed broadband telecommunications infrastructure, in order
to attract investment, that is, being proactive, rather than waiting for industries
to examine Ireland (& specifically NW Ireland) as a potential location, and then
building – that is, reactive. There is risk in waiting, since it is felt that, with
telecommunications being theoretically independent of place, then an FDI will
have the freedom to locate on the European continent, if the bandwidth exists
there and not in Ireland.
6.3.6 What, then, are the key issues for the future, from your point of
view?
Within this final section of findings from the north-west region, I present a
synthesis of interviewees’ views concerning future imperatives, and issues
which need to be addressed, in the specific context of a greater realisation of
broadband-enabled applications for the rural north-west.
Firstly, and this was re-iterated across all interviewees, there is a great
need for strategic vision, thinking and behaviour by local government,
and where appropriate by regional government. It is felt that there is a
need to move from a situation where local government is simply responding to
top-down directives and vision, but without clarity of vision for the local
counties themselves. There is a need to move away from a perception of
‘broadband being a feather in the cap’ for a local authority, with little
associated awareness of what then to do with such a facility.
Specifically, there is a need for informed, technical specialists at these levels,
since it is felt that those in decision-making positions, who are allocating
resources that have implications for at least two decades ahead, are not
sufficiently informed of the technical elements of those decisions14. As one
interviewee expressed it: “the guardianship of telecommunications is currently
entrusted to non-experts”.
Further, there is a need for a shift in mindset away from one which sees
broadband, and telecoms infrastructure more generally, as a hypothetical,
future problem – it was succinctly summarised by one interviewee – there is
the view: “Why give us hypothetical problems, when we’ve got REAL ones?”
This refers to the very real, pressing issues facing local government in schools
infrastructure, refuse, roads, and lighting, and that these can take precedence
over telecoms issues simply because of their immediacy. As one interviewee
outlined, there is a tendency for what is widely termed “Parish pump politics” –
a preoccupation with parochial and immediate issues. There is thus a great
14
Leitrim County Development Board (2002). Social Economic and Cultural Strategy for
County Leitrim 2002-2012: A shared vision. Carrick on Shannon: 104., page 38; this issue is
also referred to in Section 6.1.4.of my Report.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
51
need for a stepping back from the short-term in order to reflect strategically on
longer-term, high-speed telecommunications objectives.
Secondly, and linked in some measure to the first point, although intended far
more widely, there is a great need to raise understanding and awareness
of, and demand for, broadband within the region, and specifically within
the two Counties of Leitrim and Sligo. Broken down into its constituent
parts, interviewees emphasised the following as absolutely crucial:

A demonstration of the relevance of broadband and its potential
applications; that is, not expecting that simply its provision will result in
its use.

Fitting broadband-enabled initiatives with what people currently do
and how they currently do it; that is, local fitting to local, articulated,
lived needs15. Further, it is felt that this will enable individuals to make
better-informed choices “rather than just persisting with the techy
image that if I have broadband I’m OK, but privately I don’t know what
to do with it”. Further, accept that there is not one “killer application”,
since what there are many different applications of broadband which is
simply a vehicle.

A demonstration of “what we are missing”: that is, a hands-on
demonstration of the precise and detailed affordance of broadband, a
comparative demonstration of tasks with and without broadband, to
enable realistic, feasible and workable comparisons to be made.

Encourage champion communities to be innovative and forwardthinking in their application of broadband-enabled initiatives and
programmes. This is because, as the following two interviewees
highlighted:



“Irish rural people on the West wouldn’t go for it unless there is a community
organisation involved, e.g. Development Organisation, Chamber of
Commerce – then they’ll see it as a good thing & get involved… not just down
to an individual”
“Longevity of wireless, for example, will depend on communities; when the
community’s involved, they are the ones who’ll make it work”.
Demonstrate, through pilot examples, how broadband-enabled ICT
initiatives can and do allow people to reclaim the local – to put their
own local and/or regional perspective on their product, event, project,
or locality:
 “ICTs provide extraordinary potential for local content and initiative – think of
local radio… the reclamation of the local, rather than being dominated by
national”.
A parallel was drawn with “RuralLift” (a Cross-Border initiative) where surveying was carried
out to gain a clear picture of people’s current travel patterns and needs before putting the
service in place.
15
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
52

An increase in ICT-training, and specifically around e-communication
through email and the use of the internet, to reduce fear.
Thirdly, interviewees emphasised strongly the need to think and plan
beyond the Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs), since focus only on the
fibre rings, and associated DSL technologies will further a digital divide
within the region and within the Counties. This leads to two associated points
that are highlighted as requiring further specific investigation: (i) to question
why high-speed telecoms infrastructure should be allocated on a competitive
basis, rather than where it is needed? And (ii) a recognition that remote rural
areas will NOT get DSL, therefore there is a need to examine, purposefully,
those technologies that realistically address the “last kilometre”.
Fourthly, there are great needs identified in the area of ICT within
education16. Two strands were particularly developed by interviewees. Firstly,
that there is a need to demonstrate to teachers the curriculum-relevance of
ICT usage - that is, how ICT, and specifically broadband-enabled ICT can
support teachers in delivering their curriculum commitments to their pupils.
Currently, ICT is not perceived as a teaching resource, and is therefore not
prioritised by teachers who are otherwise focusing on delivering to the
curriculum. Secondly, it is stressed that IT skills, enabled through high-speed
telecoms infrastructure, is absolutely essential for post-primary, and ideally
primary, pupils now coming through the education system. Many interviewees
remain astonished that IT skills are not on the formal curriculum, and therefore
its occurrence within teaching is totally dependent on individual staff members
who may have an interest and/or confidence in ICT. It is felt that broadband
would enable faster use of many considerable teaching resources, and would
enabled whole-class usage of internet sites and downloadable materials,
which would support teaching of IT. The ‘rural dimension’ of these two issues
is that it is felt that in rural areas, schools may be under-resourced, and be far
from centres where there may be additional resources. Therefore, to be able
to avail themselves of such resources, particularly in remoter locations, would
ensure that rural pupils are not at a disadvantage simply due to their location.
A third potential application raised by a smaller number of interviewees,
comprises remote connection between schools, both as a mentoring
opportunity for teachers, and to enable exchange and mutual use of materials.
This is felt to be particularly important for geographically isolated, one- or twoteacher schools.
Fifthly, it is recommended by interviewees that cross-Border initiatives and
options for high-speed telecommunications infrastructure and its applications
should continue to be explored, particularly in the Border Region (as identified
in the National Spatial Strategy).
16
See also McGarr, O. (2001). IT Across the Curriculum in Irish Post-Primary Schools: the
practical barriers affecting its use. Education and the information age: current progress and
future strategies, South West Regional Authority.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
53
Finally, there are a number of ‘further research issues’ which have been
suggested as requiring further analysis; these are now summarised:

e-Government as a driver and the need for a universal
network? E-Government17 has been cited as one of the drivers for
raising demand for ICTs and for broadband. One then needs to ask
the question: does this mean there must be a ‘universal network’
available to all citizens, if all of Ireland’s population is to be included
in the e-Society, regardless of geographical location. If not, a
parallel system for non-e-enabled citizens will need to be
maintained. The provision of a universal network has implications
for the provision of high-speed internet access for rural residents.

Within the primary data collection phase, ICT was referred to only
as an enabler for rural areas – that is, its potential negative
impact of opening up rural areas to global competition was not
mentioned by interviewees. This could be related to how people
use ICTs in rural areas in Ireland, and specificities of an Irish
cultural context. However, these are speculations only at this stage,
and further research into the domestication of ICT, for example,
would throw further light on this issue.

An east-west ‘digital divide’ has been raised, both within the
reviewed publications, and by interviewees and Seminar
participants. An important contextual perspective which could be
developed is to ‘map’ this digital divide onto other east-west divides,
such as socio-political, geo-political, agricultural productivity,
business sectors and output levels, etc.

An historical perspective would again provide a valuable
contextual basis for further research into broadband in rural Ireland.
For example, to examine the Rural Electrification Programmes of
the 1940s and 1950s (where, anecdotally, the first ‘killer app’ was
the electric iron); and to examine the recent history of other ICT
deployment within rural Ireland, such as telecottages and other
projects which sought to generate community buy-in around ICTenabled rural regeneration objectives. This perspective could also
bring in the wider literature on the ‘social shaping of technologies’.
Or “digitisation of citizen services” p.39 in O'Mahony, P. (2002). Citizenship,
Digitisation and Citizen Services in Ireland. Changing ASPECTs: ICT Supported Development
in Rural Areas: 37-42.
17
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
54
7 Some personal reflections
Having presented the findings in Section 6, both from the desk-study and from
the face-to-face interviews, I conclude this Report with some personal
reflections – as an ‘outsider’ to rural Ireland, and to the specifics of the rollingout of policy and infrastructure to the regions. These reflections are based,
first and foremost, on the experience of having read and reviewed key policy
documents and carried out the interviews, and to some degree on the specific
feedback received at the two Seminars.
7.1 Further research
Firstly, I would argue that in this short-term research project I have only really
begun to address the issues outlined in the introduction, that of the extent of
Ireland’s digital divides – both urban-rural, and intra-rural, and the impact of
the government’s policies on such divides. However, due to the brevity of the
study period, I have not been able to investigate issues to the depth I would
have preferred, and there are ‘outstanding issues’ deserving of a more indepth approach.
A particular issue which I feel needs further inquiry is that of “need” for
broadband: how is need identified, generated, articulated, and is “need” a
response to seeing what is possible yet not currently attainable? In the
findings at local level, the majority of respondents stated that people do not
know they have a need, yet, because it has not been demonstrated to them.
This is more than a philosophical question: telcos, as commercial companies,
make investment decisions based on likely demand, or need, and associated
uptake. Respondents have highlighted the complexities of raising awareness
and understanding, and that need is likely then to follow. However, if there is
an apparent persistence of “come, and we will then build it” rather than “we
will build it and then you will come”, the conundrum of meeting needs through
high-speed infrastructure provision will persist.
Interconnected with this, however, is the presumption that “if we build it, they
will come”; however, further research is required to understand better how and
why people are currently using – and not using – ICT, and particularly how
they then might adapt high-speed enabling facilities within that usage pattern,
and how such usage might therefore change as a result. The ODTR (2002)
Report addresses these issues to some degree. This point is pursued in 6.3,
but in terms of ‘further research’, I would argue that people’s rationale and
drivers for their current behaviour and expectations require further detailed
analysis.
7.2 ‘Remote’ rural areas will not get DSL
Before outlining this issue, it is important to suggest a definition of ‘remote’,
since the notion of ‘remote rural’ will vary within each of our minds, being
affected to some extent by our experiences of rural, both here in Ireland and
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
55
internationally. Therefore, for the precise issue being discussed here, I would
define ‘remote’ as those rural areas which remain beyond the reach of
broadband-enabled exchanges, that is, beyond the maximum distance of
3.5km from such exchanges (since this 3.5km represents length of copper
wire, not distance as the crow flies). Why this divide? Because this is currently
as far as the landline broadband technology will reach. An additional facet of
‘remote’ could also be, in the minds of those experiencing this reality, living in
one of the 123 towns which is not included in the phased Regional Broadband
rollout within rural Ireland, such as Ballinamore.
It has become apparent through this study, from both my analysis of policy,
and of my findings from the north-west, that the “last kilometre” is not being
addressed. There is a trickle-down effect anticipated from the regionalisation
of policy, for example through the assigning of Gateways and Hubs, and that
somehow a similar process will occur in broadband infrastructural provision.
However, there does appear to be a conundrum: between meeting the
broadband access needs of dispersed rural populations (for example through
the ‘Rural Area Types and Policy Reponses [p.53 of the NSS] – see Section
6.1.1. above), and focusing largely on those areas where critical mass already
exists, and promoting clustering where it does not.
As a result, the most conservative estimates are that remoter areas such as
Ballinamore and many more rural towns, will not get high-speed access for at
least another 10-12 years, and if one considers, then, the outlying areas, the
hinterlands, the small villages and remoter rural locales, then they can never,
realistically, expect broadband provision within the medium or possibly long,
term. There is, therefore, firstly to examine the implications of potentially
further intra-rural digital divides, and secondly to assess, creatively and
purposefully, alternative technologies, such as fixed wireless, meshed
wireless, and satellite18 – but at affordable levels for dispersed rural
populations within Ireland.
7.3 Demonstration of relevance
The issue of local relevance is mentioned in Further Research (7.1.), and I
also highlighted it in the Introduction to the Report, where I cited Servon’s
(2002) finding that one of the three components of the digital divide is ‘local
content’ (the ODTR [2002] report also highlights this issue as one of the
factors in raising interest in online applications; see also (Skerratt and Warren
2003b).
Although some authors argue that the inexorable rise of the internet, and its
increasing all-pervasiveness, is a facet of globalisation and therefore to be
resisted, there are others who equally see its potential for increasing
localisation, for ‘reclaiming the local’. The latter can be achieved through use
of the internet, for example, to promote local produce, programmes, locales,
18
Within Ireland, for example, see Project: South West Broadband Initiative (ESTEC Contract
N.: 16776/02/NL/AD) which is actively investigating satellite broadband as a solution to
providing bandwidth to rural and peripheral communities through field trials and pilots:
www.swra.ie/broadband
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
56
venues, events, and can also be used by local communities for community
activity through their own village websites (see (Skerratt, Warren et al. 2002;
Warren and Skerratt 2003).
However, for those unfamiliar with its potential, and in particular, the potential
of high-speed e-communication, such ideas may seem far-fetched. I would
argue that there is a need, through demonstration of already-existing
examples here in the north-west, to illustrate how the internet can be used to
re-emphasise regionality, and local-ness, particularly in the context of a region
which sees itself as being on the periphery, the “windowsill of Europe” – the
localisation through the internet could offer a means of further integration (if
desired!) whilst still retaining a distinct identity.
This means, in turn, that there are likely to be a range of applications (rather
than the much-talked of search for a single ‘killer-app’) as individuals think
creatively about how they might apply the internet to their needs and
requirements19. I would argue that the presence of high-speed and always-on
access is, however, integral to realising this relevance, since, as stated in the
(Department of Communications 2003): “Touted as an interactive
extravaganza … the World Wide Web more typically offers users a click-andwait experience. The growing frustration of existing online users is driving
demand for higher-speed connections” (p.14). This frustration will hold back
that otherwise creative process.
7.4 Community as key driver
Within the UK, in our research on broadband in rural communities, we are – to
date – more used to the term ‘champions’ than ‘champion communities’ (see,
for example, Skerratt & Warren 2003). However, it appears from my research
in the rural north-west of Ireland that champion communities comprise the
level at which locally-led action and activity is taking place in trying to acquire
high-speed internet access. Within the NW, and within other parts of Ireland,
both through the CAIT initiative and independently, communities are
demonstrating an awareness of the range of benefits of being able to operate
online, and thus a collation, even informally, of activity, experiences, and
potential need for broadband internet access, would be a key resource in
taking the debate forward. Further, developing a better understanding of the
processes by which communities are articulating need, and the extent to
which they are able to bring together diverse needs into a coherent vision, are
both central facets of realising provision for those “last kilometres”. This is
particularly pertinent since it appears that, apart from the BMW Regional
Assembly Broadband Wireless Internet initiative, such identification and
representation of need will have to driven from the bottom-up. The extent to
which this subsequently leads to community buy-in and self-sustaining of
initiatives would also be an issue for further focus.
See also Grimes (2002) who concludes that “in order to ensure the effective exploitation of
ICTs in these rural areas, a series of essential transitions must be accomplished …
(including) raising awareness about the potential that exists…” (p.57). Grimes, S. (2002).
Information & Communication Technologies and Rural Peripherality. Changing ASPECTs:
ICT supported Development in Rural Areas: 54-57.
19
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
57
7.5 Generate own critical mass – even ‘virtually’
This reflection comes from the process of having carried out the interviews in
Counties Leitrim and Sligo. As I was interviewing, I was coming across
individuals, and to some extent small organisations, who were not aware of
one another’s existence, and yet were raising and trying to address some of
the same issues in relation to broadband provision for rural areas. The
Seminar at ITSligo gave the opportunity for some of these individuals to meet,
and everyone wanted to know who else had been there, and to be given the
list of contact phone numbers and email addresses afterwards. In addition,
there are some who are not based within the same region, but nonetheless
would be keen to maintain contact, now that an initial connection has been
made. This virtual networking could create its own ‘critical mass’ – of
argument, of debate, of information exchange, updates, and of partnership
ideas and plans, however informally. I am not intending to be prescriptive –
rather, I want to reflect the ground-level interest that showed itself during the
interviewing process, and the keenness with which individuals wanted to
network and exchange experiences – particularly shared experiences within
the region.
7.6
Concluding comments
In conclusion, then, I would argue that there is a digital divide within Ireland,
between East and West, between urban and rural, and additionally within the
region of the northwest, where the reality of an existing intra-rural digital divide
is likely to be further exacerbated by a focus on hotspots that are DSLenabled. The shift towards a complementary, coherent, strategic approach to
examining affordable alternative methods of broadband provision for
dispersed rural populations is paramount, if such divides in access are to be
addressed.
In the seminar in Maynooth, one member of the audience asked the question:
should we continue to use the term “last kilometre” or should we shift our
thinking substantially and consistently to talk, instead, of this being the “first
kilometre”, from the customer to the supplier? (Lenihan, pers. comm.,
16/05/03). I leave this question with the reader, with all its manifold
implications and possibilities.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
58
Appendix 1: Maps of County Leitrim & County Sligo
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
59
Appendix 2: The Border Region (National Spatial
Strategy, 2001, p.77)
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
60
Appendix 3: List of organisations approached for
interview20
AVA Systems
Ballinamore Town Group
BMW Regional Assembly
Community Connections
County Enterprise Board (CEB)
Eircom
Enterprise Ireland (NW)
EsatBT
infacta Ltd
Investment and Development Agency (NW)
Ireland Offline
Irish Business & Employers' Confederation
Irish Internet Association
Leitrim County Council - Community & Enterprise
Leitrim County Leader Partnership
National Council for the Blind Ireland (NCBI)
New Ballagh Centre, Rossinver, Co Leitrim
Research & Education Foundation
Sligo Chamber of Commerce & Industry
Sligo County Council - Community & Enterprise
Sligo County Leader Partnership Company
Sligo Education Centre
Teagasc, County Advisory Services (Co Leitrim)
Teagasc, County Advisory Services (Co Sligo)
TeleWork Ireland
The Organic Centre, Rossinver
Tourism North West
Western Development Commission
Western Development Tourism Programme
20
The names of individuals within these organisations have been withheld for confidentiality
reasons.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
61
1993
1994
1996
Econ
Infrastructure
Operational
Prog: 12 BB
Projects
National Devt
Plan 19941999
1995
Schools
IT2000
Mid-term
Review
1997
ODTR
established
1998
BMW
Fitzpatrick
Report
Rural Devt
White Paper
1999
Liberalisation of telecom
market: 1998-1999
CAIT
initiative
2000
Blueprint:
ICT in
Education
2001-03
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
CLAR Prog
Telecoms
Infrastrct
Wking Gp
Govt Action
Plan “New
Connections”
National Devt
Plan 20002006
WLAN – Dept
Comms…
2002
National
Spatial
Strategy
2002-2020
2001
Metropolitan
Area
Networks: 123
cities & towns
Info Soc
Commsn:
“Building
Knowledge
Society”
ComReg
established
to replace
ODTR
19
towns
BMW R.A.
(through
ERDF):
Wireless Int
2003
Appendix 4: Policy evolution timeline
62
Appendix 5: BMW Regional Assembly Call
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
63
Appendix 6: List of attendees at the Sligo Seminar
Name
Loretta McNicholas
Padraig
Pat Phelan
Dorothy Clarke
Martin Henry
Paul Cunnane
Brian Hunt
P. Doyle
David Long
Brian Mulligan
Seamus Grogan
Ciaran Smyth
Eamonn McGowan
Paul Weimann
Liam Breslin
Perry Share
Pat O’Hara
Alan Hill
Organisation
Sligo County Council
IT Sligo
Leitrim County Council
Sligo County Council
Teagasc, Sligo County
No affiliation given
TUG NW & Ava Systems Ltd
Journalist
Ireland Offline
Irish Learning Technology Association
IT Sligo
Ballinamore Development Company
E. McGowan & Son Ltd
IT Sligo
North Leitrim Community Group
IT Sligo
Western Development Commission
Western Development Tourism Programme
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
64
Appendix 7: List of attendees at the Maynooth
Seminar
Name
Organisation
Rodd Bond
Sarah Coffey
Edel Cooke
Ross Cooper
Sinead Crowley
Niall Cussen
Pat Daly
Ger Deering
Dearbhla Doherty
Dundalk Chamber of Commerce
Midland Regional Authority
Information Society Policy Unit, Dept of the Taoiseach
North West Labs Litd, Research Consultants, Black Rock
Project Manager, South West Regional Authority
Dept of the Environment
Mid-South Roscommon Leader
Director Community & Enterprise, Carlow County Council
Infrastructural Services Project Leader, IT Section, Meath
County Council
Information Officer, ComReg
Business Development Manager, Minerva Managed
Networks
Administrative Officer, Community & Enterprise Section,
Galway County Council
Rural Development Division 1, Dept of Community, Rural &
Gaeltacht Affairs
Dept of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources
Last Mile Wireless
Department of Computer Science, NUI Maynooth
PhD student, UCD
NIRSA Doctoral Fellow
Project Co-ordinator, Carlow Rural Information Services
Project
Project Manager, Aurora Telecom Ltd
Kildare Leader Company
Dept of Communications, Marine and Natural Resources
National Co-ordinator, Technology Integration Initiative,
National Centre for Technology in Education (NCTE), Dublin
City University
Chairman, IrelandOffline
Information Society Policy Unit, Dept of the Taoiseach
Last Mile Wireless
NIRSA Doctoral Fellow
Project Manager, Aurora Telecom Ltd
Director, National Economic & Social Forum
North West Labs Litd, Research Consultants, Black Rock
Communications Development Division, Department of
Communications, Marine and Natural Resources
Dept of Anthropology, NUIM
Dundalk Chamber of Commerce
NIRSA Affiliate, Dept of Geography, NUI Maynooth
Patricia Dowling
Gerry Dunne
Alan Farrell
Karen Flynn
Jill Galvin
John Gibbons
Paul Gibson
Rosemarie Gilligan
Denis Grassick
Jarlath Judge
Ken Lambe
Justin Larkin
Ronan Lenihan
Tom Lonergan
David Long
Carmel Madden
Cyril Moriarty
Michael Murray
Sean O’Donnell
Sean O’hEigeartaigh
John O’Neill
John Rice
Jamie Saris
Bill Tosh
Sheelah Flatman
Watson
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
65
Appendix 8: Abstracts for two proposed papers
“Taking discs into Sligo: is rural NW Ireland experiencing a broadband
digital divide or simply a digital delay?”
Sarah Skerratt
There is increasing recognition, within research literature, at European policy
level, and within national and regional policies in Ireland, that there is a
potential, if not actual, digital divide between urban and rural populations.
Further, that intra-rural digital divides exist, and are leading to increasing
disadvantage for the ‘information have-nots’ within society. The advent of
broadband – always-on, high-speed telecommunications infrastructure – is
bringing such divides into sharper focus, as differential levels of provision,
access and understanding become evident. The Irish Government is leading
initiatives towards improving the high-speed infrastructure, such as through
the Metropolitan Area Networks under the National Development Plan.
However, critics state that such an approach, while addressing the needs of
those forming the critical mass within designated hubs, will continue to bypass
those living and working beyond the reach of land-based broadband provision.
Before presuming such an outcome, however, it is necessary to examine the
extent to which there is a need, and preparedness, for broadband within rural
areas, to examine rural dwellers’ own perceptions of their current situation,
and of their options for the future. With this objective in mind, interviews were
carried out during April/May 2003, within the rural Counties of Leitrim and
Sligo in NW Ireland, to examine: perceptions of peripherality and digital
divides; whether and why a need for broadband exists; and what the
prerequisites are for a digitally-included rural Ireland. A total of 25 semistructured interviews were carried out, together with two seminars which
facilitated wider participant validation.
The initial findings support the assertion that both urban-rural, and intra-rural,
digital divides do exist, and that those on the other side of these divides
experience the effects in many ways, with individuals being acutely aware of
their disadvantage, not only in terms of access, but also in relation to
confidence, and difficulties in seeing what may be relevant to them within the
‘cyperbole’ of broadband. The paper then concluded by reflecting on what this
then means for rural Ireland’s place within the ‘information society’, and the
implications this has for strategic thinking and policy.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
66
“The ‘last mile’ or the ‘first mile’: a comparative assessment of rural
broadband experience in the UK and Ireland.”
Sarah Skerratt & Martyn Warren.
The advent of broadband – high-speed, always-on – internet access has
brought into sharp focus a wider debate concerning the possible existence of
urban-rural, and intra-rural, digital divides. The research literature points to
‘digital divides’, their various definitions, causes and implications, particularly
for social inclusion in a rapidly-evolving information society. However, until
broadband provision entered the debate, certainly in the UK and Ireland, it
appears that such claims lacked a specific, ‘measurable’ focus for rural areas.
Recently within rural UK, and to a lesser extent in rural Ireland, we are
witnessing a groundswell in articulated demand for broadband provision, by
individuals, communities, SMEs and SOHOs. The dissatisfaction being
expressed appears to be in response to a lack of provision from the privatised
telecommunications companies beyond the 3.5km limit of upgraded
exchanges, and the unwillingness of national policy to intervene substantially
within a deregulated free market.
One result of this appears to be an emerging pattern of high-speed provision
which lacks coherence or strategic overview, and thus gives a patchwork, or
series of ‘hotspot’, locally-led initiatives, some of which comprise partnerships
with local or regional authorities for whom this issue may carry some priority.
We could say, then, that rural communities are finding their own ways to
ensure their own provision, and indeed there are some such examples.
However, what does this mean then for those who do not have ‘champions’,
particularly those more dispersed rural populations? Will their non-access
become even more hidden as we are carried along with the excitement of
bottom-up development in action?
The paper centres around primary and secondary findings within both the UK
and Ireland, generated through longitudinal research which began in April
2002 and is continuing. The UK analysis points to the emergence of hot-spots
of broadband-enabled activity, some of which is wire-less, and assesses the
extent to which a continuation of such a relatively ad hoc trend may further
exacerbate intra-rural digital divides. The implications of a similar, slowlyemerging trend for rural Ireland is then assessed. Finally, the authors suggest
some potential policy impacts of substantially shifting our thinking from what is
typically termed ‘the last mile’ towards its reconceptualisation as the ‘first
mile’.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
67
Bibliography
References cited within the text
Agnew, R. (2002). Broad Concerns: Broadband Britain still hangs in the balance. Sector
Report: Broadband Britain. U. f. B. Net Imperative: 4-8.
Anon (2002). CLA Campaigns to 'Broadband Rural Britain'. Country Life.
BBC News online (2002). Pressure on for Rural Broadband, BBC. 2003.
Cairncross, F. (1997). The death of distance. Boston, Harvard Business School Press.
Committee of the Regions (2002). Opinion concerning the Development of rural areas by
means of a proactive policy on information and communications technologies.
Department of Communications, M. a. N. R. (2003). The National Development Plan Fibre
Optic Metropolitan Area Networks: What they are and how they work: 18.
Department of the Environment and Local Government (2001). The National Spatial Strategy.
Dublin, Taoiseach: 160.
Department of the Taoiseach (2000). Ireland National Development Plan 2000-2006. Dublin,
Taoiseach: 304.
Department of the Taoiseach (2002). New Connections: A Strategy to realise the potential of
the Information Society: 52.
Dilenge, M. (2000). Digital divide persists in Europe, E-gateway.
Enterprise Ireland (2000). eBusiness is here and now. Open up to it.: 44.
Enterprise Ireland (2000). its2007: Opportunities for Ireland's High Technology Internationally
Traded Services (ITS) Sector to 2007: 32.
Enterprise Ireland (2002). Practical eBusiness: Competitive Advantage through IT and
eBusiness; a Handbook for Irish Managers: 132.
EsatBt (n.d.). Think Faster than your Capabilities: Broadband DSL.
European Commission (2000). eEurope: An Information Society For All, Brussels. European
Commission.
European Commission (2001). eEurope 2002: Impact and Priorities, Brussels. European
Commission. March 2001.
Grimes, S. (2000). "Rural areas in the information society: diminishing distance or increasing
learning capacity?" Journal of Rural Studies 16: 13-21.
Grimes, S. (2002). Information & Communication Technologies and Rural Peripherality.
Changing ASPECTs: ICT supported Development in Rural Areas: 54-57.
Hindman, B. (2000). "The rural-urban digital divide." Journalism and Mass Communication
Quarterly 77(3): 549-560.
IBEC (2002). Statement of Strategy 2002-2005. Dublin: 36.
IBEC (2003). Business Focus North West News. Donegal Town. Spring: 8.
Information Soceity Commission (2002). Building the Knowledge Society: 70.
Leitrim County Development Board (2002). Social Economic and Cultural Strategy for County
Leitrim 2002-2012: A shared vision. Carrick on Shannon: 104.
Local Futures Group (2002). On the move: a look at the Social Uses of Mobile and Wireless
Communications, Local Futures Group.
Mathieson, S. A. (2003). And end to the wait? The Guardian. London: 1-3.
McGarr, O. (2001). IT Across the Curriculum in Irish Post-Primary Schools: the practical
barriers affecting its use. Education and the information age: current progress and
future strategies, South West Regional Authority.
Net Imperative, U. f. B. (2002). Sector Report: Broadband Britain.
NTIA (1998). Falling through the net II: new data on the digital divide, National
Telecommunications and Information Administration.
NTIA (1999). Falling through the net: defining the digital divide, National Telecommunications
and Information Administration.
NTIA (2000). Falling through the net: towards digital inclusion, National Telecommunications
and Information Administration.
ODTR (2002). Future Delivery of Broadband in Ireland. Consultation Document.
O'Mahony, P. (2002). Citizenship, Digitisation and Citizen Services in Ireland. Changing
ASPECTs: ICT Supported Development in Rural Areas: 37-42.
Parker, E. (2000). "Closing the rural digital divide." Telecommunications Policy 24(4).
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
68
Servon, L. J. (2002). Bridging the Digital Divide: Technology, Community and Public Policy.
Oxford, Blackwell Publishing.
Skerratt, S. and M. Warren (2003a). Broadband in the countryside: the new digital divide.
European Federation of IT in Agriculture, Budapest.
Skerratt, S. and M. Warren (2003b). Rural communities & broadband: local appropriation of a
global technology? E-Challenges E-2003 Conference, Bologna.
Skerratt, S., M. Warren and K. Cousins (2002). The virtual village: bridging or widening the
digital divide? Cities & Regions in the 21st Century, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK.
US Department of Commerce (1995). Falling through the net: a survey of the "have nots" in
rural and urban America, National Telecommunications and Information
Administration.
Warren, M. (2003). Farmers and the Internet: Six Years On. European Federation of IT in
Agriculture, Budapest.
Warren, M. and S. Skerratt (2003). Visiting 'virtual villages' through online surveys and
ethnography. The impact on ICT on the survey process, Warwick, ASC.
Western Development Commission (2001). The State of the West: Recent Trends and Future
Prospects. Ballaghaderreen: 155.
Western Development Commission (2002). Update on Telecommunications in the Western
Region. Ballaghaderreen: 44.
References cited on the Timeline, or used as background material to the
report, but not specifically cited within the body of the text
Anon (2003), “Sligo company wins top technology award”, Sligo Weekender, 06/05/03.
Anon (2003), “Broadband: ‘lost millions’ denied”, The Sligo Champion, 07/05/03.
Deeney, L. (2003), “Global governments go slow on e-initiatives”, Irish Independent Digital
Ireland, 24/04/03, p.9.
Department of Agriculture and Food (1999), White Paper on Rural Development
Department of Education and Science (1997), Schools IT 2000. A Policy Framework for the
New Millennium.
Department of Education and Science (2001), Blueprint for the Future of ICT in Irish
Education: Three Year Strategic Plan 2001-2003.
Department of the Taoiseach (2002), Programme for Prosperity and Fairness.
Fitzpatrick Associates (1999), Border, Midlands and Western NUTS II Region Development
Strategy 2000-2006. Report prepared for the Regional Authorities. Dublin: Fitzpatrick
Associates.
IDA Ireland (2003), Ireland Vital Statistics. Dublin.
Long, David (2002), “It’s a kind of magic”, www.irelandoffline.org (accessed 10/05/03).
Long, David, (2003), “Looking for affordable broadband? Leave Ireland immediately”;
www.irelandoffline.org (accessed 10/05/03)
McDonagh, John (2001), Renegotiating Rural Development in Ireland. Aldershot: Ashgate
Publishing.
McDonagh, M. (2003), “Bid to boost rural internet access”, Irish Independent, 09/05/03, p.13.
McKenna, G. (2003), “ ‘€80m tax’ to put the internet in every class”, Irish Independent,
19/04/03, p.1.
National Policy Advisory and Development Committee (2001), The Impact of Schools IT2000
– Report and Recommendations to the Minister for Education and Science.
O’Hara, A. (2003), “NTR takes €3M stake in broadband telco”, Irish Independent Business,
09/05/03.
Schools Integration Project (2000), Exploring the Field Fences of County Sligo. A Schools
Integration Project (SIP 061), Enniscrone: Westprint Ltd.
The Organic Centre (2003), Courses and Activities, Rossinver: The Organic Centre.
NIRSA-funded study.
Author: Dr Sarah Skerratt (s.j.skerratt@ncl.ac.uk)
69