Name: _______________________
Blk:_______ Date:______________
Pax Romana:
Contributions to Society
Art and Architecture
1. What are the two most significant buildings erected during the Pax Romana?
2. The Pantheon was…
3. The Colosseum was…
4. Romans were the first to use ______________ in their buildings
5. What is Greco-Roman civilization?
6. One of the greatest achievements of Roman architecture was____________ ceilings.
7. What was the purpose of the Roman forum?
8. Give two of the most important facts you learned about Roman schooling:
1.
2.
Writing and Theater
1. The language spoken in Rome was _____________. This language is significant
because….
2. Authors during the Pax Romana generally wrote either _____________ or
_______________ literature.
3. Give two major writers at the time and explain their contributions to
literature/learning:
1.
1
2.
4. All actors in Roman plays were ______________________________.
5. List two things you learned about Roman theater:
Sport and Leisure
1. What is the Circus Maximus and what took place there?
2. What is chariot racing?
3. What are gladiators, and who are they, usually?
4. How did Beastiarii impact Rome’s economy?
5. Why were emperors willing to pay for the games?
6. What is bread and circuses? Why was this a problem for Rome?
7. What are two other things Romans would do in their free time?
1.
2.
8. What in a Roman feast would you be willing to try?
Government and Society
2
1. The government was run by an _________________, who had total
_________________.
2. The government’s main responsibilities were:
1.
2.
3.
4.
3. What did the Romans do to run the empire more efficiently?
4. How did emperors unify Rome?
5. Name two bad emperors and why they were ineffective:
6. Name two good emperors and why they were effective:
Roman Law
1. Roman law has shaped ___________________________________ today.
2. Roman laws were intended to be ____________ and
_______________.
3. What is the difference between civil laws and jus gentium?
4. Why did Rome need to change from strictly jus civile to also jus gentium?
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5. What are some Roman laws that are similar to ours today?
6. What do the laws in the 12 tables reflect about Roman life? Give an example.
Science and Engineering
1. What are three subjects that scientists were interested in studying?
1.
2.
3.
2. What are aqueducts? What is their purpose?
3. How did aqueducts change life in ancient Rome?
4. What are public baths? What is their purpose?
5. What was the original function of the Roman roads?
6. “All _______________ lead to _______________.” The road system
of the ancient Romans was __________________________________
___________________________________________________________
7. How many miles of paved road were radiating from the center
of the forum?
8. What type of science did Romans tend to pursue?
Station 1
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Art and Architecture
In its early days, Rome absorbed ideas from Greek colonists in southern Italy, and it
continued to borrow heavily from Greek culture after Rome conquered Greece. Over
time, Romans adapted and transformed Greek and Hellenistic achievements just as the
Greeks had once absorbed and blended ideas and beliefs from Egypt and the Fertile
Crescent. The mixing of Greek, Hellenistic, and Roman traditions produced what is
known as Greco-Roman civilization.
Roman buildings combine both Greek and Roman
elements and ideas. Roman builders used Greek
columns. However, immense palaces, temples, stadiums,
and victory arches stood as mighty monuments to roman
power and dignity. The Romans improved on devices
such as the dome and the arch. One of the most amazing
features of Roman architecture was the vaulted ceiling.
Two of Rome’s most famous buildings erected during the Pax
Romana were the
Pantheon and the
Colosseum. The
Pantheon is Rome’s most
famous domed structure
and is a magnificent
temple to all Rome’s gods.
The Colosseum was built
of concrete and faced with stones. Romans were the
first to use concrete, and by only covering the outside
of the Colosseum with stones it was much cheaper and
easier to build. The Colosseum was used for gladiator
fights, mock naval battles, and other sporting events.
The Colosseum could hold about 50,000 spectators.
Most of our modern stadiums are built along the same
format. The Romans designed the Colosseum so
precisely that it could be filled in 15 minutes and
evacuated in 5!
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The Roman Forum
The forum was the main marketplace and business center, where ancient Romans went
to do their banking, trading, shopping, and marketing. It was also a place for public
speaking. The ancient Romans aspired to be great orators. The job of their orators was
not to argue, but to speak persuasively. The Forum was also used for festivals and
religious ceremonies. It was a very busy place.
The Forum in Ancient Rome
Roman Schools
The Forum today
The Goal of education in ancient Rome was to be an effective speaker. The school day
began before sunrise, as did all work in Rome. Kids brought candles to use until
daybreak. The school year began each year on March 24th. Children were first homeschooled in law, history, customs, reading, and writing by their father. Girls were taught
by their mother to spin, weave, and sew. At the age of 6 or 7, all boys and some girls
went to school to learn reading, writing, and counting. Later they went to grammar
school, where they studied Latin, Greek, grammar, and literature. School was not free,
so most poor children (most of the population) could not attend.
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Station 2
Writing and Theater
The language spoken in Rome was Latin. It is a significant language because it is the
basis for all the romance languages. Romance languages include French, Spanish,
Italian, and Greek.
In literature, educated Romans admired the Greeks. Many spoke Greek and imitated
Greek styles in prose and poetry. Still, the greatest Roman writers used Latin to create
their own literature.
Authors during the Pax Romana generally wrote either fictional or historical literature.
An example of fictional literature from the time is Virgil’s epic poem, the Aeneid. Virgil
tried to show that Rome’s past was as heroic as that of Greece. Roman historians
pursued their own theme: the rise and fall of roman power. The historian Livy sought to
rouse patriotic feelings and restore traditional roman virtues to society by recalling
images of Rome’s glorious past as a republic. In his story of Rome, Livy recounted the
tales of great heroes such as Cincinnatus.
Theaters
In Ancient Rome, plays were presented at the time of the games on contemporary wooden
stages. The first
such permanent
Roman theater was
ordered to be built
by Pompey in 55
BC, eventually
erected on the
Campus Martius at
Rome. Built of
stone, it had a
seating capacity of
27,000. Essentially
patterned after the
Greek theater, it
differed in the
respect that it was
built on level
ground.
Excavated out of the sides of hills, the circular space located in front of the stage in a
Greek theater was called the orchestra, where choruses and actors performed. Since
Roman plays usually lacked a true chorus, the area in front of the stage which might
have been an orchestra simply became a semicircular area.
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All actors in Roman plays were male slaves. Men played the parts of women. The
typical stock characters included the rich man, the king, the soldier, the slave, the young
man, and the young woman. If necessary, an actor would play two or more roles in a
single performance.
The most notable part of an actor's regalia was probably his mask. While different
masks and wigs were used for comedies than tragedies, certain characteristics remained
constant. All masks had both cheek supports and special chambers which acted as
amplifiers. Gray wigs represented old men, black for young men, and red for slaves.
Young men donned brightly colored clothing, while old men wore white. In this manner
the characters could be easily identified by the audience.
Admission to the Roman plays was free for citizens. Originally, women were barred from
viewing comedies and were only admitted to tragedies, but later, no such restrictions
were imposed.
Pantomimes, popular during the 1st century BC, involved miming roles to
accompaniment of singers, dancers, and musicians, in addition to visual effects, similar
to a ballet. In mimes of antiquity actors spoke. Women were allowed in mimes and
pantomimes, which were more popular than typical plays but eventually degenerated
into vulgar and disgusting tastelessness.
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Station 3
Sport and Leisure
Rich and poor alike loved spectacular entertainment. At the Circus Maximus, Rome’s
largest race course, chariots thundered around an oval track, making dangerously tight
turns at either end. Fans bet feverishly on their favorite teams—the Reds, the Greens,
the Blues, or the Whites—and successful charioteers were hailed as heroes. Chariot
racing was Rome’s oldest and most popular pastime, dating back to before the Republic.
Greek chariot races were held in the hippodrome in the east, but in the west they were
held in circuses. If successful, a charioteer
could become rich and famous throughout
Rome. Images of charioteers survive in
sculpture, mosaic, and molded glassware.
The different colored teams were rivals,
sometimes leading to violence among
supporters. The Greens and the Blues were
overall favorites.
The circus itself was built around a ushaped arena. At the open end of the “u” waited up to twelve four-horse chariots, which
began the race from the starting gates. They raced around the course counterclockwise
for seven laps.
Gladiators
Several different types of shows all took place in the arena of an Amphitheater. The
word arena comes from the Latin for "sand," which was placed on the Amphitheater floor
to soak up spilled blood. Amphitheaters were most commonly used for gladiatorial
matches which had been adapted from Etruscan funeral rites (munera). By the last 1st
century BC, however, the games had lost their ritualistic significance.
Gladiators came from various lots of life. Originally,
there were gladiatorial schools, but these came under
state control in the 1st century BC to avoid them
becoming private armies. The majority of gladiators
were either condemned criminals (damnati), slaves,
prisoners of war, or volunteers who signed up to do
shows for a fee. There were four main types of
gladiator:
Murmillo: Fought with a helmet adorned by a fish
crest, an oblong shield, and a sword. He usually fought a retiaritus.
Retiaritus: A lightly armed gladiator with a net, brandishing either a trident or a
dagger.
Samnite: Utilized a sword, visor and helmet, and an oblong shield.
Thracian: Combated with a curved scimitar and round shield.
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Various other weapons, women, and sometimes even dwarves were used in the games.
Special types of "wild animal matches" (venationes) were introduced in the 2nd Century
BCE and became very popular. Such bouts included men on foot and on horseback,
known as beastiarii, who were usually either criminals, prisoners of war, or trained and
paid fighters. Beastiarii fought exotic animals, which eventually led to an extensive
trade market. Originally, wild animal matches took place on the morning of the games,
the public executions were held at midday, and then the gladiatorial matches. Over
time, however, these divisions became blurred, and often many fights would take place at
once, giving the appearance of a battle. Other spectacles included mock naval battles
(naumachiae), known to take place on artificial lakes, as well as animal performances,
accompanied by music.
Magistrates used private games to gain support in elections. The emperors successfully
continued this practice and the games became more lavish as each tried to out-do is
predecessor. Enormous amounts of money were spent on games, yet they were free to
the people. To emperors who paid for them with taxes, these amusements were a way to
control the city’s restless mobs. In much the same spirit, the government provided free
grain to the poor. Critics warned against this policy of “bread and circuses” but no one
listened. During the Pax Romana the general prosperity hid underlying social and
economic problems. Later Roman emperors, however, would face problems that could not
be brushed away so easily.
Other Leisure Activities
For the wealthy, entertainment could take place at home as
they hosted their own dinner parties and lavish banquets.
Along with dinner could be music, singing, and dancing by
professionals. In some circles, recitation of written work,
such as poetry and speeches, followed. For the plebeians,
associations (collegia) may have thrown dinner parties.
Eating and drinking for the poor usually meant frequenting
taverns, ranging from brothels to gaming houses and everything in-between. Gaming
was popular among all classes, and included pastimes such as dice, knucklebones, and
gaming counters. Board games were played by adults as well as children. Traditional
children's games, such as hide-and-go-seek and leap frog are depicted in Ancient Roman
art. Children's toys have also been found.
For the wealthy, hunting and fishing may have provided leisurely sport, but for the
poorer these activities were more often a necessity.
The recipes below show what wealthy Romans would have consumed on special
occasions.
Stuffed Kidneys - Serves 4
10
8 lambs kidneys.
2 heaped tspn fennel seed (dry roasted in pan).
1 heaped tspn whole pepper corns.
4 oz pine nuts.
1 large handful fresh coriander.
2 tbspn olive oil.
2 tbspn fish sauce.
4 oz pigs caul or large sausage skins.
Skin the kidney, split in half and remove the fat and fibres. In a mortar, pound the
fennel seed with the pepper to a coarse powder. Add this to a food processor with the pine
nuts. Add the washed and chopped coriander and process to a uniform consistency.
Divide the mixture into 8 and place in the centre of each kidney and close them up. If you
have caul use it to wrap the kidneys up to prevent the stuffing coming out. Similarly
stuff the kidney inside the sausage skin. Heat the oil and seal the kidneys in a frying
pan. Transfer to an oven dish and add the fish sauce. Finish cooking in a medium oven.
Serve as a starter or light snack with crusty bread and a little of the juice.
Pear Patina - Serves 4
1½ lb firm pears.
10fl oz red wine.
2 oz raisins.
4 oz honey.
1 tspn ground cumin.
1 tbspn olive oil.
2 tbspn fish sauce.
4 eggs.
plenty of freshly ground black pepper.
Peel and core the pears and cook in the wine, honey and raisins until tender. Strain and
process the fruit and return to the cooking liquor. Add the cumin, oil and fish sauce and
the eggs well beaten. Pour into a greased shallow dish and bake in a preheated oven
(375º F) for 20 mins or until set. Let the custard stand for 10 mins before serving warm.
Libum - Serves 2
10 oz ricotta cheese.
1 egg.
2½ oz plain flour.
Runny honey.
Beat the cheese with the egg and add the sieved flour very slowly and gently. Flour your
hands and pat mixture into a ball and place it on a bay leaf on a baking tray. Place in
moderate oven (400ºF) until set and slightly risen. Place cake on serving plate and score
the top with a cross. our plenty of runny honey over the cross and serve immediately.
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Station 4
Government and Society
During the Pax Romana, the government was run by an emperor who had total control.
The emperors’ main responsibilities included maintaining order, enforcing the laws,
defending the borders, and providing relief in the event of natural disaster (as in the case
of the eruption of Vesuvius).
Like in the Republic before it, the Empire was divided into provinces controlled by
governors. Unlike the Republic, the emperor maintained control over the governors and
unified Rome through uniform laws.
Like every nation, Rome had its share of good and bad leaders. Here are just a few…
The Bad
Caligula (37-41 CE)
After Tiberius dies in Capri, Gaius Caesar is named emperor. He
is known as Caligula, or 'little boots' - a nickname given to him as
a boy by the soldiers of his father, Germanicus, because of the
small army boots he once wore. Caligula saw himself as an
absolute ruler, and had great disdain for the Senate. The greatest
symbol of this hatred was his decision to appoint his horse as
consul. He also held many parties for his horse, and they could
sometimes be seen at the theater together.
Caligula's cruel tyranny provokes huge opposition and many plots.
Although he tries to crush them, new plots replace those he has
discovered. Eventually a tribune, named Cassius Chaerea, corners and kills him. After
his murder, his uncle, Claudius, is discovered in the palace hiding behind a curtain.
Soldiers carry him off to their camp where they persuade him to become the new
emperor.
Nero (54-68 CE)
Nero came to power through the pressure of his mother, who
bore over him throughout his life. He eventually had her killed,
which caused him to be unpopular with the people. He offered
the people bread and created public baths, which stopped some of
the outcry.
The Great Fire of Rome began on July 18 and lasted for six days
and seven nights. Of Rome's 14 districts only four remain
untouched. Rumors circulated that Nero had been singing and
dancing while Rome burned. In order to divert attention away
from himself, Nero blamed the Christians. He ordered some to be
thrown to the lions; many others are crucified.
Nero discovered that many people were conspiring to kill him,
and he lashed out. The poets Lucan, Seneca and the novelist Petronius are among those
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who lost their lives in the purge that follows. Increasingly alone and paranoid, Nero kicks
his wife Poppaea to death while she is pregnant and ill. Reportedly, this is for
complaining that he came home late from the races.
Support for Nero dwindled and he is declared a public enemy by the Senate, meaning
anyone can kill him without being punished. Terrified, and abandoned by everyone,
except a few of his slaves, Nero flees to the country. There he commits suicide, ending the
dynasty of Augustus.
The Good
Nerva (96-98 CE) and Trajan (98-117 CE)
Nerva rules fairly but never gains the full support of the army, much of which remained
loyal to the previous emperor. Towards the end of
Nerva's life, Roman generals co-operate for the first
time to choose the next emperor. They force Nerva to
adopt an acceptable heir from outside his own family.
The result is resoundingly successful, as a Spanishborn Senator and general named Trajan becomes
emperor. In Trajan Rome, the empire grew to its
largest territorial extent. He undertook vast building
programs and enlarged social welfare. He was a
benevolent ruler, cutting taxes and helping the poor. Trajan's reign takes Rome one more
step toward universality. Now, educated and wealthy men from all over the Empire are
eligible for the highest office.
Hadrian (117-138 CE)
A cultured scholar, fond of all things Greek, Hadrian travelled all over
the empire. He was attentive to the army and the provincials, and left
behind him spectacular buildings such as the Pantheon in Rome and
his villa at Tivoli. But his greatest legacy to the empire was his
establishment of its frontiers, marking a halt to imperial expansion.
In Africa he built walls to control the transhumance routes, and in
Germany he built a palisade with watch towers and small forts to
delineate Roman-controlled territory. In Britain, he built the stone
wall which bears his name, perhaps the most enduring of his frontier
lines.
He was truly a pivotal emperor, in that he divided what was Roman from what was not.
Apart from minor adjustments, no succeeding emperor reversed his policies.
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Station 5
Roman Law
“Let justice be done,” proclaimed a Roman saying, “though the heavens fall!” Probably
the greatest legacy of Rome was its commitment to the rule of law and to justice—ideas
that have shaped western civilizations today.
The laws of Rome were intended to be
impartial and humane. During the Republic,
Romans made use of civil laws (jus civile),
which are laws that applied to the citizens of
Rome. As Rome expanded, however, it ruled
many foreigners who were not covered under
civil law. Gradually, a second system of law,
known as the law of nations (jus gentium),
emerged. It applied to all people under Roman
rule, citizens or non-citizens. Later, when
Rome extended citizenship across the empire, the two systems merged.
During the Roman Empire, the rule of law fostered unity and stability. Many centuries
later, the principles of Roman law would become the basis for legal systems in Europe
and Latin America. As Roman law developed, certain basic principles evolved. Many of
these are familiar to Americans today. Among them are these ideas…
• People of the same status were guaranteed equal protection under the law
• People were innocent until proven guilty
• The accused should be allowed to face his or her accuser and defend against the
charge
• Guilt must be established “clearer than
daylight” through evidence
• Decisions should be based on fairness,
allowing judges to interpret the law
The Romans thought law should reflect
principles of reason and justice, and should
protect the citizens’ person and property.
Their idea that law could be based on just
and rational principles could apply to all
people, regardless of nationality, was a
major contribution.
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Station 6
Science and Engineering
Romans excelled in the practical arts of building, perfecting their engineering skills as
they built roads, bridges, and harbors throughout the empire. Roman roads were so
solidly built that many of them remained in use long after Rome fell. In addition, three
things that scientists were most interested in studying included public health, sanitation,
and engineering.
Roman engineers built many immense aqueducts, or bridge like stone structures that
brought water from the hills into Roman cities. In Segovia, Spain, a Roman aqueduct
still carries water along a stone channel supported by tiers of arches. The availability of
fresh water was important to the Romans. Wealthy homes had water piped in, and
almost every city boasted both female and male public baths. Here people gathered not
only to wash themselves but also to hear the latest news and exchange gossip.
The Romans are perhaps the most famous aqueduct builders of the ancient era. In fact,
the word “aqueduct” is derived from the Latin words aqua (“water”) and ducere (“to
lead”). Within a period of about 500 years, the Romans constructed eleven major
aqueducts to supply Rome with water. The first Roman aqueduct, Aqua Appia, was built
around 312 BCE. By the time the eleventh aqueduct, Aqua Alexandrina, was completed
in 226 CE, Rome was being watered by 359 miles of aqueducts and was receiving about
50 million gallons of water each day. In addition to building aqueducts for Rome, the
Romans also build aqueducts for regions throughout their empire, including France,
Spain, and Northern Africa. Remains of most of these aqueducts still exist, and a few
such as the one in Segovia, Spain, are still in use.
Public Baths
In the time of the Roman empire, baths were a place of leisure time during many
Romans daily routine. People from nearly every class - men, women, and children - could
attend the thermae, or public baths, similar to modern day fitness clubs and community
centers. The two most well preserved baths of ancient Rome are the baths of Diocletian
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and Caracalla. Diocletian's baths cover
an enormous 32 acres, and now, the
ruins include two Roman churches, St.
Mary of the Angels and the Oratory of
St. Bernard. The baths of Caracalla
cover 27 acres.
Towards the center of the Roman baths,
adjoining the dressing room, could be
found the tepidarium, an exceedingly
large, vaulted and mildly heated hall.
This could be found surrounded on one
side by the frigidarium, a large, chilled
swimming pool about 200 feet by 100
feet, and on the other side by the
calidarium, an area for hot bathing warmed
by subterranean steam.
Not only were the baths meant for leisure,
but also, for social gathering. In addition to
the bathing areas could be found portico
shops, marketing everything from food, to
ointments, to clothing. There were also
sheltered gardens and promenades,
gymnasiums, rooms for massage, libraries,
and museums. Complimenting these
scholarly havens were slightly more
aesthetic marble statues and other artistic
masterpieces.
Roman Roads
The Romans built roads so that the army could march from one place to another easily.
They tried to build the roads as straight as possible, so that the army could take the
shortest route through the empire.
How the roads were built:
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1. First, the army builders would clear the ground of rocks and trees. They then dug
a trench where the road was to go and filled it with big stones.
2. Next, they put in big stones, pebbles, cement and sand which they packed down to
make a firm base.,
3. Then they added another layer of cement mixed with broken tiles.
4. On top of that, they then put paving stones to make the surface of the road. These
stones were cut so that they fitted together tightly.
5. Kerb stones were put at the sides of the road to hold in the paving stones and to
make a channel for the water to run away.
It is often said that "all roads lead to Rome," and in fact, they once did. The road system
of the Ancient Romans was one of the greatest engineering accomplishments of its time,
with over 50,000 miles of paved road radiating from their center at the miliarius aurem
in the Forum in the city of Rome. Although the Roman road system was originally built
to facilitate the movement of troops throughout the empire, it was inevitably used for
other purposes by civilians then and now.
The Romans generally left scientific research to the Greeks, who were by that time
citizens of the empire. While the Romans rarely did original scientific investigations,
they did put science to practical use. They applied geography to make maps and medical
knowledge to help doctors improve public health. Pliny the Elder, a Roman scholar,
compiled volumes of encyclopedias on geography, zoology, botany, and other topics all
based on the work of others.
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