Mountaineers Basic Mountaineering Course 3
Land Navigation
To be oriented in the wilderness is to be aware at all times of your exact location and altitude. Before
leaving for any wilderness trip, you can begin to acquire this orientation by carefully studying good
topographic maps, planning your route thoroughly, anticipating possible difficulties, estimating travel
time according to the weather and the abilities of the hikers, and talking with people who know the
area. Every mountaineer should be interested in the how-to of map and compass reading - you never
know when you may suddenly have to rely on your knowledge of them if you become separated from
your group or get lost. Also, even if you’ve never hiked on anything but a well-traveled path, you’ll
probably find your trip more interesting and rewarding if you can figure out just what it is you’re
seeing as you go along. Land Navigation can be lots of fun!
Part 1: The Map
Definition: A planar representation of a land area, taken from an aerial point of view.
There are different types of maps (road, political, relief, etc.). For the purposes of mountaineering, we
will only discuss the Topographic Map. A Topographic Map shows the contour of the surface area,
indicates elevation, bodies of water, trails, and roads.
Parts of the Topographic map
1. Map Name - found at the central upper portion of the map. The map name is designated after the
most prominent feature on the map.
2. Map Scale - found at the upper left-hand portion of the map. It is composed of the name of the island
or province where the area is located and the ratio of the map distance to the real distance. If the map
scale says for the example; Luzon 1: 50,000 - this means that the area is located in the island of Luzon,
and that one unit measured on the map translates to 50,000 units on real ground.
3. Sheet Number - maps are numbered in sequence with adjacent maps. When buying maps, this is the
information given to the seller.
4. Legend - a glossary of symbols found on the map.
5. Distance Scale - a linear measurement of distances on the map. This represents aerial distance, which
means, the distance if the whole place were flat. If it is in the mountainous or sloping area, you have to
give leeway to get the exact distance, depending on the steepness of the slope; but the difference is
usually minimal.
6. Magnetic Declination - shows the difference in degrees between the direction of the true north
(geographical north) and magnetic north.
7. Contour Interval Note - indicates the difference in elevation between two adjacent contour lines.
8. Index to Boundaries - this indicates the political boundaries present on the map.
9. Longitude, Latitude Designations - found at the four corners of the map. It indicates the exact
angular distance east or west of the earth’s surface (longitude) and a region with reference of its
distance north or south of the equator (latitude).
10. Contour Lines - are those brown squiggly lines, which give us an idea of the contour of the land. A
single contour line connects to a point of the same elevation. Simply put, contour lines are the
intersection between the earth’s surface and an imaginary horizontal plane set at a known elevation.
11. Colors of the Map - The map is very colorful but those colors weren’t place there to please the eyes.
Each color means something so that the geographical feature may be easily recognized.
Brown- land feature (contour lines)
Blue- bodies of water (lakes, streams)
Black-man-made structures (buildings)
Green- vegetation
Red- main roads
12. Grid Lines - These are the north- south lines and the east- west lines of the map. Each map is
divided into squares, the lines running north / south or east / west. Each line is numbered. The squares
formed by lines are 1 square km. The term grid north applies to the direction from the bottom of the
map to the top, along the north-south line.
13. Date of Map Survey - take note of the date of map survey when looking for existing trails, roads,
houses, and other landmarks.
14. Cross Hair Markers
Using a Topographic Map
1. Determining Distance - is one of the uses of the map. To do this, you must first know the scale of the
map. The scale most often use for mountaineering is 1: 50,000 since it covers a lot of ground (26
kilometers across) but still gives detailed information on land features. Measure the distance from point
A to point B with the side or the cord (for zigzag routes) of the compass, then gauge it against the
distance scale found below the map.
On a 1:50,000 scale map, remember the following conversions;
20 mm on the map = 1 kilometer in real space
1 mm on the map = 50 meters in real space
Memorize these simple figures so that you can use the millimeter scale on the compass for
measurement instead of the distance scale on the map, which is often tucked out of the way when the
map is being used on the field.
2. Recognizing Landforms - is a feat accomplishment by deciphering the shape that the contour lines
make. This requires a good imagination and the ability to translate a two-dimensional image to 3-D and
the skill to transform a set of contour lines into profiles.
What is a profile? If a map is what you see from above, then a profile is what you would see from the
side. It is a cross section of the earth. When you look at the mountain from afar, you are actually
viewing its profile along an imaginary vertical plane cutting across its peak.
How do you go about making a profile? Given the set of contour lines below, select a line AB that you
want to profile. Make a set of lines parallel to line AB below; the number of lines is equal to the
number of contour lines. The line at the bottom is designated the lowest elevation and the line at the top
is the highest elevation. After projecting the intersections of the contour lines and line AB to their
respective elevation lines and connecting the projected intersections, you produce the profile of the
mountain.
3. Steep or Gentle? – It is an often-asked question. The rule is; if the contour lines are close to each
other, it is a steep slope. If the contour lines are far apart from each other, it is a gentle slope.
4. Going Up? - Check the elevation of contour lines. If it increases, you’re obviously going up. Another
way is by using a stream (indicated by a blue line). The V-shape formed by the contour lines as they
intersect the stream points upstream, hence going up. It is a proven fact that water flows from higher to
lower elevations.
5. Peak / Summit - It is the X-spots within a small, elliptical contour line. It usually has the exact
elevation indicated beside it.
6. Ridge and Gully - mountaineers should trek on ridges as much as possible (the backbones of the
mountain) rather than the gullies. The reason is that gullies are actually waterways, and water always
takes the easiest path downwards. Gullies contain sudden drops, waterfalls, and other steep land
feature, which is not actually the easiest path to take. Ridges on the other hand offer relatively gentler
slopes. A ridge curves outwards, away from the peak. A gully curves inwards, towards the peak.
7. Cliff - It is something avoided by trekkers but loved by rock climbers. This is the rare case in which
contour lines meet.
8. Depression - It is indicated by special contour lines called depression. Causes of depression are
emptied lakes and volcanic craters.
9. Saddle - is an area between two adjacent peaks.
Care of the Map
1. Folding - always fold along the north- south and east- west grid lines. Keep folds to a minimum
because more folds mean more lines for wear to tear.
2. Waterproofing - you can buy a sheet of plastic and cover the map with it. You may also use a rubber
compound that waterproofs paper when applied. Another method is folding the map and placing it in a
waterproof pouch.
Part 2: The Compass
It is simply a magnetized needle, free to swing in any direction contained in a sturdy housing. The
needle settles down to point to the magnetic north.
Types of Compasses
- There are three types of compasses classified according to use.
1. Lensatic Compass - used by military and some outdoorsmen. It has a sight that can be used for
accurate sighting.
2. Brunton Compass – Used by geologists. It has a level bubble, a clinometer, and a precision needle.
3. Silva-type Compass – Also called a protractor compass. It is simple, easy to use, and generally used
by mountaineers.
Parts of Compass
1.Base Plate
2.Cord
3.Dial
4.Ruler
5.Orienting Lines
6.Orienting Arrow
7.Directional Arrow
8.Magnetic Needle
9.Index Point
10.Magnifier
11.Scale
12.Luminous points - are located at strategic places, on the north end of the needle, at both sides of the
orienting arrow, and at the directional arrow. These are useful in night trekking.
Using a Compass
There are several different system in using a compass. Most of them are too complex to be of practical
value to the mountaineer. The system described here however, is the simplest available and has been
successfully used in the field for many years. With it, everyone can learn to navigate in any terrain dessert, mountain, forest - proficiently and confidently.
1. Setting a bearing - a bearing (direction on from point A - usually yourself - to another object at point
B) is of two kinds; True and Field. True bearings are taken from the map when you have laid out your
course (explanation below). While Field bearings are taken through visual inspection of the area.
When using the compass to indicate direction in the field, two basic conditions must be met. These are;
a) First the dial must be set at the desired degree reading. If the degree or the direction is known, set the
dial to the index pointer. If the degree is unknown, then this must be obtained from visual inspection or
through the use of map.
b)Second, without changing the dial setting, the whole compass must be positioned so that the orienting
arrow “boxes in” the north end of the magnetic needle.
With a known bearing and after setting the dial, the second criterion can be accomplished by holding
the compass waist high with the base plate being horizontally level. The directional arrow should be
pointing away from you and not towards your body. The directional arrow now acts as a pointer to
where you ought to go. Turn yourself and the compass around together until the orienting arrow is lined
up with the north end of the magnetic needle. The directional arrow is now pointing towards the desired
direction.
2. Taking a bearing - To take the bearing of an object in the field, just reverse the procedure. Hold the
compass waist high with the directional arrow pointed towards the object. You may have to pivot your
whole body to achieve this. Without changing the position of the compass, carefully turn the dial until
the orienting arrow boxes in the north end of the magnetic needle. The bearing to the object is now the
degree reading indicated towards the desired direction.
3. Back bearing - is used when you wish to return to your original position. Box in the south end of the
magnetic needle and proceed in the direction pointed by the directional arrow.
Care of the Compass
1. Waterproofing - the compass is basically waterproof but do not leave it soaking in the water too long.
This erases the paint marks found at the scale and dial.
2.Metal Objects – be aware of nearby iron and steel objects. They may deflect the needle if they are too
close to the compass. Keep those buckles, bolos, and metal whistles away.
3.Bubbles - a small bubble may sometimes form in the liquid but it has no influence on the accuracy of
the instrument. The appearance and the subsequent disappearance of the bubble is due to the changes in
temperature and atmospheric pressure. Bubbles larger than 1/4 inch, however, are probably caused by a
leaking compass housing and should be viewed with suspicion.
4.Heat - never place the compass in a hot place such as an exposed flat rock or leave it lying under the
sun. The expanding liquid may damage the compass housing.
5.Luminous Points - can be made more brilliant with the regular exposure to light.
6.Do not drop it - the compass is made from sturdy plastic but do not test its sturdiness by dropping it
at any height.
Part 3: Using the Map and Compass
Orienting the Map
The first step the land navigator must always perform. Orienting the map simply mean aligning the grid
north and geographical north. For our purposes, geographical north is the same as magnetic north. To
do this:
1. Turn the compass dial units it reads 0-degrees (n) at the index pointer.
2. Align the left edge of the base plate to the leftmost north- south gridline of the map.
3. Without disturbing the relative of the map and compass, rotate the map until the orienting arrow “
boxes in ’’ the north end of the magnetic needle. The map now is properly oriented.
How to get a bearing from the map
1. Orient the map.
2. Lay the compass on the map so that the long edge of the base plate is exactly on the line on the map
that you wish to travel. The directional arrow should point towards the direction of travel.
3. Rotate the dial until you “box in ’’ the needle.
4. The bearing is the number indicated at the index pointer.
Triangulation / Locating where you are
A common use for the compass is plotting a position on the map (usually indicating where you are). To
do this, you need to identify two prominent features on the map that you can see on the field. Two
mountain peaks are usually used.
1. First, get the field bearing of the peak A and on an orienting map, plot the bearing making sure that
the lines goes through peak A. You are somewhere along this line.
2. Next, get the field bearing of peak B and plot it on the map, again making sure that the line goes
through peak B.
3. Your exact position on the map is the intersection of these two lines.
As with all other aspects of navigation, you should use your common sense here. For example, you are
on a river and you have identified that river on the map. All you need is one field bearing of a
prominent feature; you are where that line of bearing and the river intersect. Sometimes, a compass is
not even needed if the navigator is good interpreter of contour lines.
Route Finding
This is a necessary step before going on any trip into the mountains or wilderness. It goes without
saying that you usually take the easiest, though not necessarily the shortest, route to your destination
but you should also incorporate possible water sources, scenic spots, and ideal campsites for the night
when planning which route to take.
The shortest distance between two points is a straight line. In mountaineering, the straight line isn’t
necessarily the easiest. There are many qualities to a good route, and the fastest route sometimes misses
the whole point and spirit of mountaineering.
Route finding is not necessarily something you do once you get lost. It begins at home or at the preclimb meeting. This involves getting familiar with the map and creating a picture in your mind of how
the mountain will look like once you get there.
Gentler slopes mean easier trekking. Keep river crossings to a minimum. If you are boxed in by steep
slopes, try contouring - walking across the slope moving neither upward nor downward - until you
reach a gentler slope.
The finished route will look like a broken line weaving its way from the jump - off point to the point of
destination, most like a peak. You can now base your itinerary on the selected route. Note down the
direction and distances so that you can periodically check if you’re following the correct trail.
Terrain - The mountain environment rarely presents clear vistas where one can have a pick of
prominent features to take bearings on. Maximize sighting opportunities and plan the route ahead
before you start the next trek. Try to create immediate objectives, break down the whole route, and plan
accordingly. Take note of changes in the slope. In heavily forested areas especially at mid-altitude,
changes in terrain can be abrupt. Don’t be deceived and stick to your plan. It is important to relate the
map to your position so try to get a good view of the surroundings from time to time. This, of course, is
not always possible unless you are planning a new route up the grasslands of Maculot.
Tree Climbing - One of the most obvious and practical remedies is to practice your climbing skills on a
tree. No need for protection systems and belays here but take extra care in choosing your tree. Its height
should be at par with the surrounding vegetation. Most healthy trees at mid-altitude are quite sturdy and
can easily support a few members of the party. On sharper slopes check the root system. And check to
see if ever an act of god strikes the tree down, the fall you would take would not result in your untimely
demise.
Wind, rain, and the works - One thing is sure when climbing tropical forest: you will almost always be
wet. Either from the precipitation of your perspiration. There are many types of rain. There is the
shower type of rain that persist until if finds hole in the seams of your raingear. Map reading in this
type of rain is possible if a provisional shelter for reading the map can be found. Even then it can be
tricky. The howling type of rain is the nemesis. In these instances either finding a rock shelter or setting
up the tent are probably the most acceptable solutions if the succeeding attempts at route finding seem
fiendish and foolhardy.
The key is planning the route way in advance, taking advantage of good breaks in the weather. Plan
with the group every evening and set achievable targets and probable scenarios for the following day.
Have the wisdom to know when to stop and accept Natures superiority. If howling rain strikes the team
on an exploratory climb, assess the best place to stop. Setting up camp amongst the shelter of trees is
desirable but check for falling branches. In the evening, check everybody’s asses to see who has the
birthmark.
In low visibility situations, be very careful when marching on. If the route plan has been made and the
general bearing and features to follow have been determined, create immediate objectives to achieve
some distance, if you really must. Sometimes it is best to slightly offset specially if the objective is a
very prominent feature, like a ridge for instance.
Part 4: Global Positioning System (GPS)
Part 5: Lost?
S.T.O.P. – Stop, Think, Observe and Plan.
Assessing the situation - The first thing is to STOP. Are you really lost? Or has the vegetation has
changed? When you started the trek you knew exactly where you were, ditto for most of the route until
the present predicament. A good navigator never really gets lost. Assess the state of the team. Is anyone
injured? Everybody in good spirits? Anybody in danger in missing an important dinner date on
Monday? Is everyone together? A group has a very good chance of rectifying the situation. It is the lone
mountaineer separated from the group that’s in deep shit, for obvious reasons.
Following the trail - Discuss the last known position and backtrack if time and weather will allow it.
Work your way from there, always coming back to the known spot if the going gets rough. If you are
alone and not sure where you are, mark your position and keep coming back to it if you can’t seem to
find the right trail. It would be easier to find you that way.
Bivouac - A highly taxed and stressed team hours away from a known position would be better off
bivouac than trashing about getting more disoriented by the minute. If provisions and shelter are
adequate, there is no reason to get distressed.
Most Trodden Trails
What to do if you are really lost for days?
Part 6: Orienteering
It is defined as a game utilizing land navigation skills, stamina, and speed. There are two basic types of
orienteering courses.
Course Orienteering
This is a footrace where the participant should pass through several stations called control points (CP)
in a predetermined sequence. At the starting point, the participants are given a compass and sometimes
a map on which he / she may plot the course to be followed. The participant is then given the bearing
the distance to CP # 1 - the first station. Upon reaching CP # 1, the participant is given a code to write
down (as to verify his / her reaching the station) and the bearing the distance to the next CP. This is
repeated until the final CP, which is also the starting point, is reached. The person who completes the
entire course with the least error and in the shortest time wins.
Sometimes, a description of the CP is given with the bearing and direction. CP’s are marked by a red
and white orienteering flag.
Point Orienteering
The bearings and distances to all control points are given at the starting point and the participant then
plots these on the given map. The participant then make his own route, passing by as many CP’s as
possible. CP’s far away from the starting point are worth more points than the nearby CP’s.
Part 7: Exercises
Following a Bearing
When orienteering, try to travel in the exact direction of your bearing. If you take one stride to the left
during the course of your travel, you will end up one step to the left of your control point. If you
deviated far enough, you will miss the CP completely. Since you cannot keep your eyes constantly of
your compass make sure you were following the correct heading, it is better to select landmarks (a tall
tree, bush, etc.) which lie along the bearing you are following. Upon reaching that landmark, select
another prominent landmark along your bearing until you reach the CP. Don’t forget to count your
strides.
If an obstacle (gully, thick vegetation, structures, etc…) blocks your path, you can go around it, but
remember two things;
(1) First, compensate for your deviation - if you took about 20 strides to the right of your bearing, you
must take another 20 spaces to the left once you have cleared the obstacle. An alternative is to (2)
Compensate for your circuitous route by subtracting the number of strides you actually took.
The same principle applies to mountaineering. If you follow a trail that goes to the right of your
bearing, you must move back towards the left as to compensate for the deviation.
Compass Bearing
You need a compass and a coin for this activity.
Stand in an open area (a parking lot will do) and place the coin between your feet. Pick an arbitrary
bearing, for example - 20- degrees. Walk 15 paces towards that direction, and then stop. Add 120degrees to your initial bearing; in this case the result is 140-degrees, then walk another 15 paces. At the
end of this distance, add-120 degrees again to the previous bearing; resulting to 260-degrees. Walk
another 15 paces and at the end of that distance, the coin should be at your feet again.
Fit the Map to the Terrain
The biggest mistake of map readers is looking at the map, assuming that they are in a certain place, and
then looking around for landmarks that will confirm that they are indeed in that assumed location. This
mistake is called “fitting the terrain to the map”. This is doing things backwards.
To avoid this pitfall, don’t open the map right away. Begin by checking your location; are you in a
place where you can see your terrain in several directions? Move a little way off your route if
necessary; get away from trees and other obstacles that can obstruct your vision. Then look at the
mountains, streams, ridges, and other geographical features to get a sense of how their positions relate
to one another. Imagine how would they look on a topographic map. Once you have an idea of how the
area will appear, you can then fit the map to the terrain, and not the other way around.
This is not a play of words. If you look at the map first, you establish certain features you intend to
locate at the terrain, and with that preconceived notion, you’ll probably find things that fit and overlook
more important features that don’t.
Part 8: Special Land Navigational Techniques
Offsetting or Aiming Off
Following a compass bearing is possible only to an accuracy of 10-20 degrees, even less in rough
terrain. If you attempt to walk directly to the river fork, you could end up on either side and not know
which way to go to reach the fork. By offsetting or aiming well to the right of your compass bearing,
you can be sure that when you reach the river, you need to turn left to reach the fork.
Handrail
It is difficult to navigate towards your destination if it lies behind a hill and/or is obscured and blocked
by vegetation, making a direct bearing is impossible. Instead of being gung ho about it and forging
ahead on the direct bearing, you can search for a linear feature n the map that will lead you to your
target area.
Landforms commonly used are rivers, ridges, and roads.
First take a bearing to the handrail feature, and then walk to it.
If the handrail does not lead directly to your objective, “jump-off” on a compass bearing for the
remaining distance, using the hilltop reference.
Contouring
It is extremely difficult to follow a compass bearing when the path repeatedly rises and falls in
elevation.
Contouring uses the compass as a general reference point for direction, while you follow a contour line
on the map, staying at a constant elevation while you negotiate hills and ridges. In this case the hilltop
lies exactly in the path, you can walk along the contours of this hill and check the back bearing with the
hilltop as your reference point to get back on track.
Detouring
Like contouring, detouring takes you off the path of your compass bearing. Where in contouring you do
this to avoid change in elevation. In detouring this is done to avoid an obstacle such as a swamp or
thick vegetation. When you detour, keep the direct bearing on your compass and measure or estimate
the distance you have taken away from the bearing. Once clear of the obstacles, return to the original
bearing, by walking the same distance to take you back to your original track.