Sociology 319
Sociological Approaches to Social Psychology (Carr)
Thursday January 22, 2009
What is Social Psychology?
I. What is social psychology?
A. Definition 1 - “The science which studies the behavior of the individual in so far as his
behavior stimulates other individuals or is itself a reaction to this behavior.” – F. H.
Allport (1924).
1. The notion that behavior is shaped by other individuals, as opposed to
biological traits, or other in-born characteristics was revolutionary at the time.
B. Definition 2 – The scientific study of the ways in which “people’s thoughts, feelings,
and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence of others.” – G. Allport
(1985).
1. Emphasis on the “imagined presence of others” is a powerful influence on
social psychological thinking today. Through socialization processes, we internalize
others’ beliefs, and our behavior is shaped by others’ beliefs and attitudes even if they are
not physically present. Symbolic interactionist perspectives on the self view our selfconcept as the product of our interactions with others, and our memories of those
interactions with others.
C. Definition 3 - According to sociologist James House, social psychology comprises
three sub-perspectives; the first is psychological, the latter two are sociological.
1. Psychological social psychology: Emphasizes individual psychological processes
as related to social stimuli; individual differences due to temperament/personality;
experimental methods. In recent years, biological processes – including genetics and
brain activity – have been implicated as a key influence on many interpersonal and social
outcomes. (e.g., road rage is triggered by an individual-level trait, such as testosterone, or
a personality trait like aggressiveness)
2. Psychological sociology (or “social structure and personality” SSP): interplay
between social structure and individual thoughts, behaviors, and emotions; survey
methods. The key questions focus on the ways that social class, gender, race,
historical time period, and birth cohort shape individual level outcomes, such as
attitudes, mental health, emotions, and beliefs. (e.g., road rage is more likely to
occur among social subgroups who are raised to respond to unexpected events
with aggression and anger, or during time periods when time pressures are high
3. Symbolic interactionism: face-to-face interaction processes; participant
observation and in-depth interviews. Views social reality as “social constructed”
rather than objective. Less focused on answer questions of “why” and focuses on
“how?” (e.g., an interesting topic of study is how individual drivers assess
whether they are being victimized/targeted on the road, and why some would
respond aggressively while others would remain passive).
D. Definition 4 - Social psychology is the scientific and systematic study of the nature
and causes of individual behavior, thoughts, and emotions in social settings.
1. By systematic study, we mean that we study people using rigorous scientific methods.
These methods might include controlled experiments in laboratories, using surveys and
questionnaires of the population.
2. Individual behavior - We are interested in what people DO. Individual behavior may
include anything from helping others, to partaking in violent or aggressive behavior, to
dating and marriage patterns. However, observable behavior may not accurately reflect
one’s underlying feelings and emotions.
3. Thoughts and emotions. Some psychologists (such as behaviorists) believe that we
can only study that which we can observe. Social psychologists, in contrast, are interested
in THOUGHTS and FEELINGS as well as behaviors. However, we must rely on selfreports of thoughts and emotions, and these reports may not always be “accurate.”
4. By nature and causes of human social behavior, we are implying that social
psychology is not concerned merely with describing what happens between and among
people. Rather we look for explanations and patterns. The search for explanation and
pattern is guided by one’s theoretical framework. This is the central point of today’s
lecture.
5. By social settings, we mean activities of individuals in the presence of others, or in
social groups. social interactions in dyads or groups of two, or interactions between small
groups of people, or even relations between large demographic groups, such as race
relations. Specifically, we can break “human social behavior” down into four categories
or four concerns...
a. The impact that one individual has on another individual. Topics of social
psych concerned with this set of relationships include interpersonal persuasion (one
person trying to change another’s mind), altruism (helping behavior), aggression (hurting
behavior), and interpersonal relations and sentiments.
b. The impact of a group on its members. Individuals belong to many groups and
institutions, such as the family, a sorority, or a workplace. Groups influence and regulate
the behavior of its members, typically through establishing norms - or rules for
appropriate behavior. Topics of interest to social psychologists include conformity
(individuals’ adherence to norms of group behavior) and socialization (how it is that a
group “trains” its members).
c. The impact of the members on the group. Members of a group are not simply
passive individuals molded by group norms. Rather, the dynamics of a group and the
leadership of a group are often influenced by its members. As such, social psychologists
are interested in group processes. (e.g., how do individuals forge attitude change among
the group, how is productivity established, how do leaders emerge?
d. The impact of one group on another group. The activities and structure of one
group may impact other groups. Relationships may be hostile or cooperative. Social
psychologists are interested in the emergence, persistence and resolution of intergroup
conflict, such as race relations.
II. Theories in social psychology:
A. Five Perspectives: Five important theoretical perspectives in social psychology are
reinforcement theory, cognitive theory, role theory, symbolic interactionism, and
evolutionary theory. Theoretical perspectives in social psychology begin with general
descriptions of the fundamental human nature. In general terms, a theory is set of interrelated propositions that organizes and explains a set of observed phenomenon.
B. How do we assess theories? Theories are sufficiently broad so that they can explain as
may types of human behavior in as many social situations as possible. How do we assess
a theory? The usefulness and popularity of a perspective lies mostly in its successful
application in an ever-widening array of new and different situations.
1. We seldom find that one theory is “correct.” In fact, that’s not really our goal. We hope
to find the theoretical explanation that is the most appropriate to the topic at hand.
2. Middle-range theories are propositions developed to explain a specific topic of interest,
and typically have a more limited applicability than grand theories. Hypotheses are
specific predictions about the relationship between one or more very specific concepts
(e.g., Increasing criminal penalties will reduce crime).
II. Specific Theoretical Frameworks
A. Reinforcement theory: KEY ASSUMPTION: A PERSON’S CURRENT BEHAVIOR
IS DETERMINED BY REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS, EITHER IN THE
PRESENT, IN ONE’S PRIOR EXPERIENCES, OR EXPECTED IN THE FUTURE.
1. Core assumption:
a. The basic premise that holds together the several theories that can be called
“reinforcement theories” is that social behavior is governed by external events, especially
rewards and punishments. In general, we will repeat a behavior that is rewarded, and we
will discontinue a behavior that is punished. Behavior that is rewarded is “learned” and
then incorporated into our on-going repertoire of behaviors.
2. General Critiques
a. According to this theory, people should regularly engage in behavior that has been
reinforced. But as we know, people often engage in behaviors that are not rewarded. How
would altruism be explained? Or how would crime be explained?
b. At the most basic level, there is nothing really social psychological about this theory. It
is only when we consider that other individuals can act as stimuli that reinforcement
theory becomes social psychological. This is where the more modern variants on the old
reinforcement theory come in. The original theories were based on studies of teaching
animals to repeat a behavior, for instance. More current versions apply to a broader range
of behaviors, incorporate a wide variety of rewards and punishments, and often these
rewards and punishments are provided by people.
4. Variants of Reinforcement Theory
a. Social learning theory - People learn through conditioning and imitation. (This is a
framework that is often used for understanding socialization, or how people acquire the
attitudes, behaviors, and tastes of their parents and peers).
i. Conditioning - Human learning is the process of acquiring new responses that
have been reinforced. Through the process of receiving rewards, people begin to acquire
a behavior. Specifically, classical conditioning is a basic form of learning in which one
stimulus, initially neutral, acquires the capacity to evoke reactions through repeated
pairing with another stimulus. In a sense, one stimulus becomes a signal for the
presentation or occurrence of the other. (e.g., Pavlov: dog associates bell with food, thus
the ringing bell ultimately triggered salivation)
Example: This is an explanation offered for how racially prejudiced
attitudes are transmitted. For instance, a parent may not utter blatantly racist views, but
might still transmit their racism to their children. If every time a person of color appears
on television, or walks past a mother and child on the street, the mother might show some
upset, she might clutch her purse, etc. So, even without uttering a word, the child will - in
his/her mind - begin to pair the stimuli of “person of color” and “fear.”
ii. Imitation/modeling theory - Humans need not even receive rewards directly;
they may simply observe someone else performing a behavior, and then watch that
person be either rewarded or punished. Children often learn and acquire behaviors
through imitation. They may observe someone perform a behavior, and receive rewards
or punishment. The child may LEARN a behavior by observing it, but will likely not
perform the behavior unless s/he saw it rewarded
EXAMPLE FROM CURRENT RESEARCH: A recent study published in Pediatrics,
reports that “parents shape body image, self-esteem of children. In a study of more than
6,700 adolescents ages 9-14, the researchers found that:
a. both boys and girls who said that their fathers were concerned with weight
issues were more than twice as likely to become constant dieters compared with their
peers (when child’s height and weight were held constant). [This finding suggests that
*conditioning* may occur. Perhaps fathers may frown when children eat, or roll their
eyes when they see an overweight person eating at a restaurant. The children may pair the
stimulus of “father’s negative reaction” with the stimulus of “eating” or “overweight
persons” and may thus learn that “overeating is bad.”].
b. boys and girls who reported that their mother was constantly dieting were also
more likely to become concerned with their own weight and diet frequently.[This finding
suggests that *imitation* may occur. Children may imitate the behavior that they witness
their mother engaging in].
b. Social exchange theory i. This theory says that individuals view their social relationships as exchanges of
commodities. We try to maximize our rewards and minimize our costs in our interactions
with others. Thus, people seek out high reward-to-cost interactions with others and avoid
low reward-to-cost interactions.
ii. This theory is a bit more sophisticated than the early version of reinforcement theory
reviewed earlier. In classical reinforcement theory, it is almost automatic that people
perform a task that is rewarded. Social exchange (and social learning theory) assume that
individuals are now active and thinking participants seeking out positive stimuli. People
“calculate” and consider reward/cost ratios before they act.
a. In addition, people don’t only calculate the rewards and costs within their
relationships, but they try to assess these pros and cons, in relation to the rewards and
costs that they perceive might be available in other relationships (CLalt or comparison
level for alternatives). For instance, someone who perceives that there are many possible
dating candidates who are superior to their partner may leave their partner for one of
these presumably better options).
c. Equity theory: Given what we’ve just learned, that people continue to stay in
relationships that are rewarding, then why don’t people just try to take advantage of
others all the time, and maximize their rewards? Equity theory explains why
1. Premise: most people operate according to a principle of equity in which they expect to
receive approximately what they give in a social relationship. Social relationships need
not be romantic relationships or friendship relationship. These same concepts apply to the
workplace and organizational behavior for instance. On-the-job perks such as Xmas
bonuses, company picnics, etc. are there to raise morale, but also to raise productivity.
The assumption is that people will “put in” when they “get something out of” their
environment.
2. Equity might not occur naturally, so people strive to achieve it. Inequitable
relationships often lead to negative emotional outcomes. People who give too much
might feel taken advantage of, or resentful. Those who take too much might feel guilty.
Thus, people in a relationship will either adjust their rewards and costs or will attempt to
adjust the rewards and costs of the other person.