1
Date of submission: 11.9.2009
Running head: Lack of Nurturing Attitudes, Work Stress
A Prospective Cohort Study of Lack of Maternal Nurturing Attitudes
Predicting Adulthood Work Stress: The Cardiovascular Risk in
Young Finns Study
Hintsanen, M.¹, Kivimäki, M.², Hintsa, T.¹, Theorell,T.³, Elovainio, M.4, Raitakari,
O.T.5, Viikari, J.S.A.6, & Keltikangas-Järvinen, L.¹
¹ Department of Psychology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
² Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London,
London, UK; and Finnish Institute of Occupational Health, Helsinki, Finland
³ Stress Research Institute, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden; and
Department of Public Health Sciences, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
4 National
Research and Development Centre for Welfare and Health, Helsinki,
Finland; and Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College
London, London, UK
5 Department
of Clinical Physiology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; and
Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
6 Department
of Medicine, University of Turku, Turku, Finland; and Turku
University Hospital, Turku, Finland
2
Correspondence should be addressed to Mirka Hintsanen, University of
Helsinki, Department of Psychology, P.O. Box 9, FIN-00014 University of
Helsinki, Finland.
Email: mirka.hintsanen@helsinki.fi, Tel: +358-9-191 29517; Fax: +358-9-191
29521
Word count (body text): 3669, Tables: 4, Figures: 0.
Key words: Childhood stress; effort-reward imbalance; job strain; nurturing
attitudes; parenting; stress sensitivity; work stress.
3
Stressful childhood environments arising from lack of nurturing attitudes are
hypothesized to contribute to later stress vulnerability. We examined whether
lack of nurturing attitudes predict adulthood work stress. Participants were 456
women and 387 men from the prospective Cardiovascular Risk in Young Finns
Study. Work stress was assessed as job strain and effort-reward imbalance in
2001 when the participants were from 24 to 39 –year olds. Lack of maternal
nurturance (intolerance and lack of emotional warmth) was assessed based on
mothers’ reports when the participants were at age of 3 to 18 years and again at
age of 6 to 21 years. Linear regressions showed that lack of emotional warmth
in childhood predicted lower adulthood job control and higher job strain in both
genders. Maternal intolerance predicted lower job control and higher job strain
in women. Most associations were not explained by socioeconomic
circumstances. Lack of nurturing attitudes in childhood may affect sensitivity to
work stress and selection into stressful work conditions in adulthood. More
attention should be paid to pre-employment factors in work stress research.
4
Research on animals suggests that less nurturing maternal behavior in rats is
associated with more pronounced hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis
responses to stress and higher behavioral stress responses in offspring. (Liu et
al., 1997, Caldji et al., 1998) Existing research in humans also suggests that
early stressful experiences may have long lasting effects on physiological stress
systems (Bremner and Vermetten, 2001, Heim et al., 2002, Luecken, 1998,
Evans and Kim, 2007) and recent review concluded that family environment
characterized by frequent conflicts and cold, unsupportive, and neglectful
relationships may predispose the individual to later stress and mental and
physical health problems. (Repetti et al., 2002)
In adulthood, a considerable part of time is spent in work settings. Work
is a major source of stress and work stress has been repeatedly linked with a
range of health problems, including cardiovascular disease (Kivimäki et al.,
2006, Eller et al., 2009) and mental disorders. (Stansfeld and Candy, 2006) In
spite of this only few studies have examined pre-employment determinants of
work stress (Hintsa et al., 2007, Hintsa et al., 2006, Hintsa et al., 2008, Kivimäki
et al., 2007, Hemmingsson and Lundberg, 2006, Elovainio et al., 2007) and to
our knowledge, no previous studies are available on the association between
childhood nurturance and adulthood work stress. Examining early roots of
stress vulnerability is important for understanding the reasons for and
consequences of work stress and for planning interventions that accurately take
into account early predisposing factors.
In the current study, we examine whether lack of nurturing attitudes by
the mother (intolerance towards the child and lack of emotional significance of
5
the child to the mother) in the childhood predict work stress of the participants
18 - 21 years later in adulthood. We assess work stress based on the two most
widely used conceptual models proposing that work stress arises from a
combination of high job demands and low job control (Karasek, 1979) and
effort-reward imbalance - a combination of low rewards received at work as
compared to the level of efforts invested. (Siegrist and Peter, 1994)
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Participants
The participants were derived from the ongoing prospective “Cardiovascular
Risk in Young Finns” study beginning in 1980. The subjects for the original
sample in 1980 (n = 3,596) were selected randomly from six age cohorts (aged
3, 6, 9, 12, 15, and 18) in the population register of the Social Insurance
Institution, a database that covers the whole population of Finland. The design
of the study and the selection of the sample have been described in detail by
Raitakari et al. (2008) The Young Finns cohort was enrolled into the study in
1980. The assessments of the present study were carried out in 1980, 1983
(maternal nurturing attitudes and mother’s years of education) and in 2001
when the participants were aged 24, 27, 30, 33, 36, and 39 (work stress
variables and participants own education and occupational status). 2,105
participants (58.5% of the 1980 cohort) took part in the work stress
assessments. Of them 691 were not employed in a full-time job in 2001 or did
6
not report employment status, and were therefore excluded. As working and
possible work stress experienced by the participants at the time of maternal
report of child rearing attitudes was thought as a potential source of
confounding, participants who were known to work already in 1980 or in 1983 (n
= 94, after other exclusions) were excluded from the analyses. There were 843
participants (387, 45.9% men and 456, 54.1% women) who had full data on all
study variables in 1980, 1983 and 2001. All the analyses were conducted on
these participants. The mean age of the included participants was 30.7 (in
2001). Participants gave written informed consent, and the study was approved
by local ethics committees.
Measurement of Job Strain and Effort-reward Imbalance
Job demands and efforts were assessed with a same 3-item scale based on the
Occupational Stress Questionnaire (OSQ; Cronbach’s alpha, α = 0.6) (Elo et al.,
1992) developed at the Finnish Institute of Occupational Health. The OSQ has
been widely used in Finland and the validity of the OSQ items has been
satisfactory in studies involving a total of over 25,000 employees in various
occupations. (Elo, 1994, Elo et al., 1992) The items used in the current study
were: “Do you have to hurry to get your work done?” “Does your work have
phases that are too difficult?” and “Is your work mentally strenuous?” These
items correspond quite closely to demands in the Karasek´s Job Content
Questionnaire. (Karasek, 1985) They also resemble efforts in the Siegrist’s
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effort-reward imbalance questionnaire. (Siegrist et al., 2004) Responses were
obtained on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (all the time).
Job control was measured with the Job Content Questionnaire, (Karasek,
1985) which includes nine items for job control (α = 0.9). Responses were given
on a 5-point scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). We
constructed job strain as linear term, a continuous job strain variable obtained
from the following equation: (job demand score) – (job control score).
(Landsbergis et al., 1994)
Reward was also measured with a 3-item scale (α = 0.6) from the OSQ.
The items used in the current study were: “Do you get help and support from
your superior if needed?” (1 [very little] to 5 [very much]) “How do your coworkers get along with each other on the workplace?” (Their relationship range
is 1 [bad, tense, resentful, etc.] to 5 [very good]) “How satisfied are you with
your current employment?” (1 [very unsatisfied] to 5 [very satisfied]). These
items are similar to the reward items in the effort–reward imbalance
questionnaire. (Siegrist et al., 2004) Effort–reward imbalance was constructed
as a continuous variable, dividing effort by reward, as recommended by Siegrist
et al. (Siegrist et al., 2004) A logarithmic transformation was performed to
correct for skewness and kurtosis. All work stress scales were calculated with
mean function. The participants were required to have answered to at least 50%
of the items of each scale. Participants with more missing values were
excluded.
Lack of Nurturing Attitudes
8
Lack of nurturing attitudes (as indicated by intolerance of the mother towards
the normal activity of the child, and lack of emotional warmth by the mother
towards the child) were self-rated by the mothers in 1980 and in 1983 using a
scale based on the Operation Family Study. (Makkonen et al., 1981) Intolerance
(α = 0.7 and 0.7, for assessments in 1980 and 1983 respectively) was assessed
with three items on a 5-point scale, e.g. “In difficult situations the child is a
burden“, 1 = not at all, 5 = a great deal. Lack of emotional warmth (α = 0.7 and
0.8, for assessments in 1980 and 1983 respectively) was assessed with four
items on a 5-point scale, e.g. “The child is significant to me“, 1 = very significant,
5 = not significant. Mean scores of these scales were formed so that high
values represent lack of nurturing attitudes, i.e. high intolerance and high lack of
emotional warmth. Here again, the participants were required to have
information on at least 50% of items of each scale to be included in the study.
Finally, the mean of intolerance in 1980 and 1983 and mean of lack of
emotional warmth in 1980 and 1983 were calculated, and these scales were
used in the analyses.
Participant Socio-economic Status, Childhood Family Income, and
Maternal Education
Socio-economic status (SES) of the participants was indicated by educational
level and occupational group. Educational level was classified as 1) low
(comprehensive school), 2) intermediate (secondary education), or 3) high
9
(academic; graduated from a polytechnic or studying at or graduated from a
university). Classification into occupational groups was based on the criteria of
the Central Statistical Office of Finland. Three groups were formed: 1) manual,
2) lower non-manual, and 3) upper non-manual. Entrepreneurs, who formed a
very heterogeneous group of their own in the original measure, were placed to
the aforementioned occupational groups according to educational level (low,
intermediate, and high education corresponding to manual, lower non-manual
and upper non-manual occupational groups respectively).
Childhood SES was assessed as it has previously predicted later stress.
(Evans and Kim, 2007, Hintsa et al., 2006) Childhood SES was indicated by
childhood family income (assessed in 1983 with an 8-point scale of annual
income) and maternal education (indicated by mother’s years of education in
1983).
Statistical Analyses
All analyses were conducted for men and women separately, as maternal child
rearing attitudes have been shown to be differently associated with various
outcomes depending on the gender of the participant. (Pulkki et al., 2003,
Flouri, 2004) Furthermore, gender differences in work stress are commonly
found, e.g. (Hintsanen et al., 2005) Two linear regression models were
constructed examining maternal nurturing attitudes predicting later adulthood
work stress in the participants. The first model was adjusted for age, whereas
the second model was adjusted for age, mothers years of education, childhood
10
family income, and SES of the participant in adulthood. Furthermore, these
same associations were examined in men and women in two age groups
(younger group: aged 3, 6, and 9 in 1980, and 6, 9, and 12 in 1983; older group:
aged 12, 15, and 18 in 1980, and 15, 18, and 21 in 1983) because the age
range of our participants is rather wide and vulnerability to environmental and
social factors may vary at different ages.
RESULTS
Attritions
The differences between the original sample (n = 3596) gathered in 1980 and
the final study sample (n = 843) were examined with t-test and χ²-test. Excluded
participants were somewhat older (mean ages 31.7 vs. 30.7 years, p < .001)
and less educated (2.1 vs. 2.3, p < .001). Furthermore, they had lower
occupational status (1.8 vs. 2.0, p < .001), their family had had lower income in
their childhood (5.7 vs. 6.0, p < .001) and their mothers reported slightly higher
intolerance (2.06 vs. 2.00, p = .005) and higher lack of emotional warmth
towards them (1.60 vs. 1.56, p = .030). Excluded participants had lower rewards
(3.7 vs. 3.8, p < .001) and a larger proportion of men than women were
excluded (78.1% vs. 75.1%, p = .037).
Characteristics and Bivariate Correlations
11
Table 1 presents characteristics of the study variables and the bivariate
correlations in men and in women. Lack of maternal emotional warmth in
childhood was correlated with higher adulthood job strain and lower job control
in men, whereas higher maternal intolerance in childhood was correlated with
higher adulthood job strain and lower job control in women. Intolerance and lack
of emotional warmth were correlated with each other in both genders. Higher
maternal intolerance also correlated with lower age of the participant in both
genders. In women, lack of emotional warmth in childhood was correlated with
participant’s lower adulthood education and lower occupational status, and with
lower maternal education. In addition, maternal intolerance in childhood
correlated with lower adulthood occupational status in women. Child rearing
attitudes were not correlated with socio-economic measures in men.
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Insert Table 1 about here
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Lack of Maternal Nurturing Attitudes in Childhood Predicting Work Stress
in Adulthood
Table 2 presents the results of linear regression analyses on lack of maternal
nurturing attitudes assessed in participants’ childhood / youth predicting job
strain and effort-reward imbalance and their components in participants’
adulthood in men and in women. In men, in age adjusted models, lack of
12
emotional warmth by the mother predicted lower job control (β = -.138, p = .006)
and higher job strain (β = .120, p = .018). Further adjustments for educational
level, occupational status, maternal education and childhood family income did
not attenuate these associations. Maternal intolerance did not predict work
stress measures in men (p >= .149, for all age adjusted associations).
In women, in age adjusted models, lack of emotional warmth and
intolerance by the mother in childhood predicted lower job control (β = -.103, p =
.027; β = -.110, p = .029, respectively) and higher job strain (β = .096, p = .040;
β = .119, p = .019, respectively). Further adjustments for childhood and
adulthood socio-economic measures attenuated the associations for lack of
emotional warmth to non-significance. The additional adjustments did not
attenuate the association between intolerance and job strain, but the
association between intolerance and lower job control was attenuated to
marginal significance (p = .058). Lack of maternal nurturing attitudes did not
predict demands / efforts, rewards, or effort-reward imbalance in either gender.
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Insert Table 2 about here
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Lack of Maternal Nurturing Attitudes in Different Age Groups in Childhood
Predicting Work Stress in Adulthood
13
To examine age differences, the participants were divided to two age groups
formed by the three youngest and three oldest age cohorts. Tables 3 and 4
present linear regression analyses conducted in these age groups, in men and
in women respectively. In men, in age adjusted models, childhood lack of
maternal nurturing attitudes predicted work stress parameters only in the group
of older participants. More specifically, childhood lack of emotional warmth by
the mother predicted lower job control (β = -.249, p = .001) and higher job strain
(β = .234, p = .003) in adulthood. Furthermore, maternal intolerance predicted
lower rewards (β = -.221, p = .007). These associations were not attenuated
when the analyses were additionally adjusted for childhood and adulthood
socioeconomic measures.
In women, in age adjusted models, childhood lack of maternal nurturing
attitudes predicted work stress parameters in adulthood only in the group of
younger participants although there were some nearly significant associations
for the older group too (intolerance predicting lower job control and higher job
strain). In younger women, lack of emotional warmth by the mother predicted
lower job control (β = -.146, p = .023) and higher job strain (β = .152, p = .018).
The additional adjustments for childhood and adulthood socioeconomic
measures did not attenuate these associations.
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Insert Tables 3 and 4 about here
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14
DISCUSSION
Our main finding was that lack of nurturing attitudes by the mother in the
childhood of the participant predicted participant’s lower job control and higher
job strain 18 to 21 years later in adulthood. Lack of emotional warmth was an
important predictor in men, whereas in women, higher intolerance was more
important. These findings were not dependent on childhood or adulthood
socioeconomic conditions.
Much of the work stress literature focuses on work characteristics as a
source of stress. Less attention has been paid to individual factors and even
less to early experiences related to stress vulnerability. Our findings show that
adulthood work stress may be predicted by variations in childhood environment.
Our present findings are in line with previous research indicating that even
ordinary variations in maternal nurturing are related to stress reactivity of the
child. (Hane and Fox, 2006) Furthermore, our findings are in line with previous
research suggesting that childhood early experiences may lead to long lasting
stress vulnerability and dysregulation of physiological stress systems. (Evans
and Kim, 2007, Heim et al., 2002, Luecken, 1998, Bremner and Vermetten,
2001)
The gender differences we found are in line with previous research
reporting that parenting styles may affect girls and boys differently. For
example, depending on child’s gender parenting styles have been differently
associated with child’s depressive symptoms, (Oldehinkel et al., 2006) as well
as with child’s help seeking from the parent. (Puustinen et al., 2008)
15
Furthermore, it has been found that lack of nurturing attitudes predict health
outcomes differently in boys and girls. In boys, strict maternal disciplinary style
has been found to predict higher cardiovascular risk, whereas in girls, strict
disciplinary style as combined with other attitudes indicating low nurturance
interact with socioeconomic status in producing cardiovascular risk. (Pulkki et
al., 2003)
In addition to gender difference, we found age differences both in men
and in women. Lack of nurturing attitudes in childhood of girls were found to
predict later work stress, whereas in boys, more significant for later work stress
were lack of nurturing attitudes in adolescence and young adulthood. In
previous research on childhood and adolescent adjustment, adolescence has
been found to be a more critical period for onset of problems in girls, whereas
problems in boys often emerge in childhood as well as in adolescence. (Crick
and Zahn-Waxler, 2003) The longitudinal nature and long follow-up time of our
study may make our study somewhat incomparable to the previous findings
especially as our outcome measure also differs from those previously reported.
The gender differences found in the current study should be examined further in
future research.
The lack of nurturing attitudes by the mother explained approximately
1% to 1.5% of the variation in offspring’s later work stress (job control and job
strain). As such, these proportions are not very high; they should not have a
very large effect on a life of an individual. However, at the population level such
an effect is still important. Furthermore, we assessed only one aspect of
childhood environment, lack of maternal nurturing attitudes. There are many
16
other potential aspects (e.g. lack of paternal nurturing attitudes) that may as
well affect later work stress, and their combined effect is likely to be more
substantial.
We found larger effects when the participants were divided into two age
groups. In younger women, lack of nurturing attitudes explained approximately
2% of the variation in later work stress (job control and job strain). Effect sizes
in older age group of men were still higher, explaining up to 6.5% of the
variance in work stress (job control, job strain, and rewards). Based on these
results, it seems that in relation to work stress, maternal nurturance inflicts its
largest effects in male participants in their adolescence or young adulthood. It is
possible that this result is related to gender role identity. Men are reported to
have higher work involvement. (Parasuraman and Simmers, 2001) If early life
stressors have led to stress vulnerability, its effects may be emphasized at work
related matters in men. Furthermore, the older group of men was aged 33 – 39
in the end of the follow-up. This age period is likely to be more serious time for
career development and competition as compared to the younger group (24 –
30) which consists of men who have recently graduated and are just beginning
their careers. This is also supported by our data, as men in the older age group
had higher demands / efforts and higher effort-reward imbalance (p = .001, p =
.002, respectively).
Furthermore, these age differences are in line with the Effort-reward
imbalance model, which predicts that personal coping characteristic,
overcommitment, leads to high efforts and to maintaining of efforts even in low
reward conditions. (Siegrist, 1998) According to the model, high efforts are
17
maintained because being in control is self-rewarding for persons with
overcommitment. In the long run, however, exhaustion may follow, (Siegrist,
1998) and this might lead to increased feelings of efforts and imbalance
between efforts and rewards. In the current study we did not assess
overcommitment and cannot therefore examine its effects.
In the current study, work stress was assessed by self-reported
questionnaires on work characteristics. Therefore, we have information on work
characteristics as the participants perceived them. Both objective work
characteristics and individual stress vulnerability are likely to affect these
perceptions. Stressful childhood environment may predispose the individual to
stress and therefore, to perceiving the characteristics of the work environment
as more negative. Selection to more stressful jobs because of individual stress
vulnerability is also possible, that is stress vulnerability induced by early
experiences may lead to selection so that participants with stressful early
experiences end up in more stressful jobs through lower educational attainment.
In the present study, the association between lack of nurturance and work
stress remained after educational level and occupational group were taken into
account.
In addition to affecting physiological stress vulnerability, lack of
nurturance may have indirect stress inducing effects. For example, child rearing
may affect development of social skills (Steelman et al., 2002) which are
important in the current working life where team work and personal networks
are becoming increasingly significant. Therefore, deficient social skills are a
likely source of stress.
18
According to several reviews there is a relationship between
psychosocial working conditions and cardiovascular disease (CVD). (Belkic et
al., 2004, Eller et al., 2009, Kivimäki et al., 2006, Hemingway and Marmot,
1999) This is clearly established among men and particularly so among men
below age 55. In the more recent studies, psychological demands seem to
dominate in the associations. (Eller et al., 2009) The relationship between job
strain and CVD among men seems to correspond to an etiological fraction in
the order of 3 – 7%, and in men below age 55 the etiological fraction seems to
be still higher (7 - 16%). (Karasek and Theorell, 1990) This means that the
childhood nurturing factor that has been shown in the present study can explain
only part of the job strain - CVD relationship. Accordingly, our results do not
necessarily reduce the importance of improvement of psychosocial work
environment although it brings a new dimension into the discussion.
Limitations and Methodological Considerations
In interpreting the current results, some limitations should be taken into
account. Lack of nurturing attitudes was self-rated by the mothers and may
therefore be affected by social desirability. Furthermore, mother’s nurturing
attitudes may to some extent reflect the characteristics of the child, for example
the child’s temperamental difficulty. Child rearing practices may be evoked by
the characteristics and the behavior of the child. Another limitation is that our
data included only maternal nurturing attitudes. At the time of the data collection
19
in early 1980s, the role of the fathers was not perceived to be as important as it
is at present.
As maternal nurturance is assumed to affect general stress sensitivity,
it could be expected to be associated with all work stress variables and not just
some as was the case especially in the analyses combining all age groups. Job
demands, and the variables included in the effort-reward imbalance model were
not assessed with original measures, which may have led to somewhat poorer
measurement, which in turn could explain this phenomenon. However, in our
previous studies we have found associations between the measures used in the
current study and cardiac health (Hintsanen et al., 2005, Hintsanen et al., 2007)
which gives credence to our measures.
In this prospective longitudinal study, we were able to examine how
lack of maternal nurturing attitudes assessed in the childhood of the participants
affected participants’ work stress in adulthood. To our knowledge, no previously
published studies on this subject exist. Overall, few previous studies have been
able to examine the effect of childhood environment on adulthood stress
vulnerability prospectively over such a long follow-up period.
Conclusions
According to our results, lack of maternal nurturing attitudes in one’s childhood
may predict adulthood work stress 18 to 21 years later. Our findings imply that
more attention should be paid to individual variance in stress vulnerability in
work stress research.
20
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was supported by the Academy of Finland (grants 111056, and
124399 for LK-J; grants 117604, 124332, and 124271 for MK), the BUPA
foundation (MK), the Signe and Ane Gyllenberg Foundation (LK-J and MH), and
Yrjö Jahnsson Foundation (MH), Niilo Helander Foundation (MH).
DECLARATION OF INTEREST
The authors have no conflicts of interest.
21
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27
Table 1. Characteristics of Study Variables and Pearson Correlations between the Study Variables in Women and in Men.
WOMEN (n = 456)
Mean
SD
1.
1.
Age
30,9
( 4,50 )
1
2.
Educational level
2,32
( 0,55 )
-0,030
3.
Occupational status
2,03
( 0,66 )
0,112 *
0,565 **
4.
Maternal education
10,0
( 2,93 )
-0,168 **
0,293 **
0,240 **
5.
Childhood family income
5,90
( 1,91 )
0,253 **
0,205 **
6.
Intolerance¹
1,95
( 0,53 )
7.
Lack of emotional warmth¹
1,53
( 0,42 )
8.
Job Demand
2,91
9.
Job Control
0,031
-0,390 **
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1
0,389 **
-0,141 **
-0,114 *
( 0,66 )
0,043
0,201 **
0,123 **
3,74
( 0,78 )
0,152 **
0,295 **
0,357 **
0,204 **
0,198 **
-0,152 **
-0,090
0,198 **
10. Reward
3,81
( 0,71 )
0,000
0,044
0,108 *
0,083
0,127 **
-0,069
-0,053
-0,128 **
0,444 **
11. Job strain
-0,84
( 0,92 )
12. Effort-reward imbalance²
-0,12
( 0,15 )
-0,108 *
0,108 *
-0,217 **
0,016
0,068
1
0,079
-0,002
1
-0,160 **
-0,067
0,320 **
-0,015
-0,035
0,013
1
0,015
1.
Age
30,4
( 4,30 )
2.
Educational level
2,27
( 0,55 )
0,042
3.
Occupational status
1,97
( 0,88 )
0,131 **
4.
Maternal education
10,4
( 3,30 )
-0,071
0,199 **
0,233 **
5.
Childhood family income
6,02
( 1,88 )
0,066
0,199 **
0,242 **
6.
Intolerance¹
2,05
( 0,59 )
7.
Lack of emotional warmth¹
1,59
( 0,50 )
0,025
1
1
-0,194 **
0,139 **
0,088
0,546 **
-0,713 **
-0,471 **
-0,064
-0,106 *
0,043
0,035
0,782 **
-0,119 *
-0,700 **
1
1
0,663 **
1
-0,184 **
MEN (n = 387)
-0,335 **
12.
1
-0,115 *
0,028
11.
1
-0,016
-0,099 *
10.
1
1
0,367 **
1
-0,092
-0,061
0,033
-0,048
-0,023
-0,027
-0,054
-0,044
1
0,345 **
1
1
0,662 **
1
28
8.
Job Demand
2,83
( 0,62 )
0,187 **
0,128 *
0,209 **
0,070
0,056
-0,046
9.
Job Control
3,88
( 0,72 )
0,128 *
0,261 **
0,433 **
0,111 *
0,066
-0,075
-0,134 **
10. Reward
3,84
( 0,67 )
-0,075
0,057
0,155 **
0,042
0,073
-0,044
-0,063
11. Job strain
-1,05
( 0,84 )
0,027
-0,218 **
-0,044
-0,015
0,031
12. Effort-reward imbalance²
-0,14
( 0,13 )
0,169 **
0,020
0,000
-0,004
*Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
¹Mean of assessments in 1980 and 1983
²Logarithmically transformed
-0,131 *
0,062
0,065
0,008
1
0,218 **
-0,064
1
0,468 **
1
0,121 *
0,546 **
-0,698 **
-0,448 **
0,033
0,800 **
-0,105 *
-0,631 **
1
0,677 **
1
29
Table 2. Linear Regression Analyses of Intolerance and Lack of Emotional Warmth Predicting Work Stress and Its Components in Men and in Women.
Demands / Efforts
Job control
Adjusted
R^2
Rewards
Adjusted
R^2
Job strain
Adjusted
R^2
Effrot-reward imbalance
Adjusted
R^2
Adjusted
R^2
Beta
p
R^2
change
Beta
p
R^2
change
Beta
p
R^2
change
Beta
p
R^2
change
Beta
p
R^2
change
Model 1
.035
.490
_.001
.001
_.110
.029
.029
.010
_.081
.111
.001
.006
.119
.019
.017
.012
.063
.215
<.001
.003
Model 2
.045
.364
.042
.002
_.088
.058
.172
.007
_.075
.137
.018
.005
.108
.028
.088
.010
.067
.186
.028
.004
Model 1
.012
.798
_.002
<.001
_.103
.027
.029
.010
_.053
.258
_.002
.003
.096
.040
.015
.009
.033
.483
_.003
.001
Model 2
.035
.462
.041
.001
_.037
.394
.167
.001
_.037
.441
.014
.001
.057
.219
.081
.003
.037
.430
.025
.001
Model 1
.019
.719
.030
<.001
_.036
.502
.013
.001
_.078
.149
.006
.005
.045
.406
_.003
.002
.060
.264
.027
.003
Model 2
.021
.685
.057
<.001
_.033
.501
.184
.001
_.081
.131
.030
.006
.044
.409
.039
.002
.063
.239
.021
.004
Model 1
.003
.954
.030
<.001
_.138
.006
.030
.019
_.061
.229
.004
.004
.120
.018
.010
.014
.028
.573
.024
.001
Model 2
.010
.841
.057
<.001
_.126
.006
.200
.016
_.056
.270
.028
.003
.115
.021
.051
.013
.030
.552
.019
.001
Women (n = 456)
Intolerance¹
Lack of
emotional
warmth¹
Men (n = 387)
Intolerance¹
Lack of
emotional
warmth¹
30
¹ The mean of assessements in 1980 and 1983
Model 1 - Controlled for age
Model 2 - Controlled for age, educational level, occupational status, maternal education, and childhood family income.
31
Table 3. Linear Regression Analyses of Intolerance and Lack of Emotional Warmth Predictiong Work Stress and Its Components in Younger and Older Age Groups of Men.
Job demand
Beta
p
Job control
Adjusted
R^2
R^2
change
Beta
p
Rewards
Adjusted
R^2
R^2
change
Intolerance¹
Beta
p
Job strain
Adjusted
R^2
R^2
change
Beta
Effor-Reward imbalance
Adjusted
R^2
p
R^2
change
Beta
Adjusted
R^2
p
R^2
change
Younger age group (ages 24 - 30, n = 229)
Model 1
.015
.817
_.006
<.001
.023
.728
.003
.001
.024
.725
_.005
.001
_.010
.877
_.005
<.001
.002
.981
_.003
<.001
Model 2
.017
.801
.024
<.001
.024
.701
.171
.001
.008
.906
.034
<.001
_.010
.882
.049
<.001
.012
.855
_.012
<.001
Model 1
_.023
.734
_.006
.001
_.070
.290
.007
.005
_.033
.620
_.004
.001
.048
.471
_.003
.002
_.004
.949
_.003
<.001
Model 2
_.006
.923
.023
<.001
_.049
.429
.173
.002
_.039
.562
.035
.001
.040
.546
.050
.002
.011
.870
_.012
<.001
Lack of
emotional
warmth¹
Intolerance¹
Older age group (ages 33-39, n = 158)
Model 1
.037
.653
.005
.001
_.131
.105
.039
.016
_.221
.007
.036
.046
.131
.112
.006
.016
.139
.092
.009
.018
Model 2
.055
.511
.048
.003
_.120
.119
.187
.013
_.255
.002
.059
.057
.136
.110
.016
.016
.174
.041
.021
.027
Model 1
.051
.522
.006
.003
_.249
.001
.085
.062
_.095
.237
_.001
.009
.234
.003
.045
.054
.076
.343
_.003
.006
Model 2
.047
.557
.047
.002
_.259 <.001
.241
.065
_.116
.153
.013
.013
.238
.003
.056
.055
.084
.301
<.001
.007
Lack of
emotional
warmth¹
¹ The mean of assessements in 1980 and 1983
32
Model 1 - Controlled for age
Model 2 - Controlled for age, educational level, occupational status, maternal education years and family income in childhood
33
Table 4. Linear Regression Analyses of Intolerance and Lack of Emotional Warmth Predictiong Work Stress and Its Components in Younger and Older Age Groups of Women.
Job demand
Beta
p
Job control
Adjusted
R^2
R^2
change
Beta
p
Rewards
Adjusted
R^2
R^2
change
Intolerance¹
Beta
p
Job strain
Adjusted
R^2
R^2
change
Beta
Effor-Reward imbalance
Adjusted
R^2
p
R^2
change
Beta
Adjusted
R^2
p
R^2
change
Younger age group (ages 24 - 30, n = 241)
Model 1
.038
.567
_.005
.001
_.077
.237
.007
.006
_.050
.442
_.006
.002
.095
.148
.004
.009
.043
.509
_.005
.002
Model 2
.035
.586
.034
.001
_.074
.220
.156
.005
_.043
.516
<.001
.002
.090
.158
.058
.008
.038
.563
.017
.001
Model 1
.032
.621
_.006
.001
_.146
.023
.023
.021
_.062
.338
_.004
.004
.152
.018
.019
.023
.048
.456
_.005
.002
Model 2
.056
.383
.035
.003
_.128
.033
.167
.016
_.079
.228
.004
.006
.153
.016
.073
.023
.074
.251
.021
.005
Lack of
emotional
warmth¹
Intolerance¹
Older age group (ages 33-39, n = 215)
Model 1
.030
.676
_.005
.001
_.134
.053
.058
.017
_.103
.149
.003
.010
.130
.065
.024
.016
.076
.287
_.004
.005
Model 2
.049
.489
.045
.002
_.084
.194
.199
.006
_.079
.263
.037
.006
.104
.128
.103
.010
.073
.302
.038
.005
Model 1
_.001
.985
_.006
<.001
_.038
.572
.042
.001
_.040
.559
_.005
.002
.029
.666
.009
.001
.021
.762
_.009
<.001
Model 2
_.010
.891
.043
<.001
.059
.354
.196
.003
.022
.748
.032
<.001
_.055
.419
.095
.003
_.024
.730
.034
.001
Lack of
emotional
warmth¹
¹ The mean of assessements in 1980 and 1983
34
Model 1 - Controlled for age
Model 2 - Controlled for age, educational level, occupational status, maternal education years and family income in childhood