CHAPTER 12
PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Summary Outline
I.
II.
III.
Changing American families and their roles in adolescent life
A. The loss of functions
1.
Former family functions
a.
Vocational instruction
b.
Economic value
c.
Social stability
2.
Reasons for the loss of functions
3.
Other factors affecting adolescent family life
a.
Social support
b.
Substance abuse
c.
Positive peer models
B. The effects of divorce
1.
Economic
2.
Absence of one parent
3.
Disciplinary process
4.
Accepting remarriage
C. The nurturing parent
1.
Parenting style
Peer relations
A. Developmental patterns of peer groups
1.
Ways in which the peer group changes from childhood to adolescence
a.
Adolescents spend much more time with peers than do younger children
b.
Adolescent peer groups receive less adult supervision and control
c.
Adolescents begin interacting more with peers of the opposite sex
d.
During adolescence, peer groups become more aware of the values and
behaviors of the larger adolescent subculture
2.
Why peer groups change during adolescence
B. Functions of peer groups
1.
Control aggressive impulses
2.
Obtain emotional and social support and become more independent
3.
Improve social skills, develop reasoning abilities, and learn to express feelings
in more mature ways
4.
Develop attitudes towards sexuality and gender-role behavior
5.
Strengthen moral judgment and values
6.
Improve self-esteem
Sexual behavior
A. Stages of sexuality
1.
Autosexuality
2.
Homosexuality
85
3.
Heterosexuality
B. Autosexual behavior
C. Homosexuality
1.
The psychoanalytic theory of homosexuality
2.
The learning theory of homosexuality
3.
The biopsychosocial theory of homosexuality
D. Heterosexual behavior
1.
First coitus
a.
Factors influencing its occurrence
b.
Adverse outcomes
2.
Sexual abuse
IV. Sexually transmitted infections
A. AIDS
1.
Incidence
2.
Transmission of the AIDS virus
3.
Preventive measures
B. Other sexually transmitted infections
1.
Chlamydial infection
2.
Gonorrhea
3.
Pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
4.
Genital herpes
5.
Syphilis
6.
Hepatitis B
V. The teenage parent
A. Trends in behavior
VI. Illegal behavior
A. Substance abuse
B. Criminal behavior
1.
Gang behavior
a.
Characteristics of urban gangs
b.
Formation of juvenile gangs
c.
Gang violence
d.
Growth in gang membership
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, the student should be able to complete the following goals:
1.
List the previous functions of the family that have been replaced by the single function of
affection for members, and explore reasons for the loss of these other functions.
2.
Discuss a variety of factors that influence family life for adolescents.
3.
Summarize the effects of divorce on teenagers.
4.
Explain the nurturing parenting style.
5.
Describe the developmental patterns of peer groups and list the functions of peer groups.
86
6.
Outline the stages of sexuality.
7.
Review the history of attitudes toward masturbation.
8.
Compare three explanations for homosexual behavior.
9.
Summarize the research on heterosexual teen behavior, examine some of the reasons why
teens today may be sexually active earlier than teens in previous generations, and discuss
potential outcomes.
10.
Present an approach to discussing sex with adolescents that is likely to be helpful.
11.
Summarize the findings on sexual abuse of adolescent females.
12.
List the prevalence, symptoms, consequences, transmission, and treatment of sexually
transmitted infections found in adolescents.
13.
Discuss the trends in behaviors in adolescence regarding pregnancy.
14.
Describe the prevalence of substance abuse among adolescents.
15.
Summarize research on gang behavior, including characteristics of gangs, the formation
of gangs, and gang violence.
Key Terms
acquired immune deficiency syndrome
(AIDS)
authoritarian parenting
authoritative parenting
autosexuality
biopsychosocial theory of homosexuality
chlamydia
crowds
genital herpes
gonorrhea
hepatitis B
heterosexuality
homosexuality
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)
learning theory of homosexuality
nurturing parenting style
pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
permissive parenting
psychoanalytic theory of homosexuality
sexually transmitted infections (STIs)
subculture
syphilis
Lecture Suggestions
1.
The Nurturing Parent
The authors of the text review Baumrind’s three styles of parenting: authoritarian, authoritative,
and permissive. They also introduce a fourth style of parenting—the nurturing parent. Have
students read the original work on the nurturing parent (Dacey & Packer, 1992). Discuss with
students the potential outcomes on family members when this style of parenting is used.
Also ask students to conduct a literature search and locate at least two articles or book chapters
on parenting styles in different cultures. After reviewing the material, have students discuss ways
in which the nurturing style of parenting is similar or dissimilar from parenting in other cultures.
For this assignment, students can be referred to Bornstein’s book on cultural approaches to
parenting.
87
References:
Bornstein, M.H. (1991). Cultural approaches to parenting. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
Dacey, J.S., & Packer, A. (1992). The nurturing parent: How to raise a creative, loving,
responsible child. New York: Simon & Schuster.
2.
Adolescent Substance Abuse
Research on the origin of substance abuse cites varied perspectives on causes of abuse, including
psychological, physical, spiritual, and sociocultural. The sociocultural perspective emphasizes
the influence of the dominant values and beliefs of a culture on substance abuse. This perspective
notes the impact of family or parental use of alcohol and other drugs, peer influences, and the
media. Ask students to form small groups and discuss the impact of these three influences on
adolescent substance abuse.
3.
Gender Differences in Aggressive Behavior
From a developmental perspective, factors contributing to hostile behavior include inherited and
biological factors and learned patterns of behavior. These antecedents become part of the
individual’s development and can contribute to a pattern of aggressive responses, conflict, and
difficult interpersonal relationships. As aggressive adolescents get older, their problems grow in
severity. The likelihood of positive outcomes of intervention diminishes.
One area of development that impacts aggressive behavior among children and adolescents is
social cognition. Using social information-processing models, Crick and Dodge (1996) state that
children’s social behavior is a “function of sequential steps of processing, including encoding of
social cues, interpretation of social cues, clarification of goals, response access or construction,
response decision, and behavioral enactment” (p. 993). According to the researchers, children
who are skillful in processing information at each step behave in socially appropriate and
competent ways. An inability to effectively process information, on the other hand, leads to
aggressive behavior.
According to Crick and Dodge, proactive aggressive children expect positive outcomes from
their aggressive behavior and develop a level of confidence about their ability to act in an
aggressive manner. This form of aggressive behavior is instrumental because of the aggressive
child’s belief that the behavior will result in a reward. Proactive aggressive children are not so
concerned with peer relations but are motivated by a desired goal.
Reactive-aggressive children, however, tend to perceive hostility on the part of a peer even if
none is intended. Their aggressive behavior can eventually become a self-fulfilling prophecy
because peers may, in fact, become more hostile to children and adolescents who interact in this
manner. A tendency toward hostile attributions consistent with reactive-aggression are also a
strong predictor of future aggressive behavior.
Research on aggression as it relates to development indicates that boys exhibit higher levels of
aggression than girls. One possible explanation for this proposed gender difference is that
88
aggressive acts are aimed at damaging the goals that are valued by gender groups. Boys tend to
exhibit overt forms of aggression such as hitting, pushing, or threatening to fight. These
behaviors match goals that are important to boys within the peer group. Girls, however, are more
likely to focus on relational issues among peers. Aggressive behavior in girls is evident in
behaviors such as excluding a peer from a group, withdrawal of friendship, or spreading rumors
(Crick & Grotpeter, 1995). Whereas overt aggression is focused on harming others through
physical means, relational aggression involves harming others through damaging peer
relationships. Both forms of aggression are predictors of long-term social maladjustment.
Ask students to reflect on gender differences in aggressive behavior in adolescents. How does
this research match or not match their experiences or observations of adolescence?
References:
Crick, N.R., & Dodge, K.A. (1996). Social information-processing mechanisms in reactive and
proactive aggression. Child Development, 67, 993-1002.
Crick, N.R., & Grotpeter, J.K. (1995). Relational aggression, gender, and social-psychological
adjustment. Child Development, 66, 710-722.
4.
Exploring Teenage Pregnancy
Working through the guidance counselor at your local high school or alternative school, arrange
to have teenage mothers visit your class. In class, explore with these mothers the impact of
parenting on their lives.
Instructor’s CD-ROM Resource Activities
1.
2.
Chapter 13 Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence
A.
Motivating Teens
B.
Teens and Money
C.
Tattoos and Body Piercings: Modern Rites of Passage?
D.
Alcohol Use and Abuse
Chapter 14 Socioemotional Development in Adolescence
D.
A Discussion with Adolescents About Their Peers
E.
Interviewing Adolescents About Their Part-Time Work Experiences
F.
Exploring a Theoretical Framework for Studying Adolescence
G.
Adolescent Identity Across Time
H.
Peer Groups in Adolescence
Classroom or Student Activities
1.
Dispelling Myths About AIDS
89
Discuss effective means of AIDS prevention. Discuss whether accurate knowledge about AIDS is
associated with appropriate changes in sexual behavior. How might adolescent egocentrism (e.g.,
personal fable) contribute to irresponsible sexual behavior among teenagers (both in terms of
AIDS risk and pregnancy risk)?
Develop a short AIDS knowledge quiz for students (based on the most recent information) and
discuss facts about AIDS. Or, have the class develop a series of 10 true/false questions about
AIDS. Have each student administer the test to five people, collect and tabulate the results, and
discuss the findings of the questionnaire in class. Are there remaining misconceptions among
students? Inform students about how AIDS can be transmitted. Incorporate information about
other sexually transmitted infections into the discussion.
2.
Role-Playing Adolescence
Have students pair off for a role-playing activity. Give each pair a different adolescent problem to
role-play in class. Each problem should include some characteristic of adolescent development,
such as achieving identity, creating an imaginary audience, divergent thinking, and so on. Have
students step into the role-play by using what they learned in Chapter 12 about adolescent
thinking. Following each role-play, have the class identify key concepts of adolescence, evaluate
the role-play, and discuss how adolescents can be helped in each role-play.
For example, one role-play could involve a young adolescent female trying to decide whether or
not to have sexual intercourse with her boyfriend. The role-play might include various aspects of
adolescent development such as egocentric thinking and the personal fable (“I could never get
pregnant” and “AIDS could never happen to me!”), nonsexual motives for teenage sex (“If I
don’t have sex with him, he might leave me for someone else”), a negative identity (“My mother
can’t control me anymore!”), and the emotional effects of timing on puberty (“Because I matured
earlier than my friends, I feel vulnerable because I stand out!”).
Other suggestions for role-play scenarios include an adolescent in search of his or her identity, an
adolescent experiencing the divorce of his or her parents, a suicidal adolescent, an adolescent’s
first day of school, an adolescent with an eating disorder, a late-maturing adolescent female, an
early-maturing adolescent male, an adolescent mother, an adolescent who abuses alcohol, an
adolescent gang member, and an adolescent who recognizes his or her homosexuality.
3.
Career-Related Activities
Imagine that you are a criminal justice technician working for your county. You are asked to
spearhead an outreach prevention program for youth who are at risk of substance abuse,
pregnancy, or criminal behavior. Outline the basics of the program you might develop for groups
of youth.
Questions for Review and Discussion
1.
Summarize the changing nature of the American family and discuss its impact on
adolescent development.
90
2.
What are the effects of divorce on the development of the adolescent?
3.
Explain the function of peer groups during adolescence.
4.
Place the sexual revolution within a larger context by listing other cultural and social
changes that have occurred during your lifetime. In what way, if any, have these other
social and cultural changes affected the sexual revolution?
5.
Organize a presentation on sex education to a group of parents and their teenagers.
6.
Identify and describe the three stages of sexuality.
7.
Compare and contrast theories on the origins of homosexuality.
8.
Discuss the reasons for the decrease in teen pregnancy, and present a viable plan for
encouraging this trend, including forums for implementation.
9.
List the sexually transmitted infections described in the text, along with their symptoms,
prevalence and treatments.
10.
Based on the information presented in the text, develop an agenda for a meeting between
parents and school officials designed to develop a drug and alcohol awareness program for
the high school. Pay particular attention to the relationship between school climate and
substance abuse.
11.
Summarize motives for adolescent involvement in criminal behavior.
Web Site Resources
Child Development
Dating Violence
Developmental Psychology
AIDS Information for Young People
Adolescent Directory On-Line
Adolescent Answers
Adolescent Issues, Gays and Lesbians
Adolescence Change and Continuity
Studies on Gender and Sexuality
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Adolescent Gays and Lesbians
National Campaign to Prevent Teen
Pregnancy
Teen Sexual Health
91
www.srcd.org
www.niaid.nih.gov/dmid/stds/default.htm
www.apa.org/journals/dev.html
www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/tutorials/sexuall
ytransmitteddiseases.html
www.avert.org/young.htm
www.education.indiana.edu/cas/adol/adol.ht
ml
www.outproud.org
www.teenpregnancy.org
www.puberty101.com
www.youth.org
www.advocates foryouth.org
http://inside.bard.edu/academic/specialproj/d
arling/adolesce.htm
www.vachss.com/help_text/date_rape.html
www.wcwonline.org/gender/
Video Resources
1.
Teenage Pregnancy, 26 minutes, color
2.
Stop It! Students Speak Out about Sexual Harassment, 17 minutes, color
3.
Family and Survival, 52 minutes, color
82